Introduction to food preparation

Introduction to Food Preparation 1

The basic principles of food preparation and related information necessary for the development of desirable
food preparation standards. Fundamental knowledge and under- standing of cooking and measuring
techniques, cooking equip- ment, tools and utensils, and kitchen lay-out are necessary to achieve the basic skills of
food preparation. Likewise, the ability to follow and standardize a recipe will add to one’s skills in achieving excellent
results in the preparation of food
METHODS OF COOKING FOOD
Cooking is the term applied when heat is used in preparing foods. The different methods of cooking can be
grouped according to the way heat is applied to food. Two methods are commonly identified as using Moist Heat
Cooking and Dry Heat Cooking.
Heat is transferred by water, water-based liquid or steam in Moist Heat Cooking;
while heat is transferred by air, radiation, fat or metal in Dry Heat Cooking.
The following diagram shows the different classifications of cooking methods:

COOKING

Using Moist Heat Using Dry Heat

Scalding SimmeringRoasting Grilling Baking Broiling Frying

Braising Parboiling Sauteing Pan Stir Frying
Steaming Poaching Broiling Deep-frying
Stewing Boiling
Blanching

USE OF HEAT IN COOKING

Heat is used in preparing food by cooking and toasting. Cooking is the term applied when heating affects the
entire mass of food, while toasting concerns primarily the effects of heat on the surface. Without heat, foods that
are unpalatable or unsanitary when raw could not be in- cluded in the daily diet. The changes produced in foods by
heat depend upon the methods of heat transfer, the time of heating, the temperature reached in the surface and
within the mass of food, and the nature of food itself.
Method of Heat Transfer
Heat transfer from the sources of heat to the food are by convec- tion, conduction, radiation and microwave
emission. These factors affect the intensity and the rate of cooking.
• Convection is the transfer of thermal energy from electricity, gas or solid fuel to the vapor molecules of the
air, which in turn heat the food or the utensil it comes in contact with.
• Conduction is the direct transfer of heat via metals or any heat- conducing materials containing the food. In
the conduction, heat penetrates the center of the food. Good conductor of heat are metals, copper, water
and steam, and air.
• Radiation is the transfer of heat from a red hot coil to the food. It immediately heats the food it strokes
on. The process can be blocked by an obstacle between the source and the object to be heated.
Measurement of Heat or Temperature
The usual result of an increase in temperature is an expansion in size. Hence, a convenient way of measuring
temperature is by noting the expansion of a column of mercury in a thermometer scale. Mer- cury expands
uniformly at different temperature and has an extensive range between the freezing point -39°F and its boiling point
675°F. There are two kinds of scale in a thermometer: the Fahrenheit and the Centi- grade.
Heat is measured by degrees Centigrade or Celsius (°C) or degrees
Fahrenheit (°F).

The degree of hotness or intensity of heat is expressed as the tem- perature of the object (food). To express cooking
temperatures, the Met- ric System using °C and °F are used.
 Introduction
The Fahrenheit scale to Food
is named Preparation
after 2 for its freezing point and 212° for its
a German Physicist. It has 32°
boiling point. There are 212 equal divisions between 0° and the boiling point.
The Centigrade Scale gets its name from Centum, Latin for “hundred” and Grade which means “step.” In the
Centigrade Scale, the freezing point is marked 0° and the boiling point is marked 100°. The scale between these
two points is marked off into 10 equal divisions or degrees.

There are 9 Fahrenheit degrees for every 5 Centigrade degrees. Thus, when a temperature reading is to be changed into
centigrade, sub- tract 32 from the Fahrenheit degrees, multiply it by 5 and divide by 9.

°C = (°F – 32) x 5. If the change is from Centigrade into Fahrenheit, mul-

9tiply the number of Centigrade degrees by 9, divide by 5 and add 32.

°F =(°C x 9)/5 + 32

IMPORTANT TEMPERATURES IN PREPARING FOOD

PURPOSE OF COOKING
Some foods, such as fruits and vegetables, are highly palatable when eaten raw. However, most foods must
be cooked to be acceptable to the human palate. The main purposes of cooking food are:
• to improve its natural flavor and palatability;
• to destroy pathogenic organisms and injurious substances which may be found on raw foods;
• to improve its digestibility; and
• to make its maximum nutritive value available in a palatable form.

Natural Flavor and Palatability

Some fruits and vegetables are highly palatable when eaten raw because uncooked and unsoaked foods
retain a good portion of their nutritive value and natural texture and color. The effect of cooking on the color and
texture is important on its influence in flavor. When the object is to maintain the original flavor of the food, the
cooking process used should be as short as possible without adding any flavoring materi- als. For example, fresh and
young vegetables should be cooked in a small amount of boiling water.
When several foods are cooked together, an interesting blend of fla- vor is developed. The cooking process in this
case is often comparatively long to allow time enough for the new flavor to develop. For example, casserole dishes,
pudding, and the local Sinigang and Nilaga are enjoyed for their interesting blend of different flavors. Overcooking,
however, is destructive of flavors and food may become soggy or stringy.
The effect of cooking on the color and texture of food has a great in- fluence on flavor. The methods of cooking
used must be those which are conserving of the natural color of food or developing the new, desired color.

Pathogenic Organisms and Injurious Substances on Food

All foods in their natural state are subject to spoilage or deteriora- tion because of pathogenic organisms and
injurious substances found in them. Microorganisms, such as molds, yeasts, and bacteria, grow at certain
temperature generally between 0 degree to 75 degrees. However, with heat application or exposure to temperatures
near the boiling point of water, microorganisms are easily killed.
Illness may be caused by foods that naturally contain poisonous substances and foods that are contaminated
with pathogenic microor- ganisms and toxins. Cooking, through application of heat, destroys the injurious
substances in raw food and renders the food in wholesome and safe form.
Most cooking methods produce an interior temperature of 140 degrees to 185 degrees Fahrenheit. Some
baked products may reach a temperature close to 21 degrees Centigrade. This temperature range is one in which
many harmful organisms do not grow. All portions of food must reach and maintain a certain temperature within
this range.

Digestibility of Food
All foods undergo softening as a result of cooking, which may ren- der food more digestible. Some cooking
processes are identical with the processes involved in the breakdown of food during digestion. For ex- ample: the
transformation of starch into dextrins and the hydrolyses that takes place during the cooking of meat break down
the protein collagen in connective tissues. Digestibility to a layman, refers not only to the completeness of
digestion and absorption but also the general feeling and after effect of eating. When food is hard to digest, it is
 Introduction
easily manifested by a feeling to Food Preparation
of discomfort. 3 be cooked to be palatable, soft and
Some fruits and vegetables have to
easy to digest.

Maximum Nutritive Value

Some foods, like fruits and vegetables group, are highly palatable when eaten raw because uncooked and
unsoaked foods retain a good portion of their nutritive value. However, in time of food poisoning outbreak, people are
warned not to eat raw or half-cooked food.
There are some raw foods that have to be cooked in order that their nutritive value can be used by the body
COOKING MEDIUMS
The methods of cooking are classified according to the cooking medium, namely, air, water, steam, fat, and a
combination of one or more of these mediums.

Air and Heat as Cooking Mediums

Boiling, roasting, and baking are examples of cooking meth- ods with heat as the medium. Without heat,
foods that are unpalatable or insanitary when raw cannot be included in the daily diet. Many foods are cooked by
conduction or the flow of heat from one material to another.
Broiling is cooking over or under a source of direct heat such as coals, a gas burner, or a glowing electric
unit. Much of the heat is derived from radiant energy; some is conducted from the air and from the broiler rack.
Roasting is cooking on a spit before an open fire or by covering with hot coals. Nowadays, the term is used
synonymously with baking in meat cookery.
Baking is cooking in an oven, whereby, convection currents aid in heating the air and equalizing the oven
temperature.
Water as a Cooking Medium
The methods of cooking with water as the medium are: boiling, simmering, and stewing.
Boiling is cooking in water at boiling point. This temperature may be recognized by the presence of many bubbles of steam
rises to the top and breaks. Incomplete cooking by boiling is called parboiling
Stewing is simmering or boiling in water enough to cover the ingre- dient

Bubble size and movement differ during poaching, simmering, and boiling.

a. Poach b. Simmer c. Boil

Poaching – Water is heated to a temperature of 160° to 180°F (71° to 82°C). Small motionless bubbles appear in
the bottom of the pan. Poaching is used to prepare delicate foods like fish and eggs.
Simmering – Water is heated just below the boiling point not less than 180°F (82°C). It is characterized by
gently rising bubbles that barely break the surface. Simmering is used for cooking tough cuts of meat to make it
tender.
Boiling – Water is heated to reach 212°F (100°C), a temperature at which water bubbles rapidly. The high
temperature of boiling water is used to cook paste and tougher-textured vegetables like dried beans.
Steam as a Cooking Medium
The methods of cooking with steam as the cooking medium are: steaming, waterless cooking, and pressure
cooking.
Steaming refers to cooking in steam arising from added water.
 Introduction
Waterless cooking is cooking withtosteam formed from the water origi- nally 4present in food.
Food Preparation

Pressure cooking is cooking with steam under pressure; since the heat of vaporization does not escape, the temperature rises
steadily to a high point. This type of cooking requires the use of a pressure cooker, a spe- cial type of cooking utensil.

Fat as a Cooking Medium

Fat is used as the cooking medium in sautéing, deep-fat frying, and pan broiling.
Sautéing is cooking in a lightly greased pan allowing the product to be turned over or “flipped” for complete
cooking.
Deep-Fat Frying refers to cooking in an amount of fat sufficient for immersion of the food. The temperature
required for frying runs as high as 385 degrees F or 196 degrees C.

Combination of Cooking Mediums

A combination of more than one method is used in braising, fricasseeing, and pot roasting.
Braising represents a combination of sautéing and subsequent cook- ing in a small amount of liquid in a covered
utensil.
Fricasseeing is almost similar to braising. Braising and fricasseeing are in fact synonymously applied to meat
and poultry.
Pot roasting is the term commonly used when a large piece of meat is cooked by the preceding methods.

Electronic Cooking
Electronic cooking or microwave cooking is done on an electronic range. This action results in heating of the
food. The food cooks, as in conventional cooking, by becoming hot first. The interior of the food mass is cooked by
heat conducted to it from the surface. Aluminum, tin and stainless steel utensils and vessels are not used in
microwave cooking because they cut down its efficiency by shielding the food. Paper, glass, china, and earthware are
preferable. Much time is saved in microwave cooking; and food will not burn.
THE STANDARDIZED RECIPE
A recipe is a set of instructions for making a food dish from various ingredients. When a recipe is one in which the
amounts and proportions of the ingredients and the methods of procedure will consistently pro- duce a high quality
product, it becomes a standardized recipe.
A recipe has two important parts:
• a list of ingredients and
• a description of the method for putting them together.

Principles to be Followed in Recipe Construction

Good recipes are constructed not only to obtain a good product but also to be sure of an efficient and orderly procedure
that will minimize the time of preparation. Here are certain principles to follow:
1. The recipe should be simple, easy to read, and interesting to the reader.
2. The ingredients should be listed in the order they are to be used.
3. Exact measurements should be indicated; if possible abbrevia- tions should be avoided.
For example: 1/2 cup chopped onion not
1.2 c. onion, chopped
4. Descriptive terms should be placed before the ingredient if the process is to be carried out before
measurement.
For example: 2 cups sifted flour
If the process is carried out after measurement, the terms are placed under the ingredient.
For example: 2 cups flour, sifted
5. Whenever possible, it is desirable to use simple measure- ments.
• Fractional measurements in a cup (1/2, 1/4, 1/3 cups);
• Weight of uncooked meat, poultry, fish (1/2 kilo, 4 lbs.) etc.; and
• Measure and weight of canned packaged products (5 oz. can tomato sauce, 1 lb. cheese).
6. Specify the particular type of ingredient to be used. Thus, if cake flour is the preferred ingredient,
specify as 2 cups cake flour instead of 2 cups flour.
 7. Use the genericIntroduction
names of to Food Preparation
the 5
ingredients rather than brand names.
8. Short and clear sentences that give the necessary information help to make directions understandable.
9. Use the precise term to describe a cooking process or a prepa- ration method. Do not say mix when you
mean fold or beat.
10. Specify the size of the baking pan or utensils needed. State clearly how preparation should be made.
For example: oiling greasing
lining with wax paper
11. State information regarding temperature and cooking time to insure successful results. A statement to
describe the stage is most helpful.
For example: Bake for 25 minutes at 350°F, until it is golden brown.
12. Every recipe should indicate its yield in terms of average serv- ings.
13. Use the generic names of the ingredients rather than brand names.
14. Short and clear sentences that give the necessary information help to make directions understandable.
15. Use the precise term to describe a cooking process or a prepa- ration method. Do not say mix when you
mean fold or beat.
16. Specify the size of the baking pan or utensils needed. State clearly how preparation should be made.
For example: oiling greasing
lining with wax paper
17. State information regarding temperature and cooking time to insure successful results. A statement to
describe the stage is most helpful.
For example: Bake for 25 minutes at 350°F, until it is golden brown.
18. Every recipe should indicate its yield in terms of average serv- ings.
SAMPLE RECIPE

Fish Escabeche
2 medium-sized fish (lapu-lapu, talakitok or pampano) 1 large onion
1 large sweet pepper, cut into long narrow pieces 2 cloves garlic
2 tablespoons cornstarch
2 cups water
2 tablespoons vinegar
4 tablespoons sugar
3 tablespoons soy sauce
1 large carrot cut into strips
Clean the fish. Sprinkle with 1 teaspoon salt. Fry until brown and set aside. Saute garlic, onion, and sweet pepper. Add the
carrot and cook until crisp and tender. Make medium thick gravy by mixing water, sugar, soy sauce, salt, and cornstarch.
Boil 5 minutes before adding the vinegar. Then add garlic, onion- carrot-pepper mixture into this gravy. Pour over the
fish. Makes 12 servings.
1 ards
1 rotary egg beater or white beater measuring spoons and cups
mixing bowls (1 qt, 2 qts, 3 qts, 4 qts) strainer or sieve
colander
SMALL EQUIPMENT FOR FOOD PREPARATION
Small items of equipment are referred to as kitchen utensils. These are used in cleaning, cutting, chopping, and cooking.
Equipment for cooking on the range
sauce pan heavy skillet Mixing and preparation equipment
sauce pot skillet or frying pan mixing bowl strainer
kettle pressure cooker blending fork wooden spoon
double boiler tea kettle sifter tongs
Dutch oven coffeemaker rubber scrapper mixing spoon
wire whip chopping board
Cutting and chopping equipment slotted spoon
butcher knife scissors
french or chopping knife meat grinders PASTRY TOOLS
bread knife pastry blender
cutting board biscuit cutter PASTRY BLENDER
PASTRY BRUSHES
SLICING WHEEL
PASTRY BAG AND TIPS
 paring knife Introduction to Food Preparation
grater 6
peeler can opener
mallet mashes

USEFUL KITCHEN EQUIPMENTS BAKE WARE KNIVES:BASIC POTS AND PANS

ROTARY BEATER TUBE PAN CUTTING
WIRE WHISK TOOLS 3 QUART PAN
CAN OPENER STRAINER RECTANGULAR PANPIE
2 QUART PAN
BOTTLE OPENER FUNNERL PAN
COLANDER UTILITY KNITE 1 QUART PAN
MIXING BOWL JELLY ROLL PAN
SIFTER FRYING PAN WITH LID
VEGETABLE PEELER SLICING LNIFE
MALLET UTILITY BAKING SHEET OMELET PAN
TONGS SPOON FRENCH KNIFE STOCK POT
MUFFIN PAN
METAL SPATULA LADLE DOUBLE-BOILER
SQUARE PAN BREAD KNIFE
KITCHEN SCISSORS GRATER CAST-IRON FRYING PAN
WOODEN SPOONS GARLIC TART PANS KNIFE SHARPENING STEEL DUTCH OVEN
KITCHEN FORK PRESS BUNDT PANS
LOAF PAN
BAKEWARE ACCESSORIES
ROUND PAN
SOUFFLE DISH
WIRE RACKS
CUSTARD CUPS

MEASURING FOOD MATERIALS

The use of standard measuring equipment and standard measuring techniques will help to ensure successful products.
Every major ingredient, dry or liquid, requires a special measuring technique. Liquids are mea- sured in standard
glass or clear plastic cups that hold the exact capacity specified in a recipe. If it is necessary to weigh foods, use a
weighing scale.

Measuring Techniques
How to measure
Liquids: Use a liquid measuring cup and place it on level surface. Have the measuring line at eye level to be sure
of the exact measure- ment.
Dry Ingredients or Powdered Materials: Gently spoon the ingredient into the cup, piling high or filling cup to
overflowing; then level off with a metal spatula or straight-edged knife. Powdered materials such as baking powder,
baking soda, salt etc. must be stirred first to break up any lump. Dip a dry spoon in the powder and level off with the edge
of the spatula or the knife.
Sugar: Sift granulated or refined sugar if lumpy. Spoon into the measuring cup and level off. Do not pack or tap
the sugar down. Brown sugar is packed firmly into the cup with a finger until it is even with the rim. When the cup is
inverted, brown sugar will hold its shape.
Solid shortening: With a rubber spatula, pack into cup. Run spatula through shortening to release air; pack again
and level off.
Butter or margarine: When using a bar or stick or butter, cut the de- sired amount. Use these equivalents: 1/2 lb. —
1 cup; 1/4 lb. — 1/2 cup.
Shredded cheese: Lightly place the shreds in a dry measuring cup until even with its rim. Do not pack the cheese into
the cup.
Spices: To measure less than 1/4 teaspoon, use your finger or divide 1/4 teaspoon in half. This is usually referred
to as a dash or a pinch.
Abbreviations used in measuring ingredients.
t or tsp. (teaspoon) lb. (pound)
T or tbsp. (tablespoon) oz. (ounce)
Introduction to Food Preparation 27
Introduction to Food Preparation 27
 Introduction to Food Preparation 9

MEASUREMENTS AND CONVERSIONS

Heat Fahrenheit Centigrade/Celsius

Very Cool 230 110
Cool or Slow 275-300 135-150
Moderate 350 175
Hot 425 220
Very Hot 450 230

Conversion of Temperature Measurement

(°F – 32) x 5
CENTIGRADE = 5/9 (°F – 32) or
9
FAHRENHEIT = (9 x °C)/5 + 32 or 1.8 x °C – 32
Weight and Measure Equivalent
Dash = less than 1/8 teaspoon
3 Teaspoons (tsp.) = 1 Tablespoon (Tbsp.) 2 Tbsp. = 1/8 cup (1 fl. oz)
4 Tbsp. = 1/4 cup (2 fl. oz) 8 Tbsp. = 1/2 cup (4 fl. oz) 16 Tbsp. = 1
cup (8 fl. oz) 1 gill = 1/2 cup
2 cups = 1 pint
2 pints = 1 quart
4 quarts = 1 gallon
8 quarts = 1 peck
4 pecks = 1 bushel

COOKING TERMS
Bake — Cook in an oven.
Barbecue — Baste meat from time to time with a highly-seasoned sauce as it cooks by direct heat over coals, in an oven or
under a broiler.
Baste — Moisten food while it is being baked to prevent it from drying out.
Blanch or Scald — Put boiling water over food or dip the food into boiling water and then into cold water.
Boil — Cook in liquid until bubbles appear and rise to the top and break on the surface.
Broil — Cook by direct heat.
Braise — Brown meat or vegetable in a small amount of liquid.
Fry — Cook in hot fat without cover.
Fricassee — Cook by braising.
Melt — Change a solid to liquid by boiling.
Poach — Cook food in hot liquid just below the boiling point.
Roast — Cook meat or poultry uncovered in oven without added moisture.
Scald — Heat liquid in the upper part of a double boiler until tiny bubbles appear around the edge.
Steam — Cook food by steam in a covered steamer rather than in boiling water.
Steep — Cover tea leaves with boiling water and allow to stand, to extract the flavor, color, and aroma from the leaves.
Simmer — Cook just below boiling point.
Sear — Brown meat quickly on all sides at high temperature to develop flavor and improve its appearance.
Stew — Cook food for a long time in a small amount of liquid at simmer- ing temperature.
Introduction to Food Preparation 10
 Selection, Preparation and Preservation of Selected Food Groups 11

Scrape — Remove the skin by rubbing it with the sharp edge of the knife.
Slice — Cut across into flat pieces.
Soften — Cream butter, margarine, or shortening until it is smooth and creamy or to let it stand at room temperature until
it is soft.
Stir — Mix the ingredients in a bowl by circular movement of a spoon.
Sprinkle — Scatter sugar, flour, and salt over food.
Toss — Mix lightly by lifting the ingredients for salad with a spoon and fork with two forks to avoid braising the
ingredients.
Wedge — Cut into shape of a wedge, each piece thick at one and thin at the other end.
Whip — Beat rapidly with a whisk beater to incorporate air and increase volume of egg white