Chapter 10

Solar Energy and Climates

10.1: Global Systems and Solar Energy

Defining Systems
Scientists define a system as the object or group of objects that they are studying.
Everything other than the system is called the surroundings.
There are 3 classes of systems:
1.​ Open System: allows energy and matter to cross the system's boundary. Ex: Trees
2.​ Closed System: allows only energy to cross the system's boundary (i.e. matter
cannot cross). Ex: Earth
3.​ Isolated System: does not allow energy or matter to cross the system's boundary.
Ex: the Universe
Biosphere
The biosphere consists of the thin layer of air, land, and water on or near Earth's surface.
This layer is called the biosphere because all life on Earth exists in this thin layer.
There are 3 parts to the biosphere:

1.​ Atmosphere (air): is a mixture of nitrogen(78%), oxygen(21%), and other gases that
extend 800km above Earth's surface. The atmosphere is divided into many different
layers, but we will only be looking at the lowest two layers. These lower layers are called
the troposphere (surface-12km) and the stratosphere (13km-50km)
 2.​ Lithosphere (land): is Earth's crust that forms land above sea level (continental crust)
and at the ocean floor (oceanic crust). The lithosphere is anywhere from 100km to
200km thick.

3.​ Hydrosphere (water): is water on Earth's surface. The hydrosphere includes oceans,
rivers, lakes, streams, underground reservoirs, and water vapors in the atmosphere.
Clouds are water droplets found mostly in the troposphere, and are responsible for
reflecting much of the incoming solar radiation. The Cryosphere refers to water that is
frozen in the polar ice caps, snow, permafrost, and glaciers.
Earth's Radiation Budget
Radiation is the mechanism of energy transfer in which atoms and molecules emit
electromagnetic waves. These waves carry energy through space and release it only when they
interact with matter.
Visible light passes through the atmosphere to the surface mostly unchanged.
When it reaches the surface, some of it is absorbed and warms the surface.
Warm objects emit infrared radiation, which can then be absorbed by the atmosphere.
Radiation budget: Earth maintains an energy and temperature balance by radiating as much
energy into space as it absorbs from the Sun.
Incoming and Outgoing Radiation
Of all the solar energy entering our atmosphere:
50% is absorbed by land and oceans
42% is absorbed, reflected, and scattered by the atmosphere
4% is reflected by Earth's surface

The colour of surfaces affects the amount of energy it will absorb or reflect.
Dark surfaces tend to absorb energy, while light surfaces tend to reflect energy.
The reflectivity of a surface is known as its albedo.
High reflectivity (ex: snow covered field) = high albedo.

Keeping in the Heat

Only a few of the gases in the atmosphere absorb the infrared radiation released from Earth's
surface.
These are called greenhouse gases. These include water vapour, CO2 , methane, nitrous oxide
(N2O), ground level ozone (O3), chlorofluorocarbons (or CFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (or HFCs).
These greenhouse gases cause the lower atmosphere to keep more heat. This retention of heat is
called the greenhouse effect.
The average global temperature is about 14°C. Without greenhouse gases, the average
temperature would be -19°C, and Earth would be too cold to support life.
Climates and Seasons
Climate is the trend in temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, and precipitation over a
period of many years.
Weather is a term that applies to these conditions as they are at a specific time.
The 24 hour rotation of the Earth results in warming during the day, and cooling at night.
The tilt of Earth's axis is called its angle of inclination. This is what causes long days in the
summer and long nights in the winter for northern latitudes.
The angle of inclination also causes the change of seasons.

Warming of Earth is Unequal

When the North Pole is tilted towards the Sun, the Sun's rays are perpendicular to a line in the
Northern Hemisphere (therefore it is summer).
However, it's angle also causes the Sun's light to be spread out over a larger area, which is why
the North Pole is still so cold.

Geographers identify 3 major climate regions or zones: polar, temperate, and tropical.
 BLM 10-2

REINFORCEMENT
Climate Zones and Seasons

Goal​∙​ Review the causes of seasons and climate zones.

1. ​Use the following terms to label the diagram of Earth.

polar
temperate
tropical
Arctic Circle
Tropic of Cancer
Tropic of Capricorn
Antarctic Circle

2.​ Complete the following table. The first box has been completed as an example.
Zone
Season tropical temperate polar
Summer

- ​Angle of Sun’s rays - ​ perpendicular to

to Earth’s surface Earth’s surface at
some latitude in this
zone

-​ Average daily - ​ fairly constant

temperature

-​ Hours of daylight - ​ 12 h at some latitude

in this zone
​

Winter

-​ Angle of Sun’s rays

to Earth’s surface

-​ Average daily
temperature

-​ Hours of daylight

3. ​Yellowknife is in a region that is called “the land of the midnight Sun” because it has days when the
Sun never sets. Do Yellowknife’s long hours of sunlight lead to really warm summer days? Explain
why or why not.
​
​
​

4. ​Describe the position and orientation of Earth relative to the Sun on each day.
(a) ​June 21
​

(b) ​December 21
​

(c) ​March 21
​

(d) September 22
​

5. ​At what time of the year do regions at latitude 60°N absorb the most solar energy? Why?

​
​
​
10.2: Thermal Energy Transfer
Solar energy is the principal source of energy that heats land and water.
Water plays a major role in the absorption and distribution of thermal energy.
70% of Earth's surface is covered in water.

Specific Heat Capacity

Specific Heat Capacity is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of a
substance by 1ºC.
Consequently, it releases the same amount of energy when it cools down.
Q = mcΔT
Q = the amount of heat (energy) in Joules (J)
m = mass in grams
c = specific heat capacity in J/gºC (each substance has a constant specific heat capacity)
ΔT = change in temperature in ºC (ΔT = final T – initial T)
Since water has a high specific heat capacity, it plays a large role in trapping heat in the
atmosphere.

Conduction, Convection, and Radiation Transfer Energy

After the land and water absorb solar energy, several mechanisms for energy transfer play a role
in heating the air.
Conduction: the transfer of heat between particles of objects in direct contact. (i.e. air near the
surface of the Earth.
Convection: Air circulates and distributes the heat. As the lowest layer of air warms, it expands,
becomes less dense, and rises. As the warm air rises, the cooler air from above descends to take
its place close to the ground.
Radiation: is the transfer of heat energy by electromagnetic waves.

Phase Changes
It is possible for substances to absorb or release heat without changing temperature. This occurs
when a substance changes phase (such as ice melting into liquid water at 0 ºC).
Phase changes are freezing, melting (fusion), evaporating, condensing, and sublimation (solid to
gas or vice versa).
Heat of Fusion (Hfus): the amount of energy (J) required to melt one mole of substance.
Heat of Vaporization (Hvap): the amount of energy (J) required to convert one mole of a
substance from a liquid to a gas.

Energy Required for Melting Energy Required for Converting

from Liquid to Gas
Heat of Fusion Heat of Vaporization
Q = n Hfus Q = n Hvap
Q = the amount of heat (energy) in Joules (J)
n = number of moles
Hfus = heat of fusion of the substance (J/mol)
Hvap = heat of vaporization of the substance (J/mol)
 BLM 10-3

SKILL BUILDER
Specific Heat Capacity Problems

Goal​∙​ Practise solving specific heat capacity problems.

What to Do
Answer the following questions on a separate page. Show all your work.

1. ​How much energy is needed to heat enough water to make a cup of tea (250 mL), if the water is
initially at 20.0°C and you want to increase the temperature to 85.0°C? (Assume that 1.00 mL of
water has a mass of 1.00 g.)

2. ​As the tea in question 1 steeps, it cools from 85.0°C to 75.0°C. How much energy is lost by the tea as
it steeps?

3. ​If 100.0 kJ of energy is used to heat 500.0 g of water, what is the temperature change of the water?

4. ​A 1.00 kg block of ice, at −25.0°C, is warmed by 35 kJ of energy. What is the final temperature of the
ice?

5. ​Which substance⎯100 g of moist air, 100 g of water, or 100 g of ice⎯will experience the greatest
temperature change if 100 J of energy is used to warm it? Why?

6. ​Imagine that you have a 500 g iron pot (c = 0.440 ), a 500 g copper pot (c = 0.385 ),

and a 500 g aluminium pot (c = 0.897 ). You fill each pot with 250 mL of water and heat the
water to 100°C on a stove. Which pot will keep the water warm the longest? Explain your answer.

7. ​A 5.0 g sample of an unidentified metal absorbs 71 J of energy as its temperature increases from
125°C to 162°C. What metal is the sample? (Hint: See the data in question 6.)

8. ​What mass of seawater is needed to provide 300.0 MJ of energy as it cools from 75°C to 33°C?
 9. ​How much water can be heated from its melting to its boiling point by adding 2.75 × 106 J of energy

10. ​If 100.0 g of a substance releases 45 kJ of energy as it cools from 13.0°C to –15.0°C, what is the
specific heat capacity of the substance?
From a Solid to a Gas
Substances usually change phase from solid liquid gas and vice versa.

However, sometimes they change directly from solid gas or vice versa. This is called

sublimation.

Unique Properties of Water Influence Climate

70% of Earth’s surface is covered in water. Oceans, lakes, and rivers have a low albedo and
absorb about 93% of incoming solar radiation.
Water has a high specific heat capacity (4.19 J/gºC) and therefore can store large amounts of
energy.
Water has a high heat of fusion (6.01 kJ/mol), and therefore must absorb a large amount of
energy to melt.
This is due to the properties of water. Water is a polar molecule, which leads to strong cohesive
forces between molecules.

Hydrologic Cycle
The hydrologic cycle (water cycle) describes the circulation of water among the oceans, land,
and the atmosphere.
 BLM 10-5

SKILL BUILDER
Heat of Vaporization and Heat of Fusion

Goal​∙​ Practise solving heat of fusion and vaporization problems.

What to Do
Answer the following questions on a separate page. Show all your work.

1. ​How much energy is released when 2.05 mol of water vapour, at 100°C, condenses with no change in
temperature?

2. ​How much energy is required to melt 250 g of ice at 0.0°C to liquid water at 0.0°C?

3. ​An ice-cube tray has 24 cubes. If each cube contains 25 g of water, how much energy must be
removed to freeze all the water in the tray from liquid water at 0.0°C to ice at 0.0°C?

4. ​How many moles of water at 100°C will evaporate to water vapor at 100°C if 13.4 MJ of energy is
absorbed?

5. ​One canister of butane (a fuel) provides 695 kJ of energy when it is burned. How many cups of water
at 100.0°C can you convert to steam at 100.0°C using one canister of butane? (Each cup of water is
equivalent to 250 mL and 1 mL weighs 1 g.)

6. ​Which causes a worse burn, steam at 100°C or liquid water at 100°C? Why?
7. ​Suppose that you want to cool a 250 mL glass of water by 5.0°C, by adding ice. How much ice at

0.0°C will have to melt to liquid water at 0.0°C? (Hint: There are two parts to this question. First, find
out how much energy has to be removed from the water. Then determine how much ice you have to
melt. Assume that 1.00 mL of water has a mass of 1.00 g.)
10.3: Distributing the Heat
How Oceans Distribute Heat
As we have previously discussed, water can absorb massive amounts of heat due to its high
specific heat capacity. Currents in the oceans have a large effect on the weather in coastal areas
and influence worldwide climate.
The Gulf Stream is a large surface current that starts in the warm Caribbean seas, and flows up
the eastern coastline of the USA and Canada. It curves East near Newfoundland, and ends up
near the British Isles, where it is called the North Atlantic Drift.

El Nino (little boy) is a disruption of the ocean-atmosphere system in the tropical Pacific that
usually occurs every 3-7 years. It causes the wind direction over the South Pacific to reverse, and
the winds flow Eastward. This causes heavy rains over the west coast of South America, and
drought in Southeast Asia and Northern Australia.

La Nina (little girl) is the opposite of El Nino. It is characterized by an increase in strength of

the normal westward winds, which cause wetter than normal conditions.

Patterns of Wind Movement

A low pressure region forms when warm air expands, becomes less dense, and rises from the
surface.
A high pressure region forms when cold air contracts, becomes more dense, and descends to the
surface.
These high and low pressure zones are what drive convection currents. These convection
currents start with cool air moving towards the equator from the poles, as the hot air at the
equator rises and moves towards the poles.

Convection Currents on Rotating Earth

As Earth rotates, the atmosphere rotates with it. However, as convection currents move air
longitudinally, some currents veer sideways from their original path due to Earth's rotation. This
is called the Coriolis Effect. This is because the Earth's equator is rotating at a greater speed than
regions nearer to poles.
Currents in the Northern hemisphere tend to veer right, while currents in the Southern
hemisphere tend to veer left.
Jet Streams are currents of extremely fast-moving air about 10-15km above Earth's surface.
They generally flow from west to east in both hemispheres. They form boundaries of cold and
warm air.

Oceans and Mountains Influence Climate

During the day, the current of moving air creates a sea breeze on the shores of oceans and large
lakes. The Sun warms the land and the water. The land warms faster than the water, and therefore
the air above land also warms faster. This warm air rises and brings cooler air from the water to
replace it.
At night, the water retains more heat (cools slower) and the air over the water is warmer. The sea
breeze reverses itself to become a land breeze.
As moisture in the air moves inland from the oceans, it sometimes reaches the mountains. As the
air moves up the mountains, most of the moisture is released as orographic precipitation. This
occurs because warm moist air is forced to higher altitudes because of the mountains, where it
then cools and releases moisture. Once this dry air crosses the mountains to the other side, it
expands again creating dry conditions that we call a rain shadow.
BLM 10-6
 ASSESSMENT
Thermal Energy Transfer

Goal​∙​ Demonstrate your understanding of the mechanisms of thermal energy transfer.

What to Do
Answer each question in the space provided.

1.​ Label the arrows on the diagram to describe the processes of energy transfer. Use the following terms:
conduction, convection, radiation.

2.​ Which mechanisms⎯convection, conduction, and/or radiation⎯best describe the following energy
transfers?

(a) ​a warm breeze blowing inland ___________________

(b) ​a damp cloth cooling your forehead ___________________

(c) ​a spoon warming in a coffee cup ___________________

(d) ​a microwave heating a bowl of soup ___________________

(e) ​a boy warming his hands by a fire ___________________

3. ​Consider a snowy hill, Earth’s atmosphere, and a cornfield. Which absorbs the most solar energy
directly from the Sun? Which absorbs the least solar energy? Provide two reasons to explain your
answers.
​
​
​
​
BLM 10-11, Chapter 10 Test/Assessment
Goal: Students demonstrate their understanding of the information presented in Chapter 10.

Answers
1. ​F: ​ A closed system allows the exchange of energy but not matter with its surroundings.
2. ​T
3.​ F: ​ A substance with a high albedo will reflect much of the light energy that strikes its surface.
4. ​T
5. ​T
6. ​(c)
7. ​(b)
8. ​(b)
9. ​(c)
10. ​(a)
11. ​radiation budget
12. ​greenhouse effect
13. ​climate, weather
14. ​Coriolis effect
15. ​cools, becomes denser, descends
16. ​(b)
17. ​(c)
18. ​(a)
19.​ (d)
20. ​(c)
21. ​(a)
22. ​(a)
23. ​(d)
24. ​(b)
25. ​(d)
26. ​38.0
27. ​4.10
28. ​1 4 6 8
29. ​The two principal factors that determine Alberta’s climate are latitude and the orientation of Earth. Because
Alberta lies across relatively high latitudes, the Sun’s rays are spread over a larger area than they are at lower
latitudes. As a result, Earth’s surface absorbs less solar energy and is colder in Alberta than in regions at lower
latitudes. The tilt of Earth’s axis determines the clear differences in the seasons in Alberta. When the Northern
Hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun, the length of the day in Alberta is shorter, and less solar energy reaches
the region. When the Northern Hemisphere points toward the Sun, Alberta experiences summer.
​ Two major ways in which energy is distributed throughout Earth are via water and air currents. Oceans
absorb over 90% of the solar energy that strike them, and convection currents distribute the heat. Warm water
distributed by thermohaline circulation gives up heat to the atmosphere. In addition, ocean currents and the
Coriolis effect result in prevailing winds that distribute thermal energy around the world.
 Chapter 11
Climate and Biomes
11.1: Climate and Biomes
Describing Climate
Temperature is a vital element in defining climate.
Water is also one of the most important factors affecting climate in an area. Humidity is the
amount of water vapour in the air.
When temperatures are high, it is possible for more water vapour to be released into the air. If
this humid air is then cooled, water will condense, and will then fall as precipitation.
The temperature at which water condenses and begins to fall is called the dew point temperature.
Climatographs
A Climatograph is a graphical representation of climate data for a specific region and time
period.
The data includes the region’s average monthly temperature and total monthly precipitation.
​ Temperature is measured in degrees Celsius (°C) and precipitation will be measured in
millimetres of rain (mm).
Climatographs
The biosphere can be divided into many regions called biomes.
Biome: a major geographic region with similar environmental conditions and life forms.
Ecosystem: a community of living organisms that interact with each other and with the physical
environment.
Habitat: the place where an organism lives, or the place where the organism is usually found.
The Biosphere consists of many biomes, which in turn contain many ecosystems. Each
ecosystem has many habitats.

11.2: Adaptations and Biomes

Adaptations are any characteristics that enable an organism to better survive and reproduce in
an environment. (P. 409 in your text has more information on adaptations. It is recommended that
you read up on these; however you will not be tested on them.)
Biomes
Tundra: found just south of the ice covered polar seas all around the northern hemisphere.
●​ Winters are long and can last 6-9 months
●​ Summers are short and cool
●​ Precipitation averages less than 25cm per year
 ●​ Winter temperatures drop to -40°C
BLM 11-1, Climatographs/Reinforcement

Goal: Students practise drawing climatographs.

Answers

What to Do
Alternate title: Climatograph Unknown Location in Alberta

Analyze
1. ​(a) ​ January (–15.3°C)
​ (b) ​ +10.6°C
​ (c) ​ October (12.8 mm of precipitation)
​ (d) ​ August (90.6 mm of precipitation)
2. ​Climate data is for Edmonton, Alberta.
 ●​ During the summer, only the top few centimetres of soil actually thaw. The frozen
soil is called permafrost.
●​ During the short summer growing season, plants must synthesize an entire year’s
food supply
●​ Grasses and sedges are resistant to dry, cold climate and dominate the tundra
landscape
●​ Animals include lemmings, caribou, arctic hare, arctic fox, wolves
●​ Insects such as black flies and mosquitoes are abundant in spring and summer

Taiga: just south of the tundra, at latitudes between 50°N and 60°N, stretching across Canada,
northern Europe, and Asia. Contains Coniferous forest.
●​ Ground completely thaws in the summer
●​ Winters are long and cold
●​ Precipitation is mostly snow and averages 35-100cm per year
●​ Dense coniferous forests
●​ Fur-bearing mammals such as beavers, rabbits, and muskrats are abundant
●​ Many mammals hibernate during long winter season, while others migrate.
Temperate Deciduous Forest: found in both northern and southern hemispheres, at latitudes
below 50°
●​ Temperate regions have 4 distinct seasons.
●​ Precipitation ranges from 75-150cm and is evenly distributed throughout the year
●​ Temperature ranges from below freezing in winter to 30°C in the summer
●​ Tall trees in the forest form a canopy that blocks most sunlight to the ground.

Grassland: Almost every continent has a grassland biome. Prairies in North America, steppes of
Asia, veldts and savannas of Africa, and the pampas of South America are all grasslands.
●​ Precipitation ranges between 25-75cm per year
●​ Usually has prolonged dry season
●​ Dry season prevents development of forests
●​ Rich and fertile soil (good for agriculture!)

Desert: the world’s major deserts are located between 15° and 35° latitude in both northern and
southern hemispheres.
●​ Driest biome on Earth
●​ Less than 25cm of precipitation per year
●​ Limited plant life
●​ Soil retains little or no moisture
●​ Infrequent rains tend to be heavy but brief
●​ Rate of evaporation faster than precipitation
●​ Animals include Lizards, snakes, vultures, desert tortoise, coyotes

Tropical Rain Forests: in regions along the equator, vast areas of land are covered with lush,
green plant growth that forms the tropical rain forests.
●​ Rain falls nearly every day
●​ Temperatures do not vary much from month to month (no big difference between
seasons)
●​ Soil is nutrient poor because of heavy rains that leach nutrients out of soil
●​ Contains great diversity of animal, insect, and plant species
●​ Animals include birds, snakes, rodents, frogs, and MONKEYS!

BLM 11-2
 SCIENCE INQUIRY
Investigating Biome Climates

Goal​∙​ Compare climatographs from three locations that are typical of different biomes.

Question
What inferences can you make by comparing the climatographs from three locations?

What to Do
The following climatographs give temperature and precipitation data for three typical locations
within three biomes. Use the data from the climatographs to complete the table below. You will
have to estimate values.
Biome 1 2 3
Warmest average monthly
temperature (°C)
Month with warmest average
temperature
Coldest average monthly ​
temperature (°C)
Month with coldest average
temperature
Total precipitation (mm) in J: J: J:
January, March, August, and M: M: M:
October A: A: A:
O: O: O:
Driest month and total amount of Month: Month: Month:
precipitation for this month (mm) Total Total Total
precipitation: precipitation: precipitation:
Wettest month and total amount of Month: Month: Month:
precipitation for this month (mm) Total Total Total
precipitation: precipitation: precipitation:
Start and end of growing season Start: Start: Start:
(months where temperatures first End: End: End:
rise above or fall below 5°C)
Analyze

1. ​Which biome is the closest to the equator? Assume that there are no great differences in altitude
among the three locations. Explain your answer.
​
​

2. ​Which biome has the most northerly latitude? Explain your answer.
​
​

3. ​Which biome receives the most annual precipitation? Explain your answer.
​
​

4. Which biome receives the least annual precipitation? Explain your answer.
​

5. Which biome has the longest growing season? Explain your answer.
​
​

6. ​Which biome has the shortest growing season? Explain your answer.
​
​

7. ​In which biome would animals need to have structural and behavioural adaptations to survive long,
cold winters? Explain your answer.
​
​
Conclude

8. ​Infer the biome that is represented by each climatograph. Provide two reasons why you made each
inference.
(a) ​Biome 1
​
​
​

(b) ​Biome 2
​

(c) ​Biome 3
​
​
​

9. ​Based on your inferences in question 8, predict the dominant vegetation in each biome.
(a) ​Biome 1
​

(b) ​Biome 2
​

(c) ​Biome 3
​
_______________________________________________________________________________
BLM 11-10, Chapter 11 Test/Assessment
Goal: Students demonstrate their understanding of the information presented in Chapter 11.

Answers
1. ​T
2. ​F: ​ The taiga biome is found in North America, Asia, and Europe.
3. ​F: ​ In the desert biome, the rate of evaporation exceeds the rate of precipitation.
4. ​F: ​ The taiga and a plant cell are both examples of open systems.
5. ​T
6. ​(f)
7. ​(e)
8. ​(d)
9. ​(c)
10. ​(a)
11. ​tilt
12. ​mass extinctions
13. ​canopy
14. ​desert
15. ​biomass
16.​ (b)
17. ​(c)
18. ​(a)
19. ​(a)
20. ​(c)
21. ​(b)
22. ​(c)
23. ​(b)
24. ​(d)
25. ​(c)
26. ​3 1 4 2
27. ​5 1 3 4 2
28. ​Accept 75 to 85
29. ​Accept 18 to 20
30. ​Accept 12 to 16.
31.

Students should include the following points in their flowchart and explanation:
∙​ This example of climatic feedback is the related to the amount of ice and snow on Earth’s surface.
∙​ Earth’s temperature and the subsequent formation of sea ice are controlled by a positive feedback loop.
∙​ A drop in Earth’s temperature results in the formation of sea ice.
∙​ An increase in sea ice would result in more solar radiation being reflected back into space.
∙​ With less solar radiation being absorbed, this would result in further cooling of Earth’s atmosphere and the
formation of more sea ice.

Chapter 12
Climate Change and Humans
Global Warming
If the average temperature on Earth increases due to global warming, it is uncertain to what
extent it could have an impact on the environment. It could have both positive and negative
effects on our lives as Canadians.
What are some of the positive effects of a warmer climate in Alberta?
●​ Warmer winters could reduce the need for heating, thus reducing fossil fuel consumption.
●​ Potentially make the growing season longer.
●​ Climates would shift northward, which means land in northern Alberta would be more
suitable for growing crops as the taiga is reduced and replaced by grassland and
temperate deciduous forest.

Greenhouse Effect
The greenhouse gases are: water vapour, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), dinitrogen
monoxide (N2O), halocarbons, and tropospheric (ground-level) ozone (O3).
Water vapour is part of the natural greenhouse effect. It is responsible for about 65% of all the
infrared radiation absorbed by and radiated to Earth’s surface.
1.​ When other greenhouse gases are added to the atmosphere by human activity, will a
 warmer surface on Earth increase the evaporation of water from oceans, lakes, rivers,
soil, and vegetation? The answer is yes.
2.​ If the atmosphere is warmer, will it contain more water vapour and therefore increase the
greenhouse effect and warming? The answer is maybe. Scientists are generally split
between two possibilities. These two possibilities are described on the next page.

This cycle is what we call the enhanced greenhouse effect.

BLM 12-1 The Greenhouse Effect

As shown in the diagram below, some of the sunlight that enters a greenhouse through the
glass is absorbed by the objects inside. The absorbed energy is then re-emitted as long-wave
infrared radiation, just like the solar energy that is absorbed and re-emitted by Earth. In a
greenhouse, however, the glass does not allow the infrared radiation to escape. Instead, the glass
reflects the infrared radiation around the inside of the greenhouse. Objects in the greenhouse then
absorb the reflected infrared radiation.

Of course, Earth is not covered by glass that traps infrared radiation. As shown below, some of
the infrared radiation that is re-emitted from Earth passes through the atmosphere and into outer
space. On its way through the atmosphere, however, part of the infrared radiation strikes
molecules of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide. Greenhouse gas molecules that are hit by
infrared radiation become energized. In other words, they trap the energy from the infrared
radiation. The more greenhouse gas molecules there are in the atmosphere, the more infrared
radiation that is temporarily trapped. The energized molecules then release the trapped energy in
all directions. Some of the energy is reabsorbed by Earth, increasing Earth’s temperature.
 Without the greenhouse effect, Earth’s average temperature would be too low to sustain life.
On the other hand, too much greenhouse gas in the atmosphere could increase Earth’s
temperature so much that life as we know it would not survive. Scientists are mainly concerned
with increases in greenhouse gases due to human activities. Why do you think this is their main
concern?

Positive water vapour feedback: an increase in one factor (increased warming) causes an
increase in another factor (increased water vapour), which in turn causes an increase in the first
factor (more increased warming).

Negative water vapour feedback: If increased water vapour results in formation of more clouds
that reflect sunlight before it reaches Earth’s surface and therefore has a cooling effect.
●​ Which feedback system seems more plausible to you?
Research suggests that the effects follow the positive water vapour feedback cycle.
Deforestation is the clearing of trees from land, and can have an effect on the climate of an area.
It affects biodiversity, climate, and the atmosphere (remember plants consume CO2 to produce
oxygen during photosynthesis).
Forests are harvested for lumber and firewood and are cleared to make land available for crops.
However, in some cases, the cleared land is very poor for agriculture. This is the case when
clearing out rain forests. This land does not make good-quality farmland because the soil is
nutrient-poor due to leaching effects from heavy precipitation.

When trees are cut and burned, the carbon stored in the wood is released as CO2 in the
atmosphere. The roots decay, releasing CO2 from the soil.

Deforestation accounts for about 25% of global CO2 emissions from human activity.

BLM 12-2

OVERHEAD
MASTER The Carbon Cycle
Each year, 158 Gt of carbon is exchanged among Earth’s atmosphere, oceans, and land.

∙​ 8 Gt is the result of human activities.

→ ​ 6 Gt is released from burning fossil fuels.
→ ​ 2 Gt is due to deforestation. (It would have been absorbed by trees that have been cut down.)

∙​ 150 Gt is recycled through the biosphere.

→ ​ photosynthesis
→ ​ respiration
→ ​ absorbed by land and dissolved in water

BLM 12-6, Life Affecting Climate/

Assessment
Goal: Students assess their understanding of possible
reasons for climate change.

Answers
 1. ​List the six greenhouse gases. Classify each greenhouse gas as natural (N), emitted mainly as a result
of human activities (H), or both (N and H).

carbon dioxide (N and H), methane (N and H), dinitrogen monoxide (N and H), water vapour (N, but may be
increased by increased evaporation with global warming), ground level ozone (H), halocarbons (H)

2. ​What would Earth be like without the greenhouse effect? Explain your answer.

Without the greenhouse effect, Earth would be uninhabitable by life as we know it. Little of the Sun’s energy
would be trapped as heat, and Earth would be extremely cold, particularly at night.

3. Why are scientists concerned about an enhanced greenhouse effect?

With increased amounts of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, more heat is trapped. If too much heat is
trapped in Earth’s atmosphere, global warming could occur and the biosphere could become abnormally hot.
Effects could include droughts in some regions and severe storms in others, with a significant effect on biomes.

4. ​ Which greenhouse gas do you think is of most concern to scientists? Provide one or two major
reasons to support your answer.

Carbon dioxide is perhaps the biggest concern to scientists. Carbon dioxide does not have as much warming
potential as some other greenhouse gases, but levels of carbon dioxide have increased dramatically since the
industrial revolution, paralleling the increase in global temperatures. Students may also mention halocarbons,
since these greenhouse gases have much more warming potential than carbon dioxide and can last over 100
years in the atmosphere.

The Precautionary Principle

The Rio Declaration at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
describes the precautionary principle as follows:
“In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied
by states according to their capabilities. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible
damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing
cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.”

The Gaia Hypothesis

Dr. James Lovelock, a scientist under contract to NASA in the 1960s, developed a hypothesis
about the interconnected nature of the world. He wrote:
“The entire range of living matter on Earth from whales to viruses and from oaks to algae
could be regarded as constituting a single living entity capable of maintaining Earth’s
atmosphere to suit its overall needs and endowed with faculties and powers far beyond
those of its constituent parts.”
The biosphere can be described as a complex series of systems.

The systems interact to maintain the best possible physical and chemical environment for life on
Earth.

Gaia Hypothesis: Dr. Lovelock’s hypothesis that Earth is a single, living organism.

Global Warming Swindle:

Some notable scientists (eg. Richard Lindzen) do not believe that Global Warming is as
severe a threat to mankind as perceived, or that man’s contributions to the earth’s warming
trend is as much as postulated by the environmental activists (see video: Global Warming
Swindle).

BLM 12-11, Chapter 12 Test/Assessment Answers

1. ​T
2. ​F: ​ Positive water feedback can be described as ​follows: . . .
3. ​F: ​ Carbon dioxide has a global warming potential ​
​ of 1.
 4. ​T
5. ​F: ​ The use of any non-carbon renewable resource instead of fossil fuels will reduce carbon dioxide emissions.
6. ​(c)
7. ​(b)
8. ​(e)
9. ​(a)
10. ​(d)
11. ​enhanced greenhouse effect
12. ​albedo
13. ​crust (or lithosphere)
14. ​taiga (or tundra), grassland, temperate deciduous forest
15. ​transportation
16. ​(c)
17. ​(b)
18. ​(b)
19. ​(c)
20. ​(a)
21. ​(c)
22. ​(b)
23. ​(b)
24. ​(c)
25. ​(b)
26. ​Scientists predict that global warming will result in increased levels of evaporation from the oceans. This could
lead to a cycle of positive water vapour feedback if the increased levels of water vapour in the atmosphere were
to trap more heat. With increased temperatures, more water would be expected to evaporate from Earth’s
surface. If, on the other hand, increased levels of water vapour in the atmosphere resulted in increased cloud
formation, the clouds could cause more solar energy to be reflected back into space. With less solar energy
reaching Earth, global temperatures could drop, resulting in a cycle of negative water vapour feedback.
27. ​Two major uncertainties are
∙​ how levels of greenhouse gas emissions will change over the long term
∙​ what the long-term effects of increased greenhouse gases will be on climates Students may also mention
another uncertainty: how increased greenhouse gases in the atmosphere may affect albedo and water vapour
feedback.
28. ​Landfills and sewage treatment plants give off large amounts of methane. Trapping the methane and burning it
to produce steam and generate electricity reduces the amount of methane that enters the atmosphere. Also,
burning methane releases less carbon dioxide than burning fossil fuels to produce the same amount of energy.
29. ​Students may include some of the following information in their speeches to answer the three questions.
​ Evidence that earth’s climate is changing: Records indicate that annual global temperatures have been
increasing, both globally and in Canada. Students should provide at least one specific piece of evidence. For
example, Earth’s average surface temperature has risen by 0.6ºC over the last century. Over the last 50 years, the rate
of increase in global temperatures has risen.Links between climate change and human activities: Greenhouse gases
trap heat in the atmosphere, and the concentration of all greenhouse gases have increased dramatically over the past
150 years (since the Industrial Revolution). Human activities would seem to be responsible for this increase in
greenhouse gas emissions. Specific examples include
∙​ carbon dioxide, due to increased fossil fuel combustion and deforestation
∙​ methane, due to farming practices, landfill sites, and sewage plants
∙​ dinitrogen monoxide, due to combustion of fossil fuels and wood
∙​ ground-level ozone, formed when oxides of nitrogen and vapours of gasoline combine in sunlight and heat
∙​ halocarbons, released from aerosol propellants and refrigerants
​ Suggestions for reducing our impact on the biosphere: Reduce carbon dioxide emissions by decreasing fossil
fuel combustion (for example, by taking public transport or cycling instead of driving, driving hybrid vehicles,
or using alternative or renewable energy sources such as solar power or wind power). Reduce methane
emissions by trapping methane from landfill sites and sewage plants and by using the gas as an energy source.
Increase afforestation and reforestation, and reduce deforestation.