CHAPTER 2: ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEM

ECOLOGY

The word 'Ecology' is derived from the Greek word "Oikos" which means
habitation and "logos" means study. Ecology was first described as a separate field
of knowledge in 1866 by German zoologist Ernst Haeckel. He invented the word
"Oekologie" for the relation of animal to its organic as well as inorganic
environment. Ramdeo Misra is known as the father of ecology in India.
Ecology is a branch of biology that attempts to understand the relationship between
living organisms and their environment, and the associated energy flows. Under
ecology, the study of three features of ecosystem is done:
 Interaction of organism as a whole with their physical environment.
 Interaction among members of different species.
 Interaction among members of a particular species.

Levels of Ecological Organization

Ecology is structured into six primary levels of organization.

Individual

An individual refers to a single living organism that can function independently.

Examples include a lion, an elephant, a tiger, and a wolf.

Population

In ecological terms, a population is defined as a group of individuals belonging to

the same species, which interbreed and exist together in a particular space and
time.
Note: Species: A species is defined as a group of organisms that share similar traits
and are capable of interbreeding to produce fertile offspring. Humans belong to the
species Homo sapiens.

Community

Communities consist of populations of plants and animals coexisting in a shared

habitat. To sustain life, individuals of one species interact with those of other
species. A community is, therefore, defined as a collection of different species'
populations (both plant and animal) that occupy a particular area at the same time.
The number and size of species in a community may vary significantly.

Ecosystem

An ecosystem consists of a community of living organisms interacting with the

nonliving components of their environment (such as air, water, and mineral soil) as
an integrated system. Biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliving) factors are interlinked
through nutrient cycles and energy flow, maintaining the balance of the ecosystem.

Biome

A biome refers to a large-scale grouping of terrestrial ecosystems within a

continent that share similar vegetation structure, physical appearance,
environmental conditions, and characteristic animal communities. Aquatic
ecosystems are not classified as biomes. Instead, they are divided into life zones,
which are distinct regions with unique plant and animal life on the basis of salinity
levels, dissolved nutrients, water temperature, and the depth of sunlight penetration

Biosphere

The biosphere is the part of Earth where life exists. It is a highly integrated and
interactive zone that includes the atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water), and
lithosphere (land). The biosphere is a thin layer surrounding the Earth's surface
where life thrives. It is absent in the extreme regions of the North and South Poles.

ECOSYSTEM

 An ecosystem is a system where living organisms continuously interact with

both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components in their environment.
These biotic and abiotic components are interconnected through nutrient
cycles and energy flows.
 Ecosystems are characterized by the interactions between organisms and their
surroundings, and they can vary in size, though they generally occupy specific,
limited areas.
 The term "ecosystem" was coined by the British ecologist Arthur George
Tansley in 1935.
 Example: A drop of water containing bacteria is an ecosystem, just as the
entire Earth can be considered an ecological model known as the Ecosphere,
the largest ecosystem.
Fig: Components of an Ecosystem

Fig: Types of Ecosystems

Salient Features of Forest Ecosystem

Salient Features of Desert Ecosystem

Salient Features of Grassland Ecosystem

Biotic components

Abiotic Secondary Tertiary

Primary
components Producers consumers or consumers consumers
Decomposers
or or
HERBIVORE
carnivore1 carnivore2

Soil, Water, Grasses, Grasshopper, Frog, Hawk/

Sunlight, Herbs and Rabbit, Snake, Eagle and Bacteria
 Lizards,
Mouse, Deer, Vultures
Air Shrubs Birds, Fox, and Fungi
Sheep Etc. Etc.
Jackal Etc.

Salient Features of Pond Ecosystem

Functions of an Ecosystem

The main functions of an ecosystem are:

 Energy flow: It takes place with the help of food chain and food web. The
energy flow is unidirectional and non-cyclic.
 Material flow or nutrient cycling or biogeochemical cycling: It means the
circulation or movement of nutrients between living and non-living
components of ecosystem. For example-Nitrogen cycle, sulphur cycle, carbon
cycle (= CO2 cycle), oxygen cycle, water cycle, Phosphorus cycle etc.
 Productivity: It means the production of biomass at producers and consumers
level.
 Homeostasis (=Ecological balance): It means a balance between living and
non-living components of ecosystem.
 Regulatory functions or ecological services: Regulation of climatic conditions
(rain, temperature etc.), Regulation of nutrient cycling (=biogeochemical
cycling), Regulation of hydrological cycle (water cycle), Purification of air,
Control of environmental pollution, Soil formation, Pollination etc.
Ecological Niche

In nature, multiple species can share the same habitat but carry out different
ecological roles. The unique function of a species within its habitat is known as its
niche. The habitat of a species can be compared to its address, while its niche
represents its role or profession—describing the specific activities and interactions
that enable its survival.
For example, a garden spider's niche includes being a predator that hunts for prey
among plants, while an oak tree's niche involves dominating a forest canopy and
converting sunlight into food.

Ecotone

An ecotone is a transitional zone where two or more ecosystems meet and merge.
It serves as a boundary between ecological communities. Ecotones can vary in
size, ranging from small local areas (e.g., between a field and a forest) to larger
regional zones (e.g., where a forest meets a grassland).
 Biodiversity is higher in ecotones than in other ecosystems due to the presence
of species from both adjoining habitats.
 Example: A mangrove forest functions as an ecotone between marine and
terrestrial ecosystems. Other examples include grasslands, estuaries, and
riverbanks.
 Their environmental conditions are intermediate, blending characteristics of
adjacent ecosystems—making them a zone of tension where species
interactions are heightened.
 Ecotones display a gradual transition in species composition, where one
community increases while another declines.
 In certain zones, the species diversity and population density of some
organisms are significantly higher compared to the adjacent ecosystems. This
phenomenon is known as the Edge Effect.

What is ecological succession? (Self study)

What is balanced ecosystem? (Self study)

FOOD CHAIN

A food chain represents a sequence of organisms where each one feeds on the
previous one. It illustrates the transfer of food energy from green plants
(producers) to various heterotrophs at different trophic levels.
Definition: “The transfer of food energy from organism to organism i.e. from
producers to consumers to decomposers in an ecosystem is known as food chain”.
Components of a food chain are:
 Producers
 Consumers
 Decomposers

Autotrophs (Producers)

Autotrophs serve as the primary food producers in an ecosystem. The total amount
of radiant energy stored through photosynthesis in green plants is referred to as
Gross Primary Production (GPP). This is also known as total photosynthesis or
total assimilation.

Herbivores

Herbivores, also known as primary consumers, feed directly on plants.

Examples include insects, birds, rodents, and ruminants.

Carnivores

Secondary consumers prey on herbivores, while tertiary consumers feed on other

carnivores.
Examples: frog, dog, cat, and tiger.
Omnivores

Omnivores consume both plant and animal matter ie these are primary , secondary
or even tertiary consumers depending upon their diet.
Examples: pig, bear, and humans.

Food chains in different ecosystems

Terrestrial Food Chains:

 Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk:
This example illustrates a simple grazing food chain where grass (producer) is
eaten by a grasshopper (primary consumer), which is then eaten by a frog
(secondary consumer), and so on.
 Oak Tree → Deer → Wolf:
This chain shows a producer (oak tree) being consumed by a herbivore (deer),
which is then preyed upon by a carnivore (wolf).
 Flower → Butterfly → Bird → Fox:
This chain shows a producer (flower) being consumed by a herbivore (butterfly),
which is then preyed upon by a carnivore (bird), and finally a larger carnivore
(fox).
 Grass → Cow → Human:
A common example where grass (producer) is eaten by a cow (primary consumer),
which is then consumed by a human (secondary consumer).

Aquatic Food Chains:

 Phytoplankton → Zooplankton → Small Fish → Large Fish → Shark:
This chain illustrates an aquatic food chain where phytoplankton (producer) are
eaten by zooplankton (primary consumer), which are then consumed by small fish
(secondary consumer), and so on.
 Algae → Snail → Fish → Bird:
This chain shows a producer (algae) being consumed by a herbivore (snail), which
is then eaten by a fish (secondary consumer), and finally a bird (tertiary consumer).

Detritus Food Chain: ( Generally found in Mangroves)

 Fallen Leaves → Worms → Bird:
This chain shows how dead organic matter (fallen leaves) is consumed by
decomposers (worms), which are then eaten by a bird (secondary consumer).
 Dead Fish → Bacteria → Shrimp → Fish:
This chain shows how dead fish are decomposed by bacteria, which are then
consumed by shrimp, which are then eaten by fish.
 Parasitic Food Chain:
Tree → Fruit-eating Bird → Lice: This chain illustrates a parasitic relationship
where a tree (producer) is consumed by a bird, and the bird is then parasitized by
lice.

FOOD WEB

A food web represents the complex interconnection of multiple food chains,

illustrating the feeding relationships within an ecological community. It visually
depicts "who eats whom" and is also referred to as a consumer-resource system.

Fig: Food web

IMPORTANCE OF FOOD CHAINS AND FOOD WEBS

 They enable the flow of energy and the recycling of nutrients.

 They help maintain ecological stability.
 They clarify feeding relationships and interactions among organisms in an
ecosystem.
 Food chains demonstrate biological magnification, where certain non-
biodegradable substances (such as pesticides and metallic pollutants)
accumulate in higher concentrations at higher trophic levels.
TROPHIC LEVELS

An ecosystem is a fundamental unit where complex natural communities derive

their food from plants through a series of steps. These steps can range from one to
four, corresponding to the first, second, third, and fourth trophic levels (Trophe =
nourishment) or food levels. Organisms are categorized into different trophic levels
based on their mode of nutrition:
 Producers (Autotrophs): Green plants form trophic Level-I by producing their
own food.
 Primary Consumers (Herbivores): Organisms that feed on producers belong to
Trophic Level-II and are classified as heterotrophs.
 Secondary Consumers (Carnivores): These heterotrophs, feeding on
herbivores, are part of Trophic Level-III.
 Tertiary Consumers (Carnivores): Organisms in Trophic Level IV, feeding on
secondary consumers, are also heterotrophs.
 Quaternary Consumers (Top Carnivores): The highest level, Trophic Level V,
consists of heterotrophs that feed on tertiary consumers.

Fig: Trophic levels

ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM

 Flow of food energy from one trophic level to another in an ecosystem is

called energy flow.
 Energy flow takes place with the help of food chain and food web.
 Sun is the ultimate source of energy in an ecosystem.
  The flow of energy in an ecosystem is unidirectional because once the energy
flows from the first to next trophic level, it cannot reverse back to first trophic
level.
 The flow of energy in an ecosystem is non-cyclic.

Lindeman’s Ten Percent Law

This principle states that only 10% of the energy from organic food is passed to the
next trophic level, while the remaining 90% is lost due to respiration, metabolism,
or incomplete digestion. It highlights the inefficiency of energy transfer in food
chains. The law emphasizes that energy conservation is most efficient when
consuming food sources closest to the initial energy producer (plants).The ten
percent energy law was given by Lindeman (1942).
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

These are the graphical representation of various trophic levels of the food chains
in an ecosystem. It begins with producers at the base and progresses through
successive trophic levels, culminating at the apex.
Ecological pyramids are classified into three types:
Pyramid of numbers
Pyramid of biomass
Pyramid of energy or productivity

Pyramid of Numbers

This concept illustrates the relationship between the number of primary producers
and consumers at various trophic levels. The base of the pyramid signifies the
foundation of food production, supporting higher trophic levels.
The pyramid structure can be upright (as seen in grassland, terrestrial, or pond
ecosystems) or inverted (as observed in parasitic ecosystems), depending on the
type of ecosystem and its food chain.

Fig: Pyramid of numbers

Pyramid of Biomass

To address the limitations of the pyramid of numbers, the pyramid of biomass is

used. In this method, organisms at each trophic level are weighed instead of being
counted. This results in a pyramid of biomass, which represents the total dry
weight of all organisms at each trophic level at a specific time. Biomass is
expressed in g/m². The amount of biomass present at the time of sampling is
referred to as standing crop or standing biomass.
The biomass pyramid can be upright (as seen in grassland ecosystems) or inverted
(as observed in pond ecosystems).
 Fig: Pyramid of biomass

Pyramid of Energy

Energy pyramids are a powerful tool for comparing the functional roles of various
trophic levels within an ecosystem.
At each trophic level, the energy content is always smaller than that of the
preceding level.
Consequently, the energy diminishes progressively at higher trophic levels,
ensuring that the pyramid remains upright.

BALANCED ECOSYSTEM

BIOACCUMULATION AND BIOMAGNIFICATION

Non-degradable pollutants tend to pass through different trophic levels within an

ecosystem. These pollutants consist of substances that cannot be broken down or
processed by living organisms, such as chlorinated hydrocarbons. The movement
of these pollutants occurs through two primary processes.

Bioaccumulation

 Bioaccumulation refers to the buildup of chemicals, such as pesticides or other

substances, within an organism over time.
 It occurs when an organism absorbs a potentially harmful substance at a rate
that exceeds its ability to break it down or excrete it.
 The longer the biological half-life of a toxic substance, the higher the risk of
chronic poisoning, even if the environmental concentration is relatively low.
Biomagnification

 Biomagnification describes the increasing concentration of toxic substances in

the tissues of organisms at higher levels in a food chain.
 Also referred to as bio amplification or biological magnification, this process
occurs due to:
 Persistence: The substance resists breakdown by natural environmental
processes.
 Food chain energetics: The substance's concentration progressively
increases as it moves up the food chain.
 Low or no internal degradation/excretion: Often due to the substance
being water-insoluble.

Fig: Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification

SYMBIOSIS

Symbiosis refers to a close relationship between two or more different species.

Unlike regular interactions, symbiotic species live together. Many species engage
in symbiotic relationships as they provide mutual benefits. However, some forms
of symbiosis can be harmful to one or both species. Symbiotic relationships are
classified into:
Obligate symbiosis – A relationship in which species depend on each other for
survival. For eg: Termites and Protozoa: Termites cannot digest wood without the
help of protozoa in their gut, and the protozoa cannot survive outside of the
termite's digestive system
Facultative symbiosis – A relationship where species live together by choice rather
than necessity. For eg: Plants and Pollinators: Plants benefit from pollination by
animals, and the animals get food (nectar, pollen) from the plants, but both can
survive without the interaction