CH 3: COSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN

PAKISTAN STUDIES
NOTES: CHAPTER 3
COSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN
 CH 3: COSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN

2.2.3 Discuss the significance of Objectives Resolution 1949 in the constitutional development of
Pakistan

Pakistan came into being as an independent country on 14 August 1947 as a result of the partition of
India. When Pakistan came into being it had no constitution of its own. The Government of India Act
1935 was adopted as an interim constitution until the framing of the new constitution of the
country. The first step taken in framing the new constitution was the passage of Objectives
Resolution on 12th March 1949 by the first constituent assembly of Pakistan. As the name suggests
the resolution contained basic aims and objectives on which the future constitution of Pakistan
would be based.

Main features of objectives Resolution

1. The constitution should provide a representative form of government in which the rulers will
exercise their powers in line with the Islamic concept of Sovereignty of Allah.
2. Islamic laws and guiding principles of life i.e. equality, brotherhood, social justice would be
enforced in the country.
3. Rights of minorities as enunciated by Islam i.e. freedom to profess and practice faith and
promote their culture would be ensured.
4. The constitution should provide for such actions and steps which would enable Muslims to order
their personal and collective life in accordance with the teachings of Islam.
5. All fundamental rights should be provided in the law.
6. A free and independent judiciary should be guaranteed in the constitution.

Importance of Objectives Resolution

Objectives Resolution 1949 has huge importance in the constitutional development of Pakistan. It
had been more than two years after independence without its own framed constitution. A general
perception had started to prevail whether a constitution would be framed in the near future. But the
passage of Objectives Resolution 1949 gave people hope that a constituent assembly would frame a
new constitution very soon.

Objectives Resolution acted as a framework and roadmap for future constitutions. Constitutions of
1956 and 1962 were based on this resolution. It was made the preamble of both constitutions.
Pakistan’s current constitution (1973 constitution) was also framed in light of Objectives Resolution
1949.

The resolution provided for the introduction of Islamic laws and a prominent place for religion in the
law of the land. Moreover, the resolution provided a balance by suggesting the incorporation of
Islamic laws and universal democratic rights. This projected Pakistan as a moderate Islamic state
which respects and implements the fundamental rights provided in the International Human Rights
Charter.
 CH 3: COSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN

2.2.4 Discuss the factors which delayed the constitution-making process in the initial years of
Pakistan

The main factors responsible for this long delay in the constitution-making of Pakistan were as
follows:

Immediate problems

With its establishment, Pakistan had to face more pressing issues that required immediate re
addressed. The immediate problems included an influx of refugees, canal water dispute, Kashmir
war, India’s denial in giving Pakistan’s share of financial and military assets, etc.

1. Refugee problem

With Partition, millions of Muslim refugees flooded into Pakistan to escape the ruthless persecution
and massacre in different parts of India. Their accommodation, shelter, clothing, food, medication
had to be ensured before long-term measures were taken for their permanent settlement.

2. Canal water dispute

On April 1, 1948, India blocked river water coming from Kashmir through Indian Territory. This act of
India put the very survival of Pakistan in Jeopardy as it would damage the agriculture of Pakistan.

3. India’s denial to give Pakistan’s share of financial and military assets.

When Pakistan came into being, it had a crippled economy and vulnerable security. To make things
even worse, India did not give an agreed share of Pakistan’s military and financial assets. These and
similar other immediate problems left little time and energy to work on framing a new constitution
for Pakistan.

Issues other than immediate problems

Death of Quaid e Azam

The death of Quaid –i-Azam was one of the reasons for the delay in the constitution-making. Quaid
had given an outline for the country’s future constitution while addressing the first constituent
assembly of Pakistan on August 11, 1947 . But he died on September 11, 1948, before he could give
a constitution to his people.

Had he lived longer, he would have resolved the constitutional dilemma by using his leadership and
non-controversial status.

Disagreement over Parity of Representation

The first move towards the constitution-making of Pakistan was the passage of the Objectives
Resolution by the Constituent Assembly on 12 March 1949. After it passed the resolution, the
assembly delegated the task of drawing basic principles to a committee called the Basic Principles
Committee, in light of the set objectives for future constitution-making.
 CH 3: COSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN

The Basic Principles Committee presented its first Report on September 28, 1950, which
recommended parity of representation in the central Assembly. The proposal of this principle of
parity at the centre created controversy as the assembly members from East Pakistan opposed
it. They were of the view that their representation should be more as they were a majority (56% of
the total population) in the new state.

In contrast to what East Pakistan representatives felt, the West Pakistani politicians did not want a
dominant East Pakistan in the central Assembly. Consequently, no agreement was reached and the
constitution-making process was delayed.

Language issue

Another proposal the Basic Principles Committee had incorporated in its report was to declare Urdu
the national language of Pakistan. Urdu as the national language was also opposed by East Pakistani
members of the assembly. They demanded to make Bengali the national language since it was the
language of the majority of people. Thus, language controversy along with the issue of
representation at the center caused a type of deadlock in constitution-making in the country.

Political Rivalry and Corruption

After the sad demise of the Quaid, Muslim League fell victim to intrigue and disunity. Intense
internal strife and selfishness brought about disintegration in the party. Party fell into the hands of
opportunists who resorted to undemocratic ways and means, indulging in political mischief and
intrigue. Consequently, little attention was paid to constitution-making.

Increasing Influence of West Pakistan dominated Bureaucracy and military

With the death of Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan, bureaucrats made inroads to the power corridors.
A bureaucrat, Ghulam Muhammad was made the Governor-General who did not hesitate to dismiss
elected prime ministers, the constituent assembly thus also paving the path for retired and in service
military personnel in the politics. He made Sikandar Mirza, a retired General as Governor General,
appointed Ayub Khan, the Commandant in Chief of the Armed forces as defence minister.

West Pakistani politicians, bureaucrats, and generals did not want to give East Pakistan their due
political and democratic rights. Hence, any proposals made concerning the constitution seemed to
go against the wishes and expectations of East Pakistan creating a tussle in the constituent assembly.

2.2.5 Describe the salient features of 1956 Constitution

1. Federal System of Government

The 1956 constitution provided a federal system which meant that power would be divided between
the center and provinces. However, the center was made stronger than the provinces. The powers
were classified into three categories of the Federal, Provincial, and Concurrent list.

2. Executive Head

According to the constitution, the Prime Minister would be the head of the government. He would
be a member of the national assembly and also elected by the assembly to the post of Prime
 CH 3: COSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN

Minister. He would make his cabinet from the National Assembly which would be accountable to the
assembly.

3. Head of the state

It was provided in the constitution that the President would be head of the state with powers to
declare a state of emergency in the country and dismiss the Prime Minister and the government. The
president should be a Muslim above the age of 40 for 5 years. Moreover, he was authorized to make
the appointment of governors, Supreme Court judges, advocate General, and Auditor General. The
President would be elected by Central and provincial legislatures.

4. Principle of Parity of Representation at the center

The constitution provided parity for the representation of East and West Pakistan at the center. It
meant that there would be an equal number of representatives in the central assembly from both
wings of the country.

5. Flexible Constitution

The constitution was flexible in nature. Amendments could be made with a two-thirds majority of
the members of the National Assembly. However, the president was authorized to veto the law
which then could be nullified by a simple majority in the assembly.

6. Islamic Republic

Pakistan was proclaimed as the Islamic Republic of Pakistan in the 1956 constitution.

7. Preamble

The Objectives Resolution 1949 was made part of the preamble of the constitution. It means it was
incorporated in the introductory part of the constitution.

8. One House Parliament

Unlike today’s Two House Parliament, it was provided in the 1956 constitution that the Parliament
would be One House Parliament called National Assembly. The National Assembly would have 300
members in total equally drawn from both wings of the country, East Pakistan and West Pakistan.

9. Free Judiciary

The constitution provided a free and independent judiciary.

10. Fundamental Rights

Fundamental rights i.e. Freedom of Movement, Freedom of religion and faith, Freedom of speech,
Right to life and property, etc. were provided in the constitution.

11. Islamic Council

A council of religious scholars would be set up to see if existing laws were in accordance with Islam
or not. No law repugnant to Islam and Sunnah would be passed.
 CH 3: COSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN

2.2.6 Discuss the reasons that led to the failure of 1956 Constitution;

The 1956 constitution remained in action only for two years as then-president of the
country, Iskandar Mirza, abrogated the constitution and imposed Martial Law in 1958.

The reasons for the promulgation of Martial in 1958 following were the reasons that led to the
failure of the 1956 constitution of Pakistan.

1. Disproportionate use of presidential powers

The 1956 constitution gave the president the power to appoint the Prime Minister from the national
assembly. The president could also dismiss the executive (Prime Minister and his cabinet) and the
national assembly.

This meant that the national assembly had no powers to elect the prime minister. As the executive
head, the Prime Minister could remain in office only as long as he enjoyed the confidence of the
president.

Being placed at the mercy of the president, the assembly assumed a status not more than a rubber
stamp. Using his powers, the president could send a government home at any time. There was no
constitutional guarantee or mechanism to check any unreasonable act of the president.

2. The opposition of One Unit Formula

The 1956 constitution provided the One-Unit Formula, initially given by Ch. Muhammad Ali’s
government in 1954. According to this formula, the four provinces of West Pakistan (Punjab, Sindh,
NWFP , and Balochistan) were amalgamated into a single unit.

West Pakistani politicians resented One-Unit Formula. Protests within and outside assembly against
one unit formula created a chaotic and disturbing situation in the country. This further deepened the
already existing political instability and law and order situations in West Pakistan.

3. Controversy over parity of Representation at the center

The 1956 constitution provided parity of representation at the center. That is the number of
representatives from both wings in the central assembly would be equal.

East Pakistani politicians in the assembly criticized this formula of representation. They felt that they
would be underrepresented in the center despite being numerically a majority. They formed 56% of
the total population of Pakistan. Thus they demanded a representation at the center proportional to
their population.

On the contrary, the West Pakistani politicians did not want to see a dominant Bengali
representation in the center. Consequently, they emphasized the parity of representation. When the
1956 constitution got promulgated on March 23, 1956, East Pakistan-based political parties reacted
with anger and frequent protests.
 CH 3: COSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN

4. Loss of public trust in President and System

Misuse and abuse of power by the president had caused a loss of public trust in him and the system.
By 1958, the popularity of the president had reached the lowest ebb. The president saw himself out
of power in the coming general elections in 1858 as per the law laid out in the new constitution.

Iskandar Mirza did not want to lose power and was ready to take any step to make sure that he was
in the power. Hence, he dismissed the government, dissolved the national assembly, and placed the
country under its first Martial law on October 7, 1958.

Conclusion

The above reasons not only led to the abrogation of the constitution. They also resulted in the
imposition of the first law in the country. The 1958 martial law became a precedent for future
dismissal of elected governments by military coups.

2.2.7 Describe the salient features of 1962 Constitution;

Background

Pakistan adopted its first constitution in 1956 which hardly remained enforced for two and half
years. President Iskandar Mirza in a politically blatant move dismissed the government and national
assembly on 7th October 1958 by imposing Martial Law in the country under the command of
General Ayub Khan. Twenty days after the imposition of martial law on 27th October 1958 Ayub
Khan forced Iskandar Mirza to resign and exiled him to London.

After four years of his rule in the country, Ayub Khan introduced the second constitution of Pakistan
on first March 1962.

What were the main features of the 1962 constitution of Pakistan?

The main points of the constitution are as follows:

1. Incorporation of Objectives Resolution

The preamble of the 1962 constitution contained the Objectives Resolution 1949. The objectives
Resolution contained objectives for constitution-making in Pakistan.

2. Provision of the federal system

The constitution provided a federal form of government with two provinces i.e. East Pakistan, West
Pakistan. Like that of the 1956 constitution, the second constitution also provided for the One-Unit
formula and parity of representation at the center.

3. The Islamic Republic

Like that of the 1st constitution (1956 constitution), the 1962 constitution also proclaimed Pakistan
as the Islamic Republic.
 CH 3: COSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN

4. Presidential form of Government

According to the 1962 constitution, it would be a presidential form of government in Pakistan. The
president would be the head of the executive as well as the head of the state. He would be elected
by an electoral college of 80,000 basic democrats for tenure of 5 years.

5. Powers of the president

 The president enjoyed the power to issue ordinances that would take the shapes of law
 No court and legislature would challenge presidential orders.
 The president could appoint and remove ministers and provincial governors
 The president could veto any law made by the national assembly
 Only a citizen of Pakistan with an age over 35 years would be eligible for the post of
president.

6. Provision of parity of Representation at the center

According to the constitution, the central assembly (national assembly) would contain an equal
number of representatives both from East and West Pakistan. There would be a total of 300 national
assembly members, 150 from each unit.

7. One House Parliament

The 1962 Constitution provided unicameral legislature/one House Parliament at the center (the
National Assembly) with an equal number of representatives from each province. The members for
the national assembly would come through indirect election among 80, 000 Basic Democrats for a
tenure of 5 years.

8. Provincial Legislature

Each province would have its own legislature indirectly elected by the Basic Democrats of the
respective provinces. The executive head of the province would be the governor appointed by the
president of the country.

9. Advisory Council of Islamic Ideology

The constitution provided for the setting up of an Advisory Council of Islamic Ideology. The officials
and members of the council would be appointed by the president. The council would recommend
and the government sees law making is in accordance with Islam.

10. Provision of fundamental rights

The constitution did not mention the fundamental rights of the citizens initially. They were
incorporated as part of the constitution later on as a result of public protest and agitation.

11. Amendments

The national assembly could make any amendment to the constitution but that was subject to the
endorsement of the president. The president could veto any amendment or legislation made by the
 CH 3: COSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN

national assembly. However, the constitution also provided that the national assembly could
challenge any presidential decree. In such a case, the Basic Democrats would give a final decision.
The basic democrats, being under the control of bureaucrats could not make any decision against
the president.

12. Role of Judiciary

According to the constitution, the role of the judiciary would be to interpret laws and give judgments
in accordance with the constitution.

2.2.8 Discuss the reasons that led to the failure of 1962 Constitution;

Reasons for the failure of the 1962 constitution

Following are considered to be some of the reasons responsible for the failure of the 1962
constitution of Pakistan:

1. One-man Show

The constitution was basically made to suit the political interests and prolong his rule in the country.
It did not provide any chance and space for independent political activities. The office of the
president was entrusted with powers without any mechanism of accountability. The president could
use his powers disproportionately and no authority and court could challenge it.

2. Undemocratic Constitution

The constitution provided a controlled form of democracy in the country. People could not elect the
government directly. Only Basic Democrats could be elected by people at the local level. The basic
democrats acted as an electoral college for the election of the president, national assembly, and
provincial legislatures. Ayub Khan as president used his influence to get him elected to the
presidency in the 1965 presidential elections.

Moreover, the president could dismiss the national assembly, issue ordinances, and appoint
ministers at his discretion. As president Ayub Khan was not answerable to anyone.

3. Parity of Representation

The constitution provided parity of representation at the center. East Pakistani politicians and
people rejected and resented this provision of the principle of parity at the center. They demanded
their representation proportional to their population which was 56 of the total population. For
them, parity of representation meant an undemocratic act and political under-representation of the
people of East Pakistan.

4. One Unit Formula

Like the 1956 constitution, the 1962 constitution also provided for the One Unit Formula. According
to one unit scheme, the five provinces of West Pakistan i.e. Punjab, Sindh, NWFP , and Balochistan
would merge together into a single unit instead of four different provinces. The people and East
Pakistan politicians did not like the One-Unit Formula. The incorporation in the 1962 constitution
just added to the grievances of the people.
 CH 3: COSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN

5. Public Desire for the Parliamentary System

The 1962 Constitution provided a presidential form of government. People of Pakistan and politically
conscious circles demanded a parliamentary system of government instead.

6. Repression and Curtailment of Fundamental Rights

Ayub Khan enjoyed unchallenged authority as per the 1962 Constitution. Although the constitution
provided fundamental rights, the military regime did not hesitate in their violation if it suited its
interests. The government imposed restrictions on the political parties and their activities. They
could not speak against the government. The government reacted by picking up and torturing
opponents for their protest, critique, and agitation.

7. Student Rise for Democracy

By the end of 1968, the youth and people of Pakistan had become fed up with Ayub Khan who ruled
the country by strictly providing little space for democracy. Now people had started to challenge the
arbitrary acts and dictatorial decisions. At the core of the agitation lay the student protests which
had erupted throughout the country for the revival of democracy and civilian rule.

8. Rise of Bhutto

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto had resigned as foreign minister in protest against Ayub’s approach while signing
the Tashkent Agreement in 1966. Bhutto supported anti-Ayub student strikes aimed at getting the
resignation of Ayub Khan and forming a directly elected government.

Students also challenged the indirect election system introduced in the 1962 Constitution of the
country. Similar protests and agitation were also spreading against Ayub Khan in East Pakistan too.

9. Resignation of Ayub Khan

Ayub Khan resorted to using force to crush the uprising against his undemocratic rule in both wings
of Pakistan. The agitation instead forced Ayub Khan to resign from the presidency thus bringing an
end to his decade-long dictatorial rule. Ayub handed power over to the army chief, General Yahiya
Khan on March 25, 1969. Yahiya Khan abrogated the 1962 constitution the same day and imposed
martial law.

2.2.9 Discuss the salient features of 1973 Constitution;

Pakistan disintegrated in December 1971 in the wake of the Indo-Pakistan War and the East
Pakistanis revolt. Pakistan People’s Party which had won the second-largest number of seats in the
1970 General elections formed its government in the remaining part of the country. The Bhutto
regime drafted the constitution with additional support from opposition parties. The parliament
approved the constitution on April 10 and ratified it on August 14, 1973.

1. Unanimously agreed constitution

Unlike the 1962 and 1956 constitutions, the 1973 constitution was unanimously passed by the ruling
and opposition parties. Member assembly opposed the constitution.
 CH 3: COSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN

2. Federal-system of government

Pakistan would a federation of four provinces of Punjab, Sindh, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (then NWFP),
and Balochistan.

3. Parliamentary form of government

The 1973 Constitution provides a parliamentary form of government in Pakistan.

4. Two House Parliament/Bicameral Legislature

1973 Constitution provided a Two-House Parliament consisting of the lower house and upper house.

A. Lower House

The Lower House would be called National Assembly and the Upper House, the Senate. The National
Assembly would be directly elected by the people. The National Assembly has two important
functions, the formation of the government and legislation.

B. Upper House

The upper house would be called the senate. The representation in the Senate would be based on
parity which means an equal number of senators would be elected by all four provincial assemblies
in the country. The prime responsibility of the Senate is to review the acts made by the National
Assembly.

5. Head of the Executive and state

As part of the parliamentary form of government, the constitution provided that there would be two
separate posts of prime minister and the president.

A. Prime Minister

Prime Minister would be the head of the executive. He will be elected from among the members of
the National Assembly by the members of the national assembly. As head of the executive, he would
have the authority to choose his cabinet from among the members of the national assembly.

B. Head of the state

The president would be the head of the state. He will be elected by the national assembly. He should
be above 40 years of age and a Muslim. His position is symbolic. He could perform many functions at
the advice of the prime minister e.g. appointment of judges to Supreme Court of Pakistan and High
Courts, Vice Chancellors for Public sector universities, etc.

6. Flexible Constitution

According to this constitution, the two-thirds majority in the national assembly can amend or
introduce a new law in the constitution.
 CH 3: COSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN

7. High treason

The 1973 constitution provided capital punishments for committing the act of subverting and
abrogating the constitution of the country. According to article 6 of the constitution, such an act
would be an act of high treason subjected to the death penalty or life imprisonment.

8. Provision of fundamental rights

Fundamental rights such as the right to vote, the security of life and property, right to profess
religion, right to a fair trial, right not to be punished for the same crime again, freedom of
movement, freedom of assembly and association, right to choose the profession of one’s own
choice, freedom of speech, right to information, Free education and health care facilities for all
children, right to preserve one’s own culture, etc.

Islamic Provisions of the constitution

The following are the Islamic provisions that were provided in the 1972 constitution:

A. Objectives Resolution

Like that of the 1956 Constitution and the 1962 Constitution, Objectives Resolution is part of the
preamble of the constitution.

B. the Islamic Republic of Pakistan

According to the Constitution, Pakistan was named as the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. This feature
was common to the previous two constitutions also.

C. Definition of a Muslim

The 1973 Constitution provided the definition of a Muslim. According to the constitution, a person
would be Muslim if he believes in the oneness of Allah, in Quran as the last holy book, in the Day of
Judgment, and in Muhammad (PBUH) as the last prophet.

D. Islam as the state religion

Unlike the previous constitutions, The 1973 Constitution provided that Islam would be the state
religion.

E. Council of Islamic Ideology

The constitution provided for the setting up of a Council of Islamic Ideology which will give its advice
whether the existing or any new law made by the parliament is in accord with Islam or not.

2.2.10 compares the three constitutions of Pakistan in terms of their nature and features

The first constitution was promulgated in 1956, the second in 1962, and the third and current
constitution in 1973. As per the date of their promulgation, they are called the 1956 constitution,
 CH 3: COSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN

the 1962 constitution, and the 1973 Constitution respectively.

The 1956 Constitution lasted only for a couple of years and a few months as the then-president
Iskandar Mirza abrogated it by imposing the first Martial Law in the country. After four years of his
rule, Field Marshal Ayub Khan introduced the 1962 Constitution which remained enforced as long as
he was in power.

1. Similarities among the constitutions

All the three constitutions of 1956, 1962, and 1973 provided:

 Only a Muslim would be the head of the state and the executive;
 legislation in alignment with Islamic laws and repealing of laws repugnant to Islam;
 Objectives Resolution 1949 as part of the preamble;
 elections on basis of Universal suffrage and;
 That Pakistan would be named the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.

2. Differences among 1956, 1962, and 1973 constitutions

1956 constitution 1962 constitution 1973 constitution

 President would be more  It did not provide the post  The post of president would
powerful. He could choose of PM. be symbolic. He/she would
Prime Minister from  President was all powerful act only with the advice of
National Assembly. with the authority to the prime minister.
 He would also have the dismiss the national and  The prime minister would
power to dismiss PM, the provincial assemblies. be more powerful and
government, and the elected by the national
assembly. assembly.
 It provided the  It provided the presidential  Like that of 1956
parliamentary form of form of government. constitution, it also
government. provided a parliamentary
form of government
 It provided one house  It provided a unicameral  There would be two house
parliament/unicameral legislature called National parliament consisting of the
legislature. Assembly Senate (upper house) and
 There would be only a National Assembly (Lower
national assembly. House).
 Urdu and Bengali were  Urdu and Bengali were  Only Urdu was declared as
declared as National declared as national the national language as
languages languages Bengali-speaking East
Pakistan had seceded
from West Pakistan
 There was no provision  No provision regarding the  Provision of the definition
with regard to the definition of a Muslim of a Muslim. Under this
definition of a Muslim. definition,
 Qadiyanis were declared
non-Muslims in Pakistan
 CH 3: COSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN

 It provided that people  It provided that Basic  Like the 1956 constitution
will directly elect Democrats would act as an and unlike the 1962
members of the electoral college for the constitution, the 1973
national assembly. election of the president, the constitution provided that
national and provincial people would directly elect
assemblies. members of both national
and provincial assemblies
 Unlike the 1973  It also did not mention  Islam would be the official
constitution, there was religion Islam as the religion of the state
no mention of Islam as official religion of the
the official religion of state
the state.
 The minimum age limit  The minimum age limit of  The minimum age limit for
for the president would the president would be 35 the president would be 45
be 40 years. years. years.

2.2.11 Evaluate the steps taken towards Islamization in Pakistan with reference to 1956, 1962 and
1973 Constitutions;

(Separate document)

2.2.12 discuss the fundamental rights given in the Constitution of Pakistan 1973

Fundamental Rights in the 1973 Constitution of Pakistan

1. Security of person
2. Right to a fair trial
3. Freedom of speech.
4. Right to information.
5. Equality of citizens.
6. Freedom of association.
7. Right to education.
8. Freedom of assembly.
9. Freedom of movement.
10. Right to property.
11. Inviolability of dignity of man.
12. Protection of property rights.
13. Protection as to arrest and detention.
14. Freedom to choose any profession.
 CH 3: COSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN

15. Elimination of slavery forced labour.

16. Protection against retrospective punishment.
17. Preservation of language, script, and culture.
18. Safeguards against discrimination in services.
19. Non-discrimination in access to public places.
20. Protection against double punishment and self-incrimination.
21. Freedom to profess religion and manage religious institutions.
22. Safeguard against taxation in connection with any particular religion.
23. The right to set up educational religious institutions.

1973 provisions related to fundamental rights in Pakistan

Despite being a signatory of the UDHR, Pakistan has faced difficulties in the implementation of
fundamental rights. There is a myriad of issues that act as roadblocks on the way towards the
realization of these rights. Issues in the implementation of basic rights include corruption, terrorism,
etc. making it difficult to establish good governance.

Implementation of Fundamental Rights with reference to Pakistan

The constitution guarantees the treatment of minorities as equal and the same citizens of the state
treatment of minorities as equal and the same citizens of the state. But successive governments in
Pakistan have failed in providing them security and protection.

Moreover, the national history has witnessed a ruthless crackdown of political dissent leaving little
space for criticism and discourse. Enforced disappearances of the socio-politico activists, academics,
and journalists have become a rule rather than an exception. Critics get punished for their criticism
of government policies.

Access to education is one of the fundamental rights provided in the constitution. But, reports say 2
billion children are out of schools due to poverty, bonded labour, and shortage of educational
facilities. Similarly, Govt. should allow people to get together, assemble, and voice for their rights.
But, popular mass movements launched for the implementation of social justice are ruthlessly
crushed.

The constitution also guarantees the elimination of slavery, bonded labour, etc. But in the interior of
Sindh and Punjab, landlords still subject people working their lands to bonded labour and slavery.
They chain them in their personal jails in their failure to obey their order or act otherwise.

Likewise, safeguards to language, script, and culture are also a fundamental right. Disappointingly,
this provision is also only on papers without any practical implication. Only formalities have been
made with regard to the promotion and preservation of local languages many among which are at
the brink of being extinct.
 PAKISTAN STUDIES
NOTES
GRADE 12TH
(Economic Planning and Development in the Islamic Republic of Pakistan)
The term ‘economy’ refers to a set of activities related to the production and consumption of goods
and services and their exchange.

The production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services relate not only to industries as
many people usually think. This whole process takes place simultaneously in almost all departments
of life including agriculture, education, health, tourism, etc. For example, hospitals train nurses
through a rigorous process to equip them with hands-on skills necessary in health care service
delivery.

As evident from the example given above, this process does not happen on the moon and without
the participation of human beings. A combination of market transactions and hierarchical decision
making are involved in it rather. Individuals and entities i.e. governments, companies, and families
involve themselves in these activities.

The economy varies from region to region to region depending upon both social and natural factors.

Thus no two economies are similar as the factors influencing them are different. This difference in
factors also influences the choices and actions of the people involved in the process.

Inflation

By the term inflation, we mean a decrease in purchasing power of consumers because of the
increase in the prices of goods and services. We can also say that inflation refers to a steady decline
in purchasing power of a given currency over time.

In other words, the term economy also refers to an increase in purchasing power of money and a
decline in the prices of goods and services.

GDP

The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) refers to a monetary measure of the market value of all the final
goods and services produced in a period of time. More simply, the total values of goods and
services/wealth produced within the boundaries of a country.

GDP is one of the measures of economic growth of a nation. It helps determine the overall progress
and capacity of a country to produce wealth in one year.

GNP

The term GNP refers to the total net value of goods and services produced by the residents of a
country in a period of one year. Like that of GDP, GNP is another measure of a nation’s overall
progress and capacity of human resources in producing wealth in one year.

5.1.2
Discuss the importance and difference of GNP and GDP and how they are used in understanding
the economic situation of a country;
 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) Gross National Product (GNP)

The total value of goods and services GNP considers the total value of goods and services
producedwithin the borders of the state is both within and outside the borders ofthe state is
taken into account. considered

GNP does not include the output of foreign

GDP considers the output of both residents and
residents. Instead, it considers the output of only
foreigners
the citizens of the country.

GDP helps determine the potential and plan It guides in determining the potential to plan and
economic progress by making use of the natural maximize output by making better use of acountry’s
and human resources within the borders of a human resources both within and outside a
state. country.

The calculation of Gross National Product (GNP)

Foreign exchange and remittances are not
takes foreign exchange and remittancesinto
included in Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
account.

GDP is an indicator of the local or national

GNP represents how its nationals are contributing to
economy. It represents how both local and
the country’s economy. It factorsin citizenship but
foreign investment contributes to the
overlooks location.
country’seconomic growth.

Importance of GDP and GNP

Economists use both GDP and GNP as measures of the aggregate output of a country in one year.
They help determine the overall economic progress of a country in comparison with other states.
They tell us whether the economy is growing or contracting.

The governments use these calculations and numerical representation in economic, financial, and
monetary planning to drive local economic growth.

Economists and economic policy make use of GDP to compare different economies and as a key
input for making investment decisions in a country. Similarly, GNP gives an idea of how the
individuals of a state perform in economic growth – thereby informing the government to take
important measures to increase human resources within and outside the borders

5.1.3 Describe the importance of economic planning

Economic planning

Economic Planning refers to a mechanism set by a government to make economic decisions to

improve the economy of the country.
Or

Economic planning is the process of setting goals and priorities for a country's economy and
developing strategies to achieve them.

Importance of economic planning

It’s very rare to make progress through random activities that necessitate deliberate and organized
planning of the economy to better the economic conditions of a country. Economic planning is
important as it: provides a guide for action improves resource utilization, gives motivation.
Moreover, it sets out performance standards and allows flexibility to find alternatives ways if
needed.

Let’s discuss the importance of economic planning in different themes.

Guide for action

Economic planning directs the actions of the government towards the set economic objectives in a
coordinated and focussed manner. In other words, it set out a pathway, roadmap, or a vision to
pursue the set objectives in both short and long terms to follow. Hence, an economic plan gives a
direction to follow in order to attain economic stability.

Effective resource utilization

A government needs to make sure the resource utilization is effective. Without an economic plan,
there is no guarantee of effectiveness and efficiency. It can only be possible through an economic
plan which helps determine what resources are required where. Once done with this determination,
the authorities will bring into use all available resources effectively.

Setting performance standards

An economic plan made by a government also lays out standards to follow and benchmarks for
assessing when things are progressing and when they need correction.

Planning allows flexibility

While the government determines and prioritizes the objectives, the authorities sort out the
available resources. But the plan cannot be rigid providing no space for any change. It rather guides
in making decisions as to how to deploy the resources.

Motivation and commitment

Once the government makes a vibrant economic plan, it gets motivation and feels a sense of
commitment as the planning reduces the uncertainty of what to do. It rather informs about the
desired objectives and resource utilization in an informed manner.

In absence of proper planning, the motivation level of government would go down thereby resulting
in a politico-economic crisis in the country.
Equitable distribution of resources

One of the aims of an economic plan is equitable distribution of resources. In today’s era of the free
market, wealth is controlled by 2 percent people, the main reason for the economic disparity,
poverty, hunger, and other economic miseries.

This economic inequity demands governmental intervention through planned economic

development thus enabling it to ensure equitable distribution of resources as per the needs of the
people of all regions.

5.1.4 Evaluate the impacts of inflation on economy

The term inflation refers to a decrease in purchasing power of consumers because of an increase in
the prices of goods and services. In other words, it can also be denied as a decline in purchasing
power of a given currency over time.

Impact of inflation on the economy

Inflation can have both positive and negative effects on both individuals and on the economy as a
whole. Sometimes, it can be beneficial to the economic recovery if inflation occurs in a controlled
manner. But, when inflation becomes too high, the economy can suffer adversely.

A. Favourable impacts of inflation

Impact on producers:

Inflation may have a positive impact on the producers as they will earn more profit. The extra money
earned through an increase in prices will also lead to better investment returns for investors and
entrepreneurs. They receive incentives for investing in productive activities i.e. tax exemption,
grants, etc.

Increase in production:

The extra money that industrialists earn through inflation is invested in industrial production. An
increase in production will open doors for more jobs and better income.

Increase in the income of shareholders:

The key shareholders can earn a good income as they share the increased profit earned through
inflation. The companies as they get more profits they also share it with stakeholders.

Borrower related benefits:

Inflation benefits borrowers if they have borrowed money before the price hike. This happens
because the real value of the money returned by the borrower will be less than that of the current
one.
B. Unfavourable impacts of Inflation

Inflation adversely affects people of fixed-income Groups, e.g. salaried workers, employees,
pensioners, etc. As inflation increases, their income does not increase. Hence, they start
compromising on the quality of life.

1. Rise of inequality in income distribution:

High-income people can balance rising inflation with a correspondingly increased income. In
contrast, the lower-income people would have to suffer as there is hardly any proportional rise in
their income. Consequently, the lower-income households find themselves in poverty.

Moreover, rising inflation causes rising nominal interest rates as inflation leads to an increased
burden of real tax on interest income. This negative impact on interest income sometimes leads to
reduced interest in stocks. As a result, the stock exchange participation reduces as the investors
would fear losing their money.

Another impact on lower-income groups is a decrease in saving with an uncertain future ahead. They
would prefer to purchase consumer goods before their price further increase.

2. Disturbance in planning

Inflation creates uncertainty as to what extent the inflation rate will rise, thus discouraging
investment. At the level of lower-income groups, people start to spend and stock up items to cope
with the potential rise in price. This is how inflation also discourages money saving. This all suggests
that inflation disturbs economic planning at the individual, organizational and state-level.

3. Investment on basis of speculation

The rise in inflation lures many people into a speculative investment. People start buying shares,
residential buildings, plots that they will be able to sell with a high margin of profit when their prices
will spike.

The purpose behind such investment is profit earning on the fast track. Speculative investment is not
encouraged if we look at it from the broader economic perspective because it does not help create
productive capital.

4. Reduced growth of Capital

With the uncertainty of prices of goods and services, the general desire and capacity for capital
saving also reduce. In the case of investors, the capital available for future investment also
shrinks. Since capital accumulation depends on investment growth, it is negatively impacted during
periods of inflation.

5. Impact on money investors:

Unlike borrowers, money lenders e.g. individuals, credit societies, banks, etc. lose during the period
of inflation. Because money at the time of loaning has lost its value which we call inflation. Its
purchasing power has declined compared to the loaning time.
 6. Impact on foreign exchange earnings:

During the period of inflation, the value of industrial inputs i.e. raw material, power, labour,

5.2.1 Discuss the different economic policies introduced in mentioned regimes

5.2.2 Evaluate the impact of these economic policies on the country as a whole

What is an economic policy?

The term economic policy refers to a course of action adopted by the central government to
improve the economy of a country. In other words, economic policy is a set of guidelines set out to
influence or control activities for achieving economic stability.

The formulation, implementation, and administration of economic policy is a function of the central
government. These functions include decisions, e.g. taxation and spending, money supply,
redistribution of money from rich to poor, etc.

A. Ayub Khan’s economic policies

Main features of Ayub Khan’s economic policy important features of Ayub Khan’s economic policy
are as follows:

1. Liberalization and privatization

2. Reforms in the agricultural sector

3. Reforms in the industrial sector

Liberalization and privatization

Ayub Khan introduced partial liberalization in import policy. He restricted the import of consumer
goods which Pakistan itself manufactured. To encourage the private sector the military regime of
Ayub Khan provided exemption in both industrial and agricultural technology.

Impact of liberalization and privatization

The liberalization and privatization policy of Ayub Khan led to an increase in the money supply in the
country. The monetary expansion in the 1st economic plan (1955-60) amounted to almost Rs. 2 B
which saw an increase by almost Rs.3 B in the second economic plan (1960-65).

Similarly, the policy resulted in the expansion of bank credit both in the public and private sectors.
During the first plan, the bank credit amounted to Rs.1.62 Billion which was increased to Rs.4.77
Billion in the second economic plan.

Industrial policy

Under its industrial policy, Ayub Khan’s regime gave subsidies and tariff protection to industries. For
example, import controls imposed in 1955 with reference to industry-related raw material and
technology were removed.
Ayub Khan’s regime restricted certain categories of imports esp. consumer goods produced within
the country. It also exempted tariff duties on the import of industrial machinery. Moreover, to
encourage local manufacturers, the government gave cheap loans on easy terms of return.

Apart from the above provisions, the government also provided incentives to encourage the
production of exports. These incentives included:

1. The Bonus Voucher Scheme

2. Tax rebates

3. Tax exemptions

4. Increase in depreciation allowances

Impact of Industrial policy :

As a result of the industrial policy, economic growth saw a sharp increase. The average annual
growth rate reached 7% percent in the 1960s. This growth rate made Pakistan the fastest growing
economy in South Asia. Pakistan performed stood three times ahead of India in terms of economic
growth during the 1960s. Thus the economy of Pakistan significantly improved owing to an
unprecedented rapid rise in production.

Agricultural policy of Ayub Khan:

Introduction of new laws as part of Ayub Khan’s reforms and economic policy are discussed as
follows:

1. Land reforms and the elite farmer strategy in agriculture.

Ayub Khan’s military regime introduced elite farmer policy as bureaucrats, army officers and
capitalists could buy the extra lands taken over by the government as part of land reforms.

2. Upgrading and improving irrigation system

Two big dams, i.e. Tarbela and Marghal were constructed along with a number of barrages and
canals in the country.

3. Introduction of High Yielding Variety Seeds and fertilizers

Ayub Khan provided the High Yielding Variety of Seeds and fertilizers at a discounted rate to
increase soil fertility and agricultural productivity.

4. Mechanization of Agriculture/factorization

In order to get more output, the technology was also introduced as ‘factorization’. It further made
easier work for farmers. It saved time, money and proved efficient.
Easy credit:

As part of the larger plan of giving incentives to the farmers, the Agricultural development bank of
Pakistan gave a credit policy to farmers. For example, the government started the tube wells project
under which farmers received loans to be returned on easy instalment.

Impact of the agricultural policy:

The construction of dams, barrages, and canals brought huge tracks of irrigated land under
irrigation resulting in rising in crop cultivation. Mechanization of farming, the introduction of High
Yielding Variety (HYV) Seeds, Use of fertilizers, etc. coupled with a boosted irrigation system resulted
in an unprecedented increase in efficiency, time-saving farming practice, and rise in agricultural
productivity.

The increase in crop farming helped meet the food needs of an increasing population at that time. It
is because of this increase in crop production that the time period 1958-1968 is called the Green
Revolution.

Impact of Land reforms

Although some people benefited, the powerful landlords managed to hang on to most of their vast
landholdings. The little land that landlords gave up was in reality poor in quality and unproductive.
The tenants could not benefit from the policy giving the first right to buy the land as they did not
have money. Those who could buy the land included bureaucrats, army officers, and businessmen
who had money. This was an emergence of a new class that now had huge capital on one hand and
as well agricultural land on the other hand.

ZULFIQAR ALI BHUTTO ECONOMIC POLICIES:

Main features of Bhutto’s Economic Policy

The economic policy of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto was characterized by two important reforms of the
nationalization and land reforms as discussed below.

Nationalization of institutions

So what does the term nationalization refer to?

The term nationalization refers to placing private sector institutions e.g. industries,

Hospitals, insurance companies, banks, etc. under governmental control. In other words, it

Is a process in which private ownership of assets is taken over by public ownership.

Why did Bhutto introduce the policy of nationalization in Pakistan?

Bhutto regime adopted the policy of nationalization with an aim to

1. Take control of industrial production and promote industrialization through proper utilization of
funds;

2. Enhance the living standard and working conditions of the workers, including the provision of
cheap housing for public sector employees;

3. Provide the workers with the right to form their unions to prevent anti-worker policy or
measures;

4. End the economic disparity and inequality that had enabled a handful of elite people to own a
lion’s share of industrial wealth. According to different accounts, there were twenty industrial
houses in the country that owned 65% of Pakistan’s large-scale industry. This small yet powerful elite
class influenced the successive governments as they funded other reforms.

5. Last but not the least; Z. A. Bhutto wanted to raise the popularity of his political party among the
urban people who formed a major part of his political support.

The institutions that Bhutto nationalized

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto brought almost all major industries, schools, banks, insurance companies under
government control.

The nationalized industries included all major metal (iron, steel) industries, heavy engineering, and
electrical, petrochemicals, cement, etc. In addition, he nationalized the cotton, rice, vegetable oil,
and sugar industries. Similarly, he nationalized major banks, insurance companies, and schools
throughout the country.

In all, there were 70 major industrial units that the Bhutto brought under public control. The
Federal Ministry of Production coordinated and administered the nationalized industries
Throughout the county.

Impact of nationalization:

The nationalization as part of Bhutto’s economic policy had both positive and negative impacts on
the economy of Pakistan.

The reforms were put into effect without a proper plan and prior preparation. As a result, the
federal ministry of production had to face difficulty to coordinate the nationalization process
throughout the country. The process was very slow and at times stopped because of the lack of
bureaucratic readiness and expertise.

Favourable Impacts of nationalization.

By the end of the 1960s and in the wake of the 1971 breakup, Pakistan witnessed a spike in the
inflation rate which was more than 10%. Bhutto’s nationalization policy however was successful in
bringing inflation to 6% in 1976.

The reforms were introduced at a time when the world was facing a global recession. Companies all
over the world faced declining demand for their goods due to the reduced purchasing power of
people. Consequently, major companies had to face closures as they could not afford to pay their
employees and operate at a loss.

In such a fragile economic situation, the private sector enterprises in Pakistan also would have
closed but the nationalized industries in the country continued to operate. As a result of the
persistent operation of the industries, the economic growth of Pakistan also began to improve.

Land Reforms

The term land reforms refer to changes brought into the laws with reference to land holding,
tenancy, etc. Popular land reforms are characterized by changes in laws, regulations regarding land
ownership. That is, who will have how much land for the cultivation of crops.

The term ‘land reforms’ also refers to the transfer of ownership from a powerful to less

Powerful. The government usually pays a reasonable compensation to the landowners from

whom it takes the land.

The land reforms as part of Bhutto’s economic policy

Bhutto’s reforms were an attempt to transfer land ownership from a few landlords possessing
extensive land holdings to the landless peasants, tenants, etc.

Bhutto’s land reforms were as follows:

 A person would own a maximum of 250 acres of irrigated and 500 acres of un-irrigated land.
 The government would take over the extra land and sell it to the smaller peasants to make
better profits.
 Similarly, the people without land would also be able to buy the land on easy terms from the
government.
 The reforms provided ‘the first right of purchase of land’ to the tenants.

Impact of land reforms:

Had the land reforms implemented as per policy, the fate of Pakistan would have changed with a
paradigm shift. They have changed the fate of the people and Pakistan. It would no longer be a
feudal state.

Furthermore, the security of tenure would have ensured that the landowner could not enjoy the
free hand to evict the peasants who have a chance to have their own land.

Manipulation by land lands

Bhutto’s land reforms could not materialize because of a myriad of problems. The landlords had
anticipated the future reforms and had taken pre-emptive measures to retain control of their land.
For that, they adopted such measures which you could not legally challenge them. For instance,
many feudal had transferred their lands to people in the extended family.
Similarly, some had transferred their landholding to trusted tenants to retain the actual control in
their hands. Many others used their personal influence and bribed the official to ignore any violation
of the new law.

Security of Tenure

The term security of tenure refers to the protection enjoyed by a tenant against any eviction before
the agreed time period for which he had rented the land from the landlord.

Unlike the previous times, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto provided security of tenure to the peasants and
tenants. Unfortunately, this important reform too did not take a practical shape for a number of
reasons. One of the major reasons was that the landowners were still very influential. If a
landowner did not want to sell his land to a tenant, the latter could not stand up to him.

Furthermore, the tenant did not have the finances to buy the land. Even if some tenants arranged
the money, the tenant would still lack funds to fight a legal case. Many of the feudal lords also
managed to influence the authorities to show the land cultivated by tenants as owner-cultivated.

ZIA UL HAQ ECONOMIC POLICIES:

The salient features of Zia-ul-Haq’s economic policy were as follows:

1. Privatization

General Zia ul Haq reversed the nationalization process undertaken by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto. He
returned the nationalized institutions i.e. industries, banks, schools, etc. companies to their former
owners. Moreover, he introduced laws banning nationalization in the future.

The military regime provided fiscal and non-fiscal incentives to encourage private companies to
invest in the country. Moreover, he drew a clear line between the public and private sectors and
provided tax concessions.

The incentives and the constitutional guarantees provided against future nationalization by the
military regime led to the improvement in the overall investment climate.

2. Liberalization

The term liberalization refers to the loosening of government controls. In particular, it refers to
reductions in restrictions on international trade and the flow of capital across the state
borders. Unlike Bhutto, Zia-ul-Haq switched over to the liberalization of the economy. That is he
adopted a market-based development strategy in all departments of national life.

3. Establishment of industrial zones

Zia established industrial zones intending to create attraction for foreign investment and in-flow of
modern-day technology from the developed world. Moreover, the industrial zones helped create
increased employment opportunities and enhance management skills. They were also aimed at
encouraging the manufacturers and providing them with an environment free from taxes i.e. export
and import duties.

The establishment of industrial zones did not turn out to be advantageous as the output was
Not encouraging. Contrary to the expectations, the goods exported from the zone were relatively
small scale.
4. Islamization of the economy (Zakat and Ushr Tax)

Zia-ul-Haq attempted to set the economic system of Pakistan on the economic model of Islam. Zia
According to the ordinance, the government deducted 2.5% of the balance from the bank accounts
annually. In every village and town, Zia set up Zakat Committees consisting of his loyalists to
distribute the collected amount among the poor and needy.

Similarly, the Usher was an agricultural tax imposed on farmers. They were liable to pay 5 % of their
agricultural productivity as part of Ushr Tax.

The impact of Zia-ul-Haq’s Economic Policy on Pakistan

According to the political economists, the Zia-ul-Haq period saw relatively a high and sustained rate
of the economy under Zia enjoyed a high and economic sustained growth rate. For instance, the
average economic growth rate increased to 6.6 % per year whereas the inflation rate kept reducing
during 1977 and 1978.

As a result of this rise in economic growth, the country saw a broad sharing of the economic benefits
at different levels. For example, the Zia period witnessed an increase in real wages leading towards
poverty reduction.

MUSHARRAF’S ECONOMIC POLICIES:

Main features of Pervez Musharraf’s economic policies

The salient features of Musharraf’s economic policy included liberalization, privatization, foreign
direct investment, industrialization, improvement of irrigation and transportation system.

1. Liberalization

General Pervez Musharraf introduced the Economic Regulations Program (ERP) with a view to
liberalize the national economy according to the requirements of the World Trade Organization
(WTO).

Under this program, the Musharraf regime opened the economy for international trade and foreign
direct investment. For this purpose, the government brought a rapid reduction in both export and
import duties. He removed quota, surcharges, and other regulatory duties related to imports.

By the end of the year 2007, the Musharraf regime had sold out 80% of the banking industry into
private ownership. Likewise, the government sold out a number of shares of Pakistan International
Airlines (PIA) plus other major corporations into the private sector.

Impact of privatization:
The privatization initiated by the military resulted in a rapid increase in economic growth right from
the beginning. For instance, Musharraf had started his privatization process in 2003. By the end of
the year 2004, the economic growth was at a range of 8.90 to 9%. However, the average growth
rate for the subsequent years till 2007 remained at 6.4-8.6%, a relatively significant improvement in
retrospect.

As Musharraf privatized more and more institutions, the number of major public sector
organizations started to shrink.

Another immediate positive effect that the country saw as a result of the privatization was a sharp
drop in the inflation rate. For instance, it fell to 3.5% which was above 10% before the privatization
program started.

3. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)

The term Foreign Direct Investment refers to an investment that an individual or a company makes
in business interests located in another country. More simply, one can say, “FDI refers to the
investment by an individual or company in business interests located in a foreign country”.

The investor may have his own business or he may purchase business assets or shares of a company
in a foreign state. Sometimes, people confuse the concept of Foreign Direct Investment with
Portfolio investment. In reality, they are two different concepts and business approaches. In contrast
to FDI, an investor merely purchases equities of foreign-based companies.

Encouragement of Foreign Direct Investment in Pakistan:

According to a Dawn News report, the Musharraf regime encouraged Foreign Direct Investment as
part of its economic policy. In this regard, development was made in two sectors of oil & Gas and
Telecommunication. The government failed to attract and diversify the FDI inflows in other sectors.

4. Liberalization

Musharraf opened the economy to the outside world. To encourage foreign and local investment,
the military regime provided a number of incentives to the investors.

A. Tariff reduction and removal

Musharraf reduced from 80% to 25% the tariff on both export and import items. Similarly, in 2005,
the government removed tariffs on items of different kinds i.e. sugar, vegetables, livestock,
cement. Moreover, the government removed the licensing conditions and government monopoly in
imports as a formal requirement. Tariffs that were considered as a source of revenue for the
government were replaced by tax administration reforms.

B. Free provision of land

Musharraf provided free-of-cost land on lease for a period of 10 years. Similarly, the government
also provided security of life and property to foreign companies and individual investors.

C. Trade agreements
 In order to materialize the policy of liberalization, the military regime of Musharraf signed regional
and bilateral agreements with 46 countries. The agreements signed were aimed at promoting and
safeguarding the investment. In this regard, Pakistan also signed the South Asian Free Trade
Agreement (SAFTA) in 2004 to promote regional trade.

Impact of foreign direct investment

Pakistan had received more than five billion dollars in 2007 and witnessed a record increase in
foreign reserves. The inflow of dollars that country witnessed helped in improving the balance of
payment (Trade deficit).

With increased investment, industrialization was encouraged. Increased industrialization led to the
increase in commerce and business activities that in turn created more and more job opportunities.

The economy seemed to have boomed. The economy was the third fastest-growing after India and
China. In 2007 and 2008, Pakistan received a revenue collection of Rs. 1.002 Billion. This was a
record increase and helped increase foreign reserves and improve the balance of trade.

5. Encouragement towards the production of value-added goods

Musharraf encouraged the manufacturers to produce value added products so that smart earning of
foreign exchange could be ensured.

In this regard, he allotted land around Port Qasim for the establishment of industries to facilitate
quick transport of goods and reducing time and transport cost that could have been consumed while
transporting from a faraway place. Moreover, the government provided exemption in duties on the
export of value-added goods. Major Industrial estates were being developed under Musharraf’s
vision: M3 industrial, Sundar industrial estate, Chakri industrial, etc.

Impact:

The manufacture of value-added products led to the increase in foreign exchange earnings and
improvement in the balance of trade. According to the Economic Survey 2005, poverty decreased by
10.56% between 2001 and 2005. The GDP per Capita increased to $1000 in 2007. The industrial
sector registered 26 percent growth. A historic 100% increase in tax collection (amounting to Rs. 1
trillion) was observed. Exports in 2007 were worth $18.5 billion where Textile exports in 2007 were
worth $11.2 billion.

6. Improvement in irrigation

Pakistan is basically an agricultural country. Crop cultivation completely depends on irrigation. The
main source of irrigation is River Indus and its tributaries that drain Indus plain throughout Sindh and
Punjab.

Unfortunately, Pakistan has been observing a continuous shrinkage in the water volume with the
passage of time. To fix this issue of water shortage, the Musharraf regime built five dams i.e. Mirani
Dam, Sabakzai Dam, Gomalzam Dam, Khurram Dam, Tangi Dam. With these interventions,
Musharraf was able to address water-related issues to a greater extent.
 7. Improvement in transportation

Pervez Musharraf also took measures to improve the transportation system of Pakistan. There were
seven motorways completed or under construction by the time of Musharraf’s resignation in 2008.
Similarly, it was during the Musharraf period that Gwadar Port developed as an advanced seaport.

Impact of transport up-gradation:

Musharraf’s interventions in the transportation system of the country brought a reduction in traffic
congestion and travel time. Now people could travel more distance in less time.

Moreover, it helped increase commerce and business activities which are primarily dependent upon
efficient transportation systems. The development of motorways helped decrease transportation
costs and travel time.

Demerits of Musharraf’s economic policy

The greatest demerits of Musharraf’s economic policy was that the poor section of the population
little benefitted from the pick-up in the economic growth rate. The beneficiaries of the phenomenal
increase in the GDP were still the affluent and industrial class.

This was because of the fact that the sectors seeing the growth had little to do with the low-income
people. For instance, Foreign Direct Investment provided a boom to the real state sector which is
not a job-creating sector

5.2.3 analyse these policies in terms of their merits and demerits

1. Ayub Khan Era (1958-1969) Merits:

 The industrialization policies of Ayub Khan led to the growth of large-scale
manufacturing industries in Pakistan, such as textiles, cement, and steel.
 The land reforms of Ayub Khan helped to redistribute land to landless peasants and
reduce income inequalities.
 The Green Revolution program introduced by Ayub Khan increased agricultural
productivity and helped Pakistan becomes self-sufficient in food production.

Demerits:

 The industrialization policies of Ayub Khan focused mainly on large-scale

industries, which neglected the development of small-scale and cottage
industries.
 The land reforms of Ayub Khan faced implementation challenges and
resistance from landed elites, which limited their effectiveness.
 The economic growth during the Ayub Khan era was uneven, with regional
disparities and a widening income gap between the rich and poor.
 2. Bhutto Era (1971-1977) Merits:
 The nationalization of industries under Bhutto aimed to reduce the concentration of
wealth in the hands of a few elites and promote the interests of workers.
 The introduction of labour laws under Bhutto provided better working conditions
and job security for workers.
 The establishment of Pakistan Steel Mills and other heavy industries aimed to
develop the domestic industrial base.

Demerits:

 The nationalization of industries under Bhutto led to inefficiencies and corruption in

state-owned enterprises, which were poorly managed and suffered from lack of
investment.
 The labour laws introduced under Bhutto led to an increase in labour disputes and
strikes, which disrupted production and reduced economic growth.
 The government's economic policies during the Bhutto era led to a decline in private
investment and a inactivity of the economy.
3. Zia-ul-Haq Era (1977-1988) Merits:
 The liberalization policies of Zia-ul-Haq aimed to reduce state intervention in the
economy and promote market-oriented reforms.
 The introduction of incentives for foreign investment led to an increase in foreign
direct investment in Pakistan.
 The deregulation of industries and removal of trade barriers aimed to increase
competition and improve the efficiency of markets.

Demerits:

 The liberalization policies of Zia-ul-Haq resulted in an increase in income inequality

and a widening gap between the rich and poor.
 The reduction of state intervention in the economy led to a neglect of the social
sector, particularly health and education.
 The economic policies during the Zia-ul-Haq era led to a significant increase in
external debt and a balance of payments crisis in the late 1980s.
4. Musharraf Era (1999-2008) Merits:
 The privatization policies of Musharraf aimed to reduce the role of the state in the
economy and improve the efficiency of state-owned enterprises.
 The economic policies of Musharraf aimed to increase revenue collection and
reduce the budget deficit

5.2.4 list the Millennium Developmental Goals (MDGs) and Sustainable Developmental Goals (SDGs)
signed by Pakistan
 Pakistan signed both the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) to promote sustainable development and eradicate poverty.
Here is the list of the MDGs and SDGs signed by Pakistan:

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs):

1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

2. Achieve universal primary education
3. Promote gender equality and empower women
4. Reduce child mortality
5. Improve maternal health
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
7. Ensure environmental sustainability
8. Develop a global partnership for development

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs):

1. No Poverty
2. Zero Hunger
3. Good Health and Well-being
4. Quality Education
5. Gender Equality
6. Clean Water and Sanitation
7. Affordable and Clean Energy
8. Decent Work and Economic Growth
9. Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure
10. Reduced Inequalities
11. Sustainable Cities and Communities
12. Responsible Consumption and Production
13. Climate Action
14. Life Below Water
15. Life on Land
16. Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
17. Partnerships for the Goals

Pakistan has committed to achieving these goals by implementing policies and programs that
promote sustainable development, reduce poverty, and improve the lives of its citizens

5.3.1 Discuss the current education policy of Pakistan;

The health policy of Pakistan is aimed at improving the health status of the population, enhancing
access to quality healthcare services, and reducing health inequalities. The current health policy of
Pakistan was launched in 2017 and has the following main features:

Universal Health Coverage:

The policy aims to provide Universal Health Coverage (UHC) to all citizens of Pakistan. This includes
access to essential health services, medicines, and vaccines, without the risk of financial hardship.
Primary Healthcare: The policy emphasizes the importance of primary healthcare and aims to
strengthen the primary healthcare system in the country. This includes enhancing the capacity of
primary healthcare facilities and improving the skills of healthcare workers.

Disease Prevention and Control: The policy focuses on disease prevention and control through
effective surveillance, early detection, and timely response to outbreaks of infectious diseases. It also
aims to reduce the burden of non-communicable diseases such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases.

Health System Strengthening: The policy aims to strengthen the health system by improving the
infrastructure, equipment, and human resource capacity of healthcare facilities. It also aims to improve
the efficiency and effectiveness of the health system through better governance, management, and
financing.

Health Promotion: The policy recognizes the importance of health promotion in improving the health
status of the population. It aims to promote healthy lifestyles, improve nutrition, and reduce
environmental risk factors that contribute to poor health.

Public-Private Partnerships: The policy encourages public-private partnerships to improve the delivery
of healthcare services in the country. This includes partnerships with the private sector to provide
healthcare services in underserved areas and partnerships with international organizations to
strengthen the health system.

5.4.2 Discuss different problems faced by the health sector in Pakist

The health sector in Pakistan faces several challenges that impede the delivery of quality
healthcare services to the population. Here are some of the key problems faced by the
health sector in Pakistan:

1. Inadequate Infrastructure: The health sector in Pakistan suffers from a lack of adequate
infrastructure, including hospitals, clinics, and diagnostic facilities. This leads to
overcrowding in public hospitals and a shortage of medical equipment, making it difficult to
provide quality healthcare services.

2. Shortage of Healthcare Workers: There is a shortage of qualified healthcare workers in

Pakistan, especially in rural areas. This shortage is due to the low number of medical
colleges and inadequate training facilities, resulting in a limited number of healthcare
professionals available to serve the population.

3. Poor Quality of Care: The quality of healthcare services in Pakistan is poor, with many
healthcare providers lacking adequate training and skills. Patients often receive inadequate
treatment or misdiagnosis, leading to complications and poor health outcomes.

4. Insufficient Health Financing: The health sector in Pakistan suffers from insufficient
financing, with a low budget allocated to healthcare by the government. This limits the
capacity of healthcare facilities to provide quality services and leads to a lack of investment
in health infrastructure and human resources.

5. Inadequate Access to Medicines: Access to essential medicines is limited in Pakistan due to

the high cost of drugs and a lack of regulation of the pharmaceutical industry. This creates
 barriers to accessing necessary treatments and contributes to the burden of disease in the
country.

6. Health Inequalities: There are significant health inequalities in Pakistan, with disparities in
health outcomes across different regions, genders, and socio-economic groups. This results
in a lack of equitable access to healthcare services, with marginalized communities
experiencing poorer health outcomes.

5.4.3 Suggest solutions for the problems faced by the health sector in Pakistan.

1. Increase Investment in Health Infrastructure: The government should increase investment

in health infrastructure to improve the availability of healthcare services. This includes
building new hospitals and clinics, expanding existing facilities, and providing necessary
medical equipment and supplies.

2. Improve Human Resource Capacity: The government should invest in training and
education programs to increase the number of healthcare workers in the country. This
includes increasing the number of medical colleges and nursing schools, providing
scholarships for students, and incentivizing healthcare professionals to work in underserved
areas.

3. Enhance the Quality of Care: The government should implement measures to improve the
quality of care provided by healthcare facilities. This includes providing continuous training
and education for healthcare professionals, establishing and enforcing quality standards,
and monitoring and evaluating the performance of healthcare facilities.

4. Increase Health Financing: The government should increase the budget allocated to
healthcare to improve the availability and quality of healthcare services. This includes
increasing funding for health infrastructure, human resources, and medicines, and exploring
innovative financing mechanisms such as public-private partnerships.

5. Improve Access to Medicines: The government should regulate the pharmaceutical industry
to ensure that essential medicines are available and affordable. This includes setting price
controls, reducing taxes and tariffs on medicines, and encouraging the production of generic
drugs.

6. Address Health Inequalities: The government should implement measures to address

health inequalities by improving access to healthcare services for marginalized communities.
This includes increasing the availability of healthcare services in underserved areas,
providing targeted health interventions for vulnerable groups, and promoting health
education and awareness.

5.3.1 Discuss the current education policy of Pakistan;

In Pakistan, the federal government is responsible for setting education policy, while the
provincial governments are responsible for implementing it. The National Education Policy
Framework (NEPF) 2017-2025 is the latest education policy framework in Pakistan. The
 NEPF aims to improve the quality of education, increase access to education, and promote a
uniform education system across the country.

Some of the key features of the NEPF include:

1. Increase in Education Spending: The NEPF aims to increase education spending to 4% of

GDP, which is higher than the previous spending.

2. Universal Access to Education: The policy aims to ensure that every child has access to
education from pre-primary to secondary education.

3. Quality Education: The policy aims to improve the quality of education by developing a
national curriculum, improving teacher training, and monitoring student performance.

4. Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET): The policy emphasizes the
importance of TVET to develop a skilled workforce that can contribute to the country's
economy.

5. Higher Education: The policy aims to promote research and innovation in higher education
institutions and increase access to higher education.

6. Education for All: The policy aims to ensure that children from marginalized communities,
including girls, children with disabilities, and children from rural areas, have access to
education.

5.3.2 discuss the efforts of Government to improve the education standard with reference to
EFA (Education for All) Program;

The Education for All (EFA) program is a global initiative launched by UNESCO in 2000 to
ensure that all children have access to basic education. The program has been adopted by
the Government of Pakistan, and several efforts have been made to improve the education
standard in the country. Here are some of the initiatives taken by the government in the
context of the EFA program:

1. National Education Policy: The government has formulated a National Education Policy that
provides a comprehensive framework for improving the education sector in Pakistan. The
policy aims to increase the enrolment rate, improve the quality of education, and reduce
the gender gap in education.

2. Universal Primary Education: The government has prioritized the provision of Universal
Primary Education (UPE) as a key component of the EFA program. The government has
launched several initiatives, such as the National Plan of Action for Education for All (NPA-
2001-2015), to increase the enrolment rate and improve the quality of education at the
primary level.

3. Millennium Development Goals: The government has aligned its efforts to improve the
education standard with the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) that aim to ensure
universal primary education and gender equality in education. The government has
 launched several initiatives, such as the Girls' Primary School Project, to increase the
enrolment rate of girls in schools.

4. Education Sector Reforms: The government has initiated several education sector reforms
to improve the quality of education in Pakistan. These include the establishment of the
National Curriculum Council, the National Education Assessment System, and the National
Professional Standards for Teachers.

5. Public-Private Partnerships: The government has encouraged public-private partnerships to

improve the education standard in Pakistan. The government has launched several
initiatives, such as the Public-Private Partnership in Education, to increase the enrolment
rate and improve the quality of education at all levels.

5.3.3 discuss different problems faced by the education sector in Pakistan

1. Low literacy rates: Pakistan has one of the lowest literacy rates in the world. According to
UNESCO, the adult literacy rate in Pakistan was 60% in 2020, with a significant gender gap
between male and female literacy rates.

2. Poor quality of education: Despite the increase in the number of schools and enrolment rates,
the quality of education remains low. The majority of public schools lack basic facilities such as
clean drinking water, toilets, and electricity. Additionally, many teachers are untrained and
unqualified, leading to inadequate teaching and learning outcomes.

3. Gender disparity: Pakistan has a significant gender gap in education. Girls are less likely to
attend school and complete their education, and they often face barriers such as child marriage,
poverty, and cultural norms that prioritize boys' education over girls.

4. Inadequate funding: The education sector in Pakistan is severely underfunded. The government
spends only 2.2% of its GDP on education, which is much lower than the recommended 4% to 6%
by UNESCO. The lack of funding has led to a shortage of resources, low teacher salaries, and
inadequate infrastructure.

5. Out-dated curriculum: The education system in Pakistan follows an outdated curriculum that
does not adequately prepare students for the modern workforce. The curriculum is often
criticized for being too focused on rote learning and not emphasizing critical thinking, creativity,
and problem-solving skills.

6. Political interference: The education sector in Pakistan is often influenced by political

interference, which hinders the development of a consistent and effective education policy.
Political leaders often prioritize their own interests over the long-term development of the
education sector.

5.3.4 Suggest solutions for the problems faced by the education sector in Pakistan;

1. Increase investment in education: The government should increase its investment in the
education sector and allocate a larger share of its budget for education. The funding should be
used to improve infrastructure, train teachers, and provide better resources for students.
2. Improve teacher training: Teachers play a crucial role in improving the quality of education.
Therefore, the government should prioritize teacher training programs that focus on improving
teaching techniques and pedagogy. Teachers should also be incentivized to pursue further
education and training.

3. Develop a modern curriculum: The current curriculum is out-dated and does not adequately
prepare students for the modern workforce. The government should revise the curriculum to
include modern skills such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and technology skills. The
curriculum should also be inclusive and gender-sensitive.

4. Promote gender equality: Gender disparity is a significant challenge in the education sector.
The government should promote policies that ensure equal access to education for girls and
boys. This includes investing in infrastructure such as toilets and safe transportation for girls and
providing incentives for families to send their daughters to school.

5. Encourage private sector involvement: The private sector can play a significant role in
improving the quality of education. The government should encourage private sector
involvement by providing incentives such as tax breaks and subsidies. This will increase the
number of schools and improve the quality of education.

6. Ensure political stability and continuity: Political interference can hinder the development of a
consistent and effective education policy. Therefore, the government should ensure political
stability and continuity by depoliticizing the education sector and creating an independent
education commission.
 CHAPTER 6: NATIONAL INTEGRATION AND PROSPERITY
GRADE: 12TH

SLO 6.1.1 Explain the term ‘national cohesion and integration’

National Integration:
The term ‘national integration’ refers to the process of binding a people of society into one
nation, creating a homogenous environment or harmony among citizens irrespective of
caste, colour, race, religion within the country and a sense of national peace.
To put it in simple words, the term ‘national integration refers to the unity developed
among people based on political and economic interests.

National Cohesion:

The term national cohesion refers to a sense or a feeling of belonging to the same nation or
group, community, etc. In a country like Pakistan, people may belong to different regions,
communities, races, languages, etc. but they act as one nation because of already existing
common factors, e.g. religion, common history, common geography, common language, etc.
Thus promotion of national cohesion is possible only through the reconciliation of already
existing differences and promotion of already existing common factors.

SLO 6.1.3
Importance of national cohesion and integration for the socio-economic development of
Pakistan
 A country without national integration is a country without social cohesion and a
sense of belongingness. A country is often implied as a country with a failed socio-
political economy
 National integration and national cohesion act as complements and supplements for
each other. The latter is strongest when citizens have equal opportunity and access
to resources and the motivation to participate in national life.
 National integration and cohesion promote political stability in a country which is
very important for socio-economic development. Similarly, the daily business of life
in education, health, industries, agriculture, trade, and commerce, etc. can only be
smoothly run in peace. Thus Socio-economic development cannot be achieved in
times of anarchy, conflict, and tension.
 On the contrary, ensuring equitable distribution of resources, due to political and
economic rights enhances national integration. This results in a happy public with a
strong sense of patriotism and sacrifice for the state.
 CHAPTER 6: NATIONAL INTEGRATION AND PROSPERITY
GRADE: 12TH

SLO 6.1.2
Factors enhancing national cohesion and integration in Pakistan

1. Dispensation of the due economic and political rights

Provision of the due economic and political rights of people of different regions is the key
factor in the promotion of national unity. Pakistan is a federation in which the federating
units are a part of this agreement that their due share in finances; political representation,
etc. would be safeguarded.

2. Promotion of Urdu as the national language

Urdu is the national language of Pakistan. It is the lingua franca of Pakistan and has been
playing an important role in connecting people as one nation. Urdu is a neutral language for
people in Pakistan as it is the first language of none of the people of any region of Pakistan
but people of all regions can speak and understand it. This is because Urdu contains a huge
vocabulary of all local languages and share similarity to a great extent.

3. Promotion of common cultural values

Pakistan is a multicultural nation. Nevertheless, these cultures share many important
cultural values, symbols, and components. These common cultural aspects can be projected
and promoted to enhance national cohesion and integration among the people of Pakistan.

4. Promotion of common cultural aspects i.e. Islamic values.

Islam is the dominant religion in Pakistan. 97% of people are Muslims. This Muslim
population contains not one school of thought. Two main sects of Islam and then their sub-
sects live in Pakistan. Although they have principled differences with each other in their
practices.
The common religions Islam can bind them together as has been the case for the last 72
years. Promoting and projecting common Islamic values and beliefs as part of national life
rather than imposing one school of thought on the other can help promote national
integration and cohesion.

5. Inclusion of people from all parts of Pakistan in national teams

Provision of equal opportunities irrespective of region, race, and religion in the personal and
collective fulfilment can enhance national unity. For example, in the Pakistani cricket team,
you won’t find people from interior Sindh, Balochistan, AJK, and GB. People of these areas
have cultivated a sense of alienation with the state for its discriminatory approach.
 CHAPTER 6: NATIONAL INTEGRATION AND PROSPERITY
GRADE: 12TH
Importance of national cohesion and integration

1. A guarantee to socio-economic development

A country without national integration is a country without social cohesion and a sense of
belongingness. A country is often implied as a country with a failed socio-political economy.
National integration and cohesion promote political stability in a country which is very
important for socio-economic development. Similarly, the daily business of life in education,
health, industries, agriculture, trade, and commerce, etc. can only be smoothly run in peace.
Thus Socio-economic development cannot be achieved in times of anarchy, conflict, and
tension.

2. Best solution for the threat of provincialism

The elements looking for excuses to use the provincial cards for their politics when people
of a particular province are discriminated against by a central government. In Pakistan,
provincialism has been a big issue that led to the disintegration of the country in 1971.
To promote national integration simply means to ensure the protection of politico-
economic rights and interests of people of different regions, communities, etc. This result in
an end to the bitterness and reservations created among people of different provinces thus
putting an end to the menace of provincialism.

3. Protection of civil liberties and human rights

The lack of national integration is often a result of the denial of the fundamental human,
political and economic rights of people of one or more than me regions. The marginalization
of forced isolation from the mainstream development leads to rebellion characterized by
insurgencies which in turn leads to operations and conflicts. In such a situation, sheer
violation the fundamental human rights and civil liberties is committed.

4. Protection against anti-state activities

As mentioned in the above lines, denial of politico-economic rights and interests of a
specific group of people can lead to national disintegration rather than any unity among the
people. Moreover, it may also result in political and communal conflict arise which
ultimately takes the shape of separatist and terrorist movements. Therefore, it is very
important to promote political, communal, and regional pluralism which serves as a bulwark
against insurgencies, separatist movement, and terrorism.

5. Creation of a unified approach against external threats

 CHAPTER 6: NATIONAL INTEGRATION AND PROSPERITY
GRADE: 12TH
As a matter of fact, all nations have friends and enemies like that of a man. These external
enemies of a state always try to exploit the sentiments of the people of politically and
economically oppressed regions. The persistent politico-economic subjugation coupled with
torture, mass murder, etc. may force people to take support of the enemy countries as a
last resort and in an attempt to get freedom.
On the contrary, ensuring equitable distribution of resources, due to political and economic
rights enhances national integration. This results in a happy populace with a strong sense of
patriotism and sacrifice for the state. Thus promotion of national unity is very important to
do away with external threats faced by the state

SLO 6.2.1
Analyse the problems associated with building national cohesion and integration in
Pakistan
National integration has remained an issue in almost all post-colonial countries including
Pakistan. Unlike the developed world, the under-developed nations do not adopt planned
policies and strategies acceptable to all ethnic, lingual, sectarian, or racial groups. As far as
Pakistan is concerned, it is facing challenges associated with national integration because of
a multitude of reasons.

1. Strong and authoritative central government

The state has adopted an authoritarian approach to consolidate its power and position in
Pakistan. This authoritarian policy created insecurity among different ethnic groups with
regard to their separate identity. In a bid to counter the insecurity, ethnic movements came
to the surface at times challenging the national integration in Pakistan.

2. Assimilationist strategy of the state

In order to promote national integration a state should adopt a pluralistic approach rather
than an Assimilationist strategy. Unfortunately, in Pakistan, the state has adopted an
Assimilationist strategy for the last many decades. National unity, security, and integrity will
be achieved if the primary emphasis is placed on promoting equity and harmony rather than
on the suppression of ethnic differences in the name of national unity.

3. Sub Nationalist Tendencies

Oppressed nationalities, neglected regions, parochial political interests, and weak
governance have given rise to sub-nationalism and a militant culture threatening the
national integration process in the country. The federation has failed to address issues
related to language and provincial status setting stage or sub-nationalism in Pakistan. In due
 CHAPTER 6: NATIONAL INTEGRATION AND PROSPERITY
GRADE: 12TH
course, subjecting nationalities to oppression and provinces to neglect have given birth to a
number of sun nationalist movements.

4. Un-even economic development

Balochistan, Tribal Areas, Gilgit-Baltistan are the poorest regions in Pakistan. These areas
are characterized by under-developed infrastructure, lack of economic opportunities, and
extreme poverty. The lethargic attitude of the successive regimes towards these areas has
led to dissatisfaction among the local people thus giving rise to militancy. Thus the uneven
development and inequitable distribution have serious consequences and repercussions
affecting national integration in Pakistan.

5. Religious intolerance and terrorism

Pakistan’s role in the Afghan-led polarization on religious and sectarian lines. The religious
mind-set prepared during Afghan Jihad worked well when it came to fighting the Russians
but it had severe consequences on Pakistan. For instance, the Madrasa education in
Pakistan aimed at building an anti-Russia rhetoric also sowed seeds of conflict among
different sects.
In Pakistan dozens of religious groups exist with divergent interpretations of religion. Each
group insisted on the validity of only their respective religious understanding. As a result,
the menace of religious intolerance and terrorism crept into the society creating internal
dissensions and weakening the very fabric of society.

6. Threat of provincialism
The elements looking for excuses to use the provincial cards for their politics when people
of a particular province are discriminated against by a central government. In Pakistan,
provincialism has been a big issue that led to the disintegration of the country in 1971.

SLO 6.2.2
Ways to increase national integration and cohesion in Pakistan
The following can be the ways to increase national integration and cohesion in Pakistan:
1. Strong provinces
As administrative units of a federation, the provinces in Pakistan should enjoy internal
autonomy except in matters related to defence, foreign policy, and currency. This will
empower and enable provinces to make use of their resources for the socio-economic
development of their people. Moreover, the decentralization will act as a bulwark against an
authoritarian approach from the centre. Similarly, it will reduce insecurity among different
 CHAPTER 6: NATIONAL INTEGRATION AND PROSPERITY
GRADE: 12TH
ethnic groups in the country, which has been one reason for ethnic movements challenging
the country’s national integration over time.

2. Adoption of a pluralistic approach

The state has been adopting a policy of assimilation as part of its efforts to enhance national
integration. A dominant culture, religion, language, and other cultural traits are promoted
to such an extent that the small communities, nationalities, cultural and ethnic groups
become indistinguishable.
As an extreme form of acculturation, the assimilative approach has proved counter-effective
in Pakistan. Therefore, the state should adopt a pluralistic approach to achieve national
unity, security, and integrity. National unity is possible only by emphasizing the promotion
of equity and harmony rather than suppressing the smaller groups.

3. Promotion of dialogue with the disgruntled regions

Sub-nationalism and militant culture have evolved in different regions, especially in
Baluchistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, threatening the ideological and territorial integrity of
the state. Oppression, economic neglect, unjust resource distribution, political
underrepresentation, etc. are responsible for these sub-nationalist tendencies.
It is important to adopt a policy of reconciliation and dialogue with the disgruntled people
rather than oppression and use of force. History is evident that oppression was detrimental
to the country and responsible for national disintegration in 1971. Thus taking a lesson from
history, the state needs to promote dialogue with forces fighting against the state in
Balochistan, tribal regions, Gilgit-Baltistan, etc.
Acceptance of economic, social, and political rights and interests of diverse groups as part of
a multicultural, multi-ethnic, and diverse Pakistan is the only guarantee for a prosperous,
peaceful, and strong Pakistan.

4. Equitable distribution of resources

One of the reasons for the resentment in Balochistan, KPK, GB, etc. is the inequitable
economic distribution. This has led to economic disparity in Pakistan and related problems
i.e. provincialism, compromised national unity, etc.
Hence it is very important for the state to ensure equitable economic distribution to
increase economic opportunities and take people out of extreme poverty in such regions.
Equitable resource and fund allocation will ensure even development and build a sense of
belonging to one country and one nation.
 CHAPTER 6: NATIONAL INTEGRATION AND PROSPERITY
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5. Promotion of interfaith harmony
Since the start o the Islamic Jihad against the Soviet Union, Pakistan has been a victim of
polarization on religious and sectarian lines. To give an example, the act of promoting
religious seminaries aimed at producing Jihadists against Soviets also has sowed seeds of
sectarianism within Pakistan.
Religious intolerance continues to this day challenging national integrity. Thus to enhance
national integration and cohesion, the state should take steps to promote interfaith
harmony. Those exploiting religious sentiments against opposite faith should be dealt with
hardhandedly.
 CHAPER: 7 FOREIGN POLICY OF ISLAMIC REPBLIC OF PAKISTAN

GRADE 12TH

PAKISTAN STUDIES

Foreign Policy

Foreign policy is the mechanism national governments use to guide their diplomatic interactions and relations with other countries.
Foreign policy is designed to protect and promote the national interest abroad

Guiding Principles

Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the Founder of Pakistan and its first Governor General, in a broadcast talk to the people of the USA in February
1948, outlined the following goals of Pakistan’s foreign policy:

“Our foreign policy is one of friendliness and goodwill towards all the nations of the world. We do not cherish aggressive designs against any country or
nation. We believe in the principle of honesty and fair play in national and international dealings and are prepared to make our utmost contribution to
the promotion of peace and prosperity among the nations of the world. Pakistan will never be found lacking in extending its material and moral support
to the oppressed and suppressed peoples of the world, and in upholding the principles of the United Nations Charter.”

Foreign Policy Objectives:

 Promotion of Pakistan as a dynamic, progressive, moderate, and democratic Islamic country.

 Developing friendly relations with all countries of the world, especially major powers and immediate neighbors.
 Safeguarding national security and geo-strategic interests, including Kashmir.
 Consolidating our commercial and economic cooperation with international community.

CHAPER: 7 FOREIGN POLICY OF ISLAMIC REPBLIC OF PAKISTAN

  Safeguarding the interests of Pakistani Diaspora abroad.

 Ensuring optimal utilization of national resources for regional and international cooperation.
7.1.1 Determinants of Pakistan’s Foreign Policy

1. Pakistan Ideology

The ideological basis of a country determines the ways and approach of a state in conducting relations with the world. Islamic teachings act as the basis
of Pakistan’s ideology. This suggests that Pakistan should establish friendly relations with all its neighboring and other countries as per the teachings of
Islam. In the same fashion, Pakistan should attempt to build brotherly relations with Muslim countries.

2. Regional factors

The politico-economic status of neighboring states also acts as one of the determinants of the foreign policy of a country. Pakistan’s proximity to
powerful and strategically important nations i.e. China, India, Iran, Afghanistan, and central Asian nations make it an important player in international
politics.

To put it another way, the geo-Strategic Importance of the location of Pakistan guides the policymakers towards the formation of a balanced foreign
policy. Pakistan has strong bilateral relations with China which always has stood with Pakistan at all odds. India considers China a threat to its economic
plans and hegemony that it wants to establish in the region.

Similarly, the USA and India are working together to contain the spread of Chinese influence in the region and world. Hence Pakistan because of its
unique position has to adjust its relations with these states in its best interests.

3. Islamic Identity

Being a Muslim country, Pakistan emphasizes brotherly relations with Muslim countries in the world. As a member Muslim World, Pakistan enjoys an
important position in the Islamic world from Africa to the Far East.

Furthermore, due to the military and political position in the world, the Muslim world also looks forward to Pakistan for leadership to materialize the
establishment of global Islamic brotherhood.

CHAPER: 7 FOREIGN POLICY OF ISLAMIC REPBLIC OF PAKISTAN

Thus the Islamic identity of Pakistan has been an important determinant of its interaction with the Muslim world.

4. Kashmir cause

The Kashmir cause has been on top of Pakistan’s foreign policy agenda. Pakistan considers Kashmir its jugular vein and India an aggressor with Kashmir
under its brutal occupation.

Its relations with India, the USA, China and Russia, and the Muslim world have been to a major extent determined by the Kashmir issue.

It was primarily the Kashmir issue that compelled Pakistan to align itself with American Block in the 1950s to ensure its security through military aid and
economic support. Both Indian and Pakistan have fought three wars and have engaged with each other in a number of conflicts including the Kargil
conflict in 1999.

5. Nuclear capability

Pakistan is the 7th nuclear state in the world. The nuclear status of the country has increased the country’s importance in international politics. The
country has been using its nukes as deterrence against any potential aggression from a militarily much stronger India.

It had to face economic sanctions from the USA and other countries as a result of pursuing the nuclear capability and its successful tests in May 1998.

6. Poor Economic conditions

Poor economic conditions have compelled Pakistan to engage in close relations, sometimes, in a compromised way, with developed countries like the
USA, international organizations like the International Monitory Fund and World Bank.

These organizations have been interfering with the monitory, social and political policies of the loaning states. Pakistan is one of the states in the world
to have taken the largest amount of loans from different states, i.e. USA, China, Saudi Arabia, the World Bank, IMF, etc.

CHAPER: 7 FOREIGN POLICY OF ISLAMIC REPBLIC OF PAKISTAN

Domestic Policies

Foreign policy cannot be separated from domestic considerations. A country’s governance issues, political situation, country’s standing or position in
the international community (Political, social, economic and strategic strength) always influence its foreign policy.

No country has ever succeeded externally if it is weak and crippled domestically; even super power like Soviet Union (USSR) could not survived because
of domestically weak

CHAPER: 7 FOREIGN POLICY OF ISLAMIC REPBLIC OF PAKISTAN

 7.2.1 FOREIGN POLICY OF PAKISTAN IN DIFFERENT PHASES

1947 – 1953 (Exploration and Friendship with All)

 Established relations with all countries opened many Embassies in different countries.
 Pakistan tried to established good relations with its neighbors and Islamic countries.
PAKISTAN - INDIA RELATIONS:
 Issues broke out between Pakistan and India.
 Those issues caused mistrust and hostile environment of war between them.
 Both countries failed to establish good relations as neighbors.
Issues:
 Controversy in division of princely state e.g: Kashmir, Hyderabad and Junnagadh.
 Division of funds and assets.
 River disputes.
 1948 war on Kashmir.
 Congress leaders gave many statements against Pakistan and did not recognized Pakistan as independent and sovereign country.
 Threatened to Pakistan with India again. On this Indian hostile behavior Pakistan focused on strengthening its military arms.
RELATIONS WITH MUSLIM COUNTRIES:
 From the beginning, Pakistan always kept its relations with Muslim countries on top of its priority list.
 It’s in our guiding principles of foreign policy to establish brotherly relations with Islamic countries.
 Always emphasized an Islamic solidarity and creation of an organization for Muslim Ummah.

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  No interest shown by major Muslim countries except from Turkey, Saudi Arabia and Iran. And Pakistan established good relations with these
countries.

Pak– AFGHANISTAN RELATIONS:

 There are tensed relations between Pakistan and Afghanistan.
 Afghan government refused to recognize NWFP and Baluchistan as parts of Pakistan.
 Demanded a separate state for the Pashtuns of NWFP.
 After Pakistan alignment with USA, Soviet Union and India also supported Afghanistan’s narrative.
 Pakistan strengthened its boarders in the western side.
RELATIONS WITH USA AND SOVIET UNION:
 Pakistan adopted a neutral foreign policy in the beginning years.
 Established balanced relations with all the countries including USSR and USA.
 USA recognized Pakistan in the 15 August 1947.
 Formally started relations in February 1948.
 Liaqat Ali khan visited US in 1950.
SOVIET UNION (USSR) AND PAKISTAN RELATIONS:
 Relations between USSR and Pakistan delayed a bit.
 Both countries established embassies in both Moscow and Islamabad in 1949 and 1950.
 USSR invited Pakistan’s president for a visit to Russia and he accepted.
 Unfortunately Liaqat ali khan could not visit because of some internal reasons of government.

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PAK – CHINA RELATIONS:
 First Islamic country to recognized china in 1950.
 Diplomatic relations started in 1951 with the exchange of ambassadors.

1953 -1962: Alignment with the west (USA) Military Agreements, CENTO, SEATO, (Defense assistance agreements)
ALIGNMENT WITH THE WEST:
 Shift of Pakistan’s foreign policy to alignment with the west (USA).
 Signed many military, defense and economic agreements for military and economic aid from the west.
 Pakistan involved in the cold war because of becoming ally of USA.
 Regional situations, concerns and continuing hostility with India and aggression from India compelled Pakistan towards the alignment with a
major power.
REASONS OF ALIGNMENT:
 Military and economic aid.
 Security concerns and aggression form India.
 Propaganda from Afghanistan.
 Economic stability, international trade.
RELATIONS WITH USA:
 To stop communism US and its ally’s countries as a certain policy give their support to the weak countries and helping them in containing Russia
spreading communism.
 USA offered Pakistan and Pakistan decided to become ally of USA.

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  In 1954 Pakistan and USA signed defense agreement with USA. According to this agreement America provide military weapons and training
assistance to Pakistan.
 Pakistan assured USA that these weapons will not be used against any country rather for its defense.
SEATO
In September 1954 joined South East Asian treaty organization members: US, UK, Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan and Philippines.
Moto: aggression against any of member country would be considered as aggression against all.
Cooperation between all members in every aspect like economy, military, defense.
CENTO – BAGHDAD PACT (Central Treaty Organization)
Pakistan joined Baghdad pact in 1955.
Several defense and military economic assistance agreements signed between USA and Pakistan. In 1959, Pakistan gave its airbase from Peshawar to
America.
POSITIVE IMPACTS OF PAK- US RELATIONS:
 Got economic and military supports which stabilize the economic and security concerns in Pakistan.
 Heavy military weapons and aid.
 Military trainings for Pakistan Army.
NEGATIVE IMPACTS of ALLIGNMENT WITH WEST:
 Compromised as the neutral foreign policy being ally of America cost Pakistan a lot in the form of cold relations with USSR and some Islamic
countries.
 Soviet Union disconnected its relations with Pakistan and supported India and Afghanistan against Pakistan.
 Failed to establish cordial relations with Islamic countries.

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1963 – 1971
SEARCH FOR NEW FRIENDS (BILATERALISM)
 Pakistan policy makers started reviewing its policy towards the west block.
 Issues emerged in the alignment policy of Pakistan.
 In 1960 Soviet Union shutdown US spy plane near the Soviet territory, the plane actually fly from the Peshawar airbase.
 USSR threatened Pakistan to take action against USA.
 America made continental ballistic missiles because of that land bases lost their importance.
 In January 1961, Kennedy administration took control and establishes cordial relations with India and gave importance to India.
 Pakistan shared its concerns of change of policy of USA towards India but America ignored Pakistan concerns.
 In Sino-India war USA and other western allies gave their support to India in the form of heavy weapons without any conditions.
 US gave Pakistan these aids on condition to support wheat against communism.

RELATION WITH SOVIET UNION:

 Because of the change in the policy of USA Pakistan become disappointed and decided to do their policy shift as well.
 Establish relations with socialist and communist countries.
 During 1961 to 1963 Pakistan establish good relations with China and Russia.
 In 1961, for the first time soviet union gave Pakistan assistance and aid for the search of oil.
 In 1965 president Ayub and foreign minister visited china and USSR and signed several deals on trade, oil and culture activities.
 Soviet Union helped Pakistan in completion of its third five year plan.
 1965 remained neutral and played a vital role in the ceasefire between India and Pakistan.

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  1996 USSR mediated the Tashkent agreement between Pakistan and India.
 After Tashkent agreement relations between both countries flourished further signed agreement as defense and economic cooperation.

BETTER RELATIONS WITH CHINA:

During this phase relations between china and Pakistan flourished and improved.
 Signed several deals on defense and economic cooperation.
 USA tried to isolate china in the world but Pakistan stayed firmed in support of china.
 China supported the narrative of Pakistan on Kashmir issue.
 Supported Pakistan morally in 1965 and in 1966 provided military weapons.
 China included some territories of Pakistan in its map President Ayub Khan protested and talked to the Chinese government and the territorial
issue resolved in 1963 peacefully and mutually after Pakistan boarder after signing of Pak-China Boarder Agreement
 Leaders from both countries visited each other countries frequently.

LIMITED RELATION WITH USA:

 America is always against Pakistan’s relations with china and USSR, special the air defense agreement of PAK-China.
 In response USA stopped the aid to construct an airport in Dhaka and Ayub khan canceled the visit of USA in 1965.
 A rift in the relation between America started and resulted tension between both.
 USA didn’t supported Pakistan in its major wars with India in 1965 and 1971.
 Applied sanctions as Pakistan on buying of weapons. This impacted Pakistan’s defense badly.
 1965 US gave little relaxation for Pakistan for buying defense weapons but at short because of the 1971 war with India.
 Pakistan bout weapons from UK, France, Germany, and USSR.

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  Pakistan decided to form an ordinance factory and to make its own weapons.
RELATIONS WITH INDIA:
 Extreme hostile relation between two countries fought two major wars during that period 1965 and 1971.
 Kashmir issue was a major obstacle in relations between Pakistan and India.
 In 1962-1932 both UK and USA mediated in resolving the issue of Kashmir. Foreign minister of both India and Pakistan met but due to
disagreement with each other no results come out.
 Relations got worse and even two deadly wars fought by them.
 East Pakistan separated in 1971and become Bangladesh.

1972-1979
BILATERALISM AND NON ALIGNMENT:
 In the world politics Pakistan’s adopted a policy of neutrality, free and bilateralism from 1960’s.
 Instead of becoming an ally of major powers Pakistan preferred mutual cooperation policy with all countries.
 On the basis of national interest of Pakistan wanted to establish good relations with both of US and USSR.
 1972 Pakistan left SEATO by adopting the policy of neutrality and bilateralism.
 1972 Pakistan recognized both Vietnam and North Korea as independent countries.
 Pakistan tried to establish relations with several countries of Europe, Asia, and Africa.
 Pakistan left common wealth because member countries recognized Bangladesh as independent country.
 In response Pakistan decided to leave common wealth.
 In 1979 Pakistan left SENTO.

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RELATIONS WITH MAJOR POWERS:
 Although relations with china started from 1979 and got stronger in this phase.
 China always supported Pakistan in every stage.
RUSSIA:
 In this period Pakistan and Russia improved their relations.
 In 1972 and 1974 Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto visited Russia and relation flourished mutually, signed an agreement on trade and defense.
AMERICA:
 In this period relations of Pak –US because of Pakistan’s nuclear program and attack on US embassy in Islamabad put to lowest point.
 Bhutto visited America in 1973 and 1975 and normalized the relations between two countries.
 US removed some of the sanctions on Pakistan and allowed Pakistan to buy defense weapons.
 Relations again got worse after Pakistan gained nuclear reprocessing plant from France in reaction US canceled economic aid to Pakistan.
 Some students burned the US embassy in Islamabad situation got worse again.
INDIA:
 Because of 1971 war and separation of Bangladesh [East Pakistan] relations between both countries were aggressive towards each other.
 Simla agreement signed between two countries to normalize relations. According to this agreement both countries mutually decided to
withdraw their army from boarders.
 Pakistan recognized Bangladesh as independent state in 1974.
 India’s nuclear test in 1974.
 India’s Nuclear Test created Misbalance of power in the region and a threat for Pakistan.
 OIC conference in Lahore in 1974.
 Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto visited several gulf countries and tried to establish diplomatic relations.

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  Economic benefits.
1980-1990:
AGAIN ALIGNMENT:
 In this phase Pakistan’s policy shifted again towards the USA.
 In December 1979 Soviet Union attacked Afghanistan and Pakistan also felt the impacts.
 Pakistan opposed the soviet invasion and supported Afghan’s sovereignty.
 Soviet presence in Afghanistan was also a threat for Pakistan as afghan’s neighbor.
 Supported afghan mujahedeen against USSR.
PAKISTAN AS FRONT LINE ALLY OF USA:
 Pakistan and USA came really close in this phase because America badly needed Pakistan in its war against the Soviet Union as Pakistan has a
strategic importance of its location in south Asia.
 America gave Pakistan 3 billion dollars as aid for supporting USA against Soviet Union
 Intelligence agencies of Pakistan and America created Taliban Mujahideen and trained them to fight against USSR.
RELATIONS WITH CHINA:
 Relations got stronger.
 Cooperation in difference sectors increased between both countries.
 China helped Pakistan in the Construction and in the expansion of KKH.
 Helped Pakistan in nuclear and defense technology.
 Supported Pakistan and its narrative on Afghanistan.
 Good relatives with Islamic countries.
 Pakistan and India came a little bit closer

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GENEVA ACCORD:
 Agreement between Pakistan, Afghanistan, USSR and America signed.
 According to this Soviet Union withdraws its forces from Afghanistan.
 The process of withdrawal completed in 1989.
 USA’s interest completed in Afghanistan hence stopped aid for Pakistan and applied sanctions on Pakistan for nuclear program.
PRESSLER AMENDMENT:
 No military equipment or technology shall be sold or transferred to Pakistan.
 Cut off aid for Pakistan
 Restrictions.

1991-2001 POST COLD WAR ERA AND PAKISTAN’S DILEMMA’S:

In this time period Pakistan faced many difficulties in foreign policy.
 Rift in relations with USA.
 Pakistan-India hostility on Kashmir.
 Stability issue in Afghanistan
 Pakistan’s nuclear program.
USA
Several changes occurred after the soviet withdrawal and its disintegration in the world politics.
 American interest changed in the south Asia from Pakistan towards India.
 Because India was much bigger market for trade than Pakistan.
 A vacuum was created between Pak-US relations; reason was Pakistan’s nuclear program.

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  Stopped military aid to Pakistan in response of Pakistan’s nuclear test.
IMPACTS:
 Pakistan’s economy badly impacted because of economic aid stopped from USA.
 Couldn’t help Pakistan in normalizing Afghanistan’s political instability.
 Afghan and other mujahideen in FATA regions of Pakistan, No return plan for them, created security issues.
 USA established strong relations with India.
 Refused to provide F-16 to Pakistan as Pakistan already paid the purchasing amount already.
 World was unipolar after the soviet disintegration and US was the sole power in the world.
RELATIONS WITH INDIA:
 Relations remained aggressive and hostile.
 India’s behavior with Kashmir’s killing issues got worse when situation of war was created in 1990 and then somehow by the interference of
European states, things got in control.
 Issues on kargil sector emerged and both fought a war in kargil.
 After American pressure the war stopped and Pakistan withdraws its forces from kargil.

AFGHANISTAN
 Interim government failed to bring peace and stability.
 Taliban government in Afghanistan
 Pakistan faced criticism on accepting and supporting Taliban government in Afghanistan.

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2001 - Onwards (War against terrorism)
 In 11 September 2001, American trade Centre was hit by terrorists by crashing a plane into it and several people died.
 All Qaeda (Osama bin laden) accepted the attacks were done by them .
 America decided to fight war against terrorism and al Qaeda in Afghanistan.
 America needed Pakistan’s support
 Pakistan agreed to support us on war against terrorism
 Provide air and land bases, routes for USA
 In return US lifted the economic and military sanction against Pakistan
 Transferred billions of dollars to Pakistan for helping USA.
Impacts of War against Terrorism on Pakistan:
 Pakistan suffered the most on war on war against terrorism.
 Caused internal and external issues
 Terrorism emerges as an immediate result and economy of Pakistan badly impacted.
 US questioned on Pakistan’s supports terrorists group and they have camps in Pakistan.

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SLO 7.2.2 & 7.2.3

Reasons of adopting a certain policy at a certain time, how the changes in the foreign policy in different time periods impacted Pakistan?

CERTAIN POLICIES AT DIFFERENT TIMES REASONS IMPACT ON PAKISTAN

1. Establishment of Relations with the  After its independence, Pakistan faced  The USA provided military aid and trained
United States security and economic problems. Pakistani troops as part of military agreements
 Pakistan was invited by both the USSR However, the USUSSR rivalry provided an signed between both states.
and the USA for the establishment of opportunity to side with any of the two  This actually helped strengthen the security of
diplomatic relations. superpowers and secure assistance. Pakistan and create a balance of power in the
 Pakistan rejected the invitation of the region.
USSR and went to the USA.
 The geographical position of Pakistan was
 In days to follow, Pakistan also became
important for the USA to contain the  Pakistan could not maintain a neutral foreign
an ally of the USA with reference to
containment communist Russia. spread of communism from the USSR and policy as did India. The military alliances with
 In this regard, Pakistan signed military China. Hence, Pakistan decided to become the USA alienated the communist powers from
alliance Treaties like the South Asian an ally of the USA to gain military aid and Pakistan.
Treaty Organization (SEATO) and Central assistance.
Asian Treaty Organization (CENTO) in  These alliances also provided India a
1954 and 1955 respectively. justification to sign pacts of military
cooperation with the USSR which later on
proved catastrophic for Pakistan.

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2. Establishment of Relations with  Establishing relations with the People’s  The promotion of friendly relations paved way
China and Russia Republic of China in the early sixties was for the settlement of border issues in 1963
one of the strategic changes in Pakistan’s between Pakistan and China.
foreign policy.  Trade agreements were signed with both China
At the beginning of the 1960s, Pakistan
 Pakistan being a member of USA led and USSR and Pakistan received economic
despite being an ally of the USA (member of
alliances against the USSR expected allies support from both states.
SEATO & CENTO) looked for new friends. It
established close ties with China and USSR.
to take Pakistan into confidence in any  China supported Pakistan’s stand on Kashmir.
matter related to India. Contrary to this There was a shift in the Soviet position on
expectation, the USA and its western allies Kashmir from outright support for India to a
rushed to support India militarily. more neutral stance.
 Pakistan’s relations with the United States
 Pakistan felt that the weapons provided to correspondingly deteriorated because the
India by the USA would be used. This United States had provided India with military
caused a loss of trust in its western allies. aid.
 Now Pakistan could not rely only on the
USA. It needed to look for new friends and
allies to counter any support to India.
3. Withdrawal from SEATO & CENTO
 The military Alliances did not help Pakistan  Improved relations with USSR. USSR pledged to
 Pakistan decided to withdraw from in the 1965 and 1971 wars with India. support Pakistan in defence and economic
SEATO and CENTO in the 1970s and Moreover, the alliances caused enmity development. In 1978 Pakistan’s Steel Mills
made a re-entry into the Non Aligned with USSR which helped India to break were completed with the help of the USSR.
Movement. Pakistan in 1971.  Socialist reforms in Pakistan
 During this whole episode, the SEATO and  Re-entry into Non-Aligned Movement
CENTO countries acted as mere  Relations with USA soured once again.
spectators.
 Pakistan had been instrumental in
containing USSR from spreading into the
world but these services from Pakistan
were not respected by the USA and its
allies.

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4. Efforts to unite Muslim World
 With no support from its western allies  Unity among the Muslim world.
 Pakistan became a champion of Islamic 1971 war with India, Pakistan felt a dire
Solidarity in the 1970s. The second need for the Muslim world to work
Summit of OIC was held in Lahore, together.
Pakistan.
 Prominent Muslim statesmen attended
the summit. Pakistan recognized
Bangladesh.

5. Withdrawal from
Common Wealth  The Commonwealth Countries were  Relations with the common wealth countries
supposed to make efforts to bring a halt to soured
war among member countries and support
 Pakistan also decided to withdraw territorial integrity but in 1971
from Commonwealth in the 1970s Commonwealth countries kept silent
when Pakistan was attacked by India with
help of the USSR to break it into two.
Pakistan left the organization in protest.
6. Supporting the US Proxy war in
Afghanistan  In December 1979, the Soviet Union  A massive amount of aid and military training
entered Afghanistan – thereby installing a was given to Pakistan by the US. Between 1982
puppet government. and 1990, more than $4 billion in assistance
 In 1979 Pakistan and the USA once
 The USA and its allies condemned Soviet was given to Pakistan by the USA, half of which
again developed closer relations.
entry into Afghanistan as an attack on a was military.
 Pakistan became a front-line ally in sovereign state. Moreover, they vowed to  There were negative impacts on Pakistan in the
America’s proxy war against USSR. support the Afghans in their fight against form of Kalashnikov culture, drug trafficking,
this new occupation. sectarianism, a burden on Pakistan’s economy,
 Aimed at containing Soviet expansion. and increases in crimes as millions of refugees
were flooding from across the border.

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  The USA and its allies considered the
Soviet occupation of Afghanistan a threat
to its interests in the region and world.
Hence they aimed to contain the further
expansion of the USSR and force it to leave
Afghanistan.
 The Soviet occupation of Afghanistan a
threat to its interests in the region and
world. Hence they aimed to contain the
further expansion of the USSR and force it
to leave Afghanistan.
 Thus, the common economic, political, and
Security threats once again brought the
USA and Pakistan closer together.

7. The Nuclear Test in 1998

 When India tested its nuclear arsenals in  The nuclear test put Pakistan under new
May 1998, the balance of power got sanctions imposed by major world powers and
 Pakistan Successfully tested its
disturbed in South Asia. Moreover, by its the UN.
Nuclear Bomb in 1998 which further
aggressive attitude, India acted as if it was  The United States, Japan, and other European
worsened already deteriorated
to invade Pakistan. Its statesmen openly states imposed economic sanctions on Pakistan
relations between the USA and
threatened to occupy Pakistan held for its nuclear tests. For instance, Pakistan
Pakistan.
Kashmir (Azad Kashmir). could not import much-needed technology
 The USA, Japan, and the United  For Pakistan, it was a very critical phase in from these countries.
Nations imposed economic sanctions its national history. It was caught under  Imposition of sanctions negatively impacted
on Pakistan. the dilemma of whether listen to the the economy of Pakistan. The inflation and
international community or respond to unemployment rate plummeted as economic
India by testing its own nuclear bomb. conditions worsened.

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  Pakistan was near to bankruptcy in 1999 until
the event of 9/11 took place.
 Finally, Pakistan opted for the second
option to go nuclear. For Pakistan, it was
more important to re-establish the
balance of power in the region than
compromising its sovereignty for few
dollars.
8. Support to US war against terror  As a result of the decision to support the war
 The USA asked Pakistan to either support against terror, Pakistan and the US came into a
 One of the strategic changes in the war against terror or be ready for new agreement.
Pakistan’s foreign policy in early consequences. It was more like a threat.  According to the new agreement, the USA
2000 was an overnight change in its  However, Pakistan tried its best to lifted all economic and military sanctions on
Afghan policy and support of the US- convince the Taliban government in Pakistan and provided massive military and
led war on terror. Afghanistan to hand Osama over to the economic support.
USA but it failed to convince them.  Pakistan paid a huge price for being a front line
 After failing in its attempts to convince the in the war against terror.
Taliban government to hand over Osama  The menace of terrorism subsequently spread
Bin Laden to the USA, Pakistan finally in the tribal areas and then in all parts of the
decided to support the US war against the country.
Taliban government in Afghanistan.  There were attacks on the army, police, and
public places. As a result, thousands of security
personnel and civilians have been killed in
these terrorist attacks.
 To quell terrorism, military operations leading
to internal displacement were launched. The
war caused huge economic loss due to
increased spending on the fight against terror.
 Housing millions of refugees also has been a
huge burden. Similarly, criminal and terrorist
activities carried out by people from refugees.

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7.1.2 Geo-strategic importance of the location of Pakistan:
 Video from resource pack.

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PAKISTAN STUDIES
ND
2 YEAR
SLO 1.1.1

IMPORTANCES OF PAKISTAN STUDIES AS A SUBJECT

PAKISTAN Studies is a subject that aims at enhancing students' knowledge about history,
culture and geography of Pakistan and to inculcate patriotism in the hearts of students so that
they may become a good citizen. Besides history, there should be topics of current issues and
problems which our country is currently facing. Human rights and its importance must be
taught to eradicate social evils and problems which our country is facing. Moreover, the
content presented in the book should not mould students to become narrow-minded and
parochial. Aims should be to open the faculty to accept past follies and learn to rectify the
mistakes.

Pakistan Studies was introduced as a compulsory subject along with Islamiat at the Secondary
and Higher Secondary level during the Bhutto regime in the 1970s. Its introduction as a
separate mandatory subject aimed to create patriotism among the youth and awareness of
Pakistan ideology. Similarly, it also aimed at enabling young Pakistanis to become the informed
and responsible citizens of the state.

What does the term ‘Origin of Pakistan’ refers to?

The phrase “Origin of Pakistan” refers to the very thinking of Muslims of the Indian sub-
continent that they were different from Hindus, they could not coexist with Hindus, and that
they should have a separate homeland. This very thinking of Indian Muslims in other words is
called Two-Nation Theory, the basis of Pakistan Ideology.

Pakistan Ideology is Islamic ideology as the basic purpose of establishing a separate was to
implement Islamic laws which could not be possible in a united India

How does Pakistan Studies as a subject can help in understanding the origin of Pakistan?

Pakistan Studies as an academic discipline deals with the political, economic, and social
conditions after the 1857 War of Independence that compelled Indian Muslims to think as a
separate nation from Hindus.

In other words, it enlightens us about the fundamental factors that led to the creation of the
Two-Nation Theory. More simply, this subject addresses questions like ‘What compelled
Muslims to think for a separate state? Thus Pakistan Studies as a subject helps us comprehend
the origin of Pakistan which is the Two-Nation Theory.

What does the term ‘creation of Pakistan‘ refer to?

The literal meaning of the word ‘creation’ means ‘making of something. So the word ‘creation
of Pakistan’ should mean ‘making of Pakistan. Therefore, the term ‘Creation of Pakistan’ refers
to the struggle and efforts made by Muslims of the Indian sub-continent to establish a separate
homeland (state) in the name of Pakistan. In other words, it refers to the Pakistan Movement.

How does Pakistan Studies as a subject can help in understanding the creation of Pakistan?

In Pakistan Studies we study the struggle of Pakistan which is the Pakistan Movement. It
informs about the sacrifices that Indian Muslims made and the challenges they faced in the
struggle of Pakistan. Moreover, it tells about the leadership of the Pakistan movement and their
struggle for Pakistan.

What does the term ‘development of Pakistan’ refer to?

The term ‘development refers to improvement, enhancement, advancement, etc. When we say
‘Development of Pakistan’ it means the changes or advancement that have taken place in
different departments of national life in Pakistan since the establishment of Pakistan to date.

How does Pakistan Studies as a subject help understand the development of Pakistan?

As a subject, Pakistan studies also deals with the development and improvement in different
departments of national life. For example, we study political and constitutional changes and
development in the subject of Pakistan Studies.

In addition to that, this subject informs and guides the government and policymakers to plan
future development. It guides in framing policies and taking appropriate measures in light of
past experiences, available resources, and challenges.

SLO 1.2.1, 1.2.2

IDEOLOGY

• The social or political Programme of any movement that becomes a collective objective
of any nation is called Ideology.

• Ideology means such an aim according to which human beings planned about their
future.

• Ideology is a set of beliefs, values and ideals of a group and a nation. It is deeply
ingrained in the social consciousness of the people. It is a set of principles, a framework of
action and guidance system that gives order and meaning to life and human action.
• Ideology emphasizes on some particular principles, ideals and blueprint for the future. It
is a review of the existing political, social and economic arrangements that create
consciousness based on its principles. It legitimizes or delegitimizes certain actions and
philosophies. Ideology gives nation a direction and worldview and its implementation is the
responsibility of the concerned people.

IDEOLOGY OF PAKISTAN

The Ideology of Pakistan was the consciousness of the Muslims in the historical perspective of
the south Asian sub-continent that they were a separate nation on the basis of the Islamic
ideology. No doubt Islamic ideology is the base of ideology of Pakistan so the basic
fundamentals of Islam are also the bases of the Ideology of Pakistan.

The ideology of Pakistan took shape through an evolutionary process. Historical experience

provided the base; Allama Iqbal gave it a philosophical explanation; Quaid-i-Azam translated it
into a political reality; and the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan, by passing Objectives
Resolution in March 1949, gave it legal sanction. It was due to the realization of the Muslims of
South Asia that they are different from the Hindus that they demanded separate electorates.
However when they realized that their future in a „Democratic India‟ dominated by Hindu
majority was not safe, they changed their demand to a separate state.

The ideology of Pakistan stemmed from the instinct of the Muslim community of South Asia to
maintain their individuality in the Hindu society. The Muslims believed that Islam and Hinduism
are not only two religions, but are two social orders that produced two distinct cultures. There
is no compatibility between the two. A deep study of the history of this land proves that the
differences between Hindus and Muslims are not confined to the struggle for political
supremacy but are also manifested in the clash of two social orders. Despite living together for
more than one thousand years, they continue to develop different cultures and traditions. Their
eating habits, music, architecture and script, all are poles apart.

The basis of the Muslim nationhood was neither territorial nor racial or linguistic or ethnic
rather they were a nation because they belonged to the same faith, Islam. They demanded that
the areas where they were in majority should be constituted into a sovereign state, wherein
they could order their lives in accordance with the teachings of Holy Quran and Sunnah of Holy
Prophet (PBUH).

BASIC COMPONENTS OF IDEOLOGY OF PAKISTAN

The major components of ideology of Pakistan are following

• Islam

• Equity and justice

• Democracy and equal rights for all

Islam

The Islamic concept of Sovereignty of Allah is one first and the foremost component of
Pakistan’s Ideology. According to this concept, Allah is all-powerful and all powers rest with
Almighty Allah alone. Only He is the sustainer of the whole universe and life in it. Powers with
men are a sacred trust which has been delegated from Allah almighty to be exercised according
to the principles set out in the teachings of Islam.

Equity and justice

Justice, in general, refers to the provision of basic human, economic, and political rights and
facilities required for personal and collective development without any discrimination.

Similarly, Islam urges upon implementation of merit in all aspects of life. It guides to treat
people in a country as same and equal citizens of the state. Moreover, it discourages any
discrimination in the name of the color, area. caste and language. In the Quran, Allah urges
Muslims to be a witness for Allah in equity and do not deal unjustly even if they are hated by
people.

The term Equity means to cater to the needs of people as per their needs. Islam emphasizes
upon implementation of this guiding principle. According to this concept, an Islamic society
should be a welfare society that undertakes measures for the uplift of poor, destitute, and
needy people. Welfare programs should be initiated to end poverty and reach common
people’s necessities of life. Thus equity is at the core of the Islamic concept of a welfare state.

Democracy and equal rights for all

Islamic democracy is also one of the components of the ideology of Pakistan. According to this
concept, people will elect their representatives, but they will exercise their power to rule in
light of Islamic Teachings. The rulers cannot take arbitrary decisions. They will act in light of
guiding principles of the Islamic way of life.

Islamic democracy is different from the western concept of democracy. According to western
concepts, the majority of people will elect the rulers will who exercise their powers as per the
collective will of the people. This collective will manifest in the constitution. Unlike western
democracy, rulers will rule the people according to law or constitution framed and enacted as
per Islamic injunctions.

SLO 1.3.1

Major reasons that led to start Aligarh Movement in 1958

After the war of independence the condition of the Muslims of India were very miserable as
the British fell more on the Muslims than on Hindus. They considered that Muslims were
responsible for all the wrongs and the war held just because of their harsh and rude behavior.
After 1857, the Muslims emerged as a backward nation; they were illiterate and hopelessly
ignorant in every walk of life. They were deprived of their basic rights and were neglected in
every sphere of life. Nevertheless, they were economically, politically, socially and to be more
exact religiously made the subject of ruthless punishment. They were helpless before the
British and their combine lobby with Hindus; so, in these conditions they neither trusted Hindus
nor British, who spared no effort to tortured Muslims.

In such conditions, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan came forward and tried to help the Muslims come out
from such deplorable and miserable conditions. He guided the Muslims towards the right path
and attempted to draw out the Muslims from such helpless condition. He started a movement
in order to give respectable position to Muslims in society as they had in past, this movement is
known as Aligarh Movement. The main focus of the Aligarh movement was.

• Loyalty to British Government.( To create an atmosphere of mutual understanding

between the British government and the Muslims)

• Modern western education for the Muslims to compete with Hindus.

• To keep away the Muslims from politics.( To persuade Muslims to abstain from
agitational politics)

• Educational and economical backwardness

• Political deprivation

• Social status and mistreatment

• Threatened identity of Muslims

Sir Syed realized that this miserable and deplorable condition of Muslims was due to the lack of
modern education. He believed that the cure of every problem of Muslims was the modern
education. Therefore, he commenced an educational program in order to uplift the deprived
and disappointed Muslims, who had lost their past glory. He took concrete steps for his
education plan.

SLO 1.3.2

ROLE OF SIR SYED AHMED KHAN AS REFORMER

• Educational reformer

• Social reformer

• Political reformer

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan as Educational Reformer

Syed Ahmad launched his educational movement by setting up Gulshan School at Muradabad -
1859; Victoria School at Gazipur in 1863; Scientific Society for the translation of English works in
the native language, Urdu, at

Aligarh in 1864; Aligarh Institute Gazette imparting information on history -

ancient and modern, science of agriculture, natural sciences, physical sciences and Advanced
Mathematics in 1866; Committee Striving for the Educational Progress of Muslims - 1870;
Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental School (MAO) at Aligarh in 1875 at the pattern of English public
schools and later raised to the level of college in 1877 and university in 1920; Mohammedan
Educational Conference (1886), which met every year to take stock of the educational problems
of the Muslims and to persuade them to get modern education and abstain from politics; it
later became a political mouthpiece of the Indian Muslims and the forerunner of the All India
Muslim league.

No doubts s Ahmed Khan up ft the educational s of the Muslims The services of the English
teachers like Arnold, Morrison and Archibald hired. Some versatile personalities of the sub-
continent were appointed as teachers. The Teacher to teach Sansikrit was a Hindu. Many other
institutions were also found following the Aligarh Movement in various cities of the country.
Thus Aligarh Movement was the pioneer to bring a revolution in the field of education.

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan as Social Reformer

In 1970 Sir Syed Ahned Khan published a pamphlet, Risala Tehzib-ul-lklhaq in which he
described social problem of the Muslims and he tried to eliminate the prejudice among the
Muslims towards the Non-Muslims. Orphanages

He established orphanages for Muslim children so that they may not become Hindu or
Christian. It was really a great service of him. In this way he tried to construct a bridge between
the British and the Muslims. He succeeded in getting attitude finally changed and the Muslims,
once again, joined the main stream.

Tehzeb-ul-Akhlaq(ethical aspect of Muslims life).

Anjuman-e-taraiq-i-Urdu(protection of Urdu)

Ahkam-e-ta’am-e-Ahl-e-kitab

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan as Political Reformer

Sir Syed advised the Muslims to remain away from politics and he himself took important steps
to educate the Muslims for their socio-economic restoration so that they might acquire the
status equivalent to that of Hindus. He was of the view that education is the only weapon to
keep pace with model advancement.

Two Nation Theory

He was no doubt in the favour of Hindu Muslim unity in the beginning but after Urdu-Hindi
Controversy he came to know the nature of the Hindu nation. Then for the first time in the
History he used the word “Nation” for the Muslim in 1867. So we can say he was the founder of
two-nation theory in sub-continent. On the basis of Two Nation Theory, Sir Syed asked for
special safeguards for the Muslims in different fields. Special seats for the Muslims in the local
councils

Risala-e-Asbabe-Baghawat-e-Hind

After the war of independence 1857, he wrote Risala-e-Asbabe-Baghawat-e-Hind in which he

described the actual reasons behind this war.

Loyal Muhammadans of India

Sir Syed wrote this book to make the British aware of the services of the Muslims. Through this
book he got sensible behviour of the British for the Muslims of India.

Quota in services
Started a movement against the open competitive examinations for superior services Rejected
the government of the majorities because that could lead to the monopoly of the Hindus

Advice to students to avoid politics

After the war of 1857, he advised the Muslims to remain away from politics until they would
become strong in education.

Urdu Hindi Controversy after Urdu Hindi Controversy in Bin eras Sir Syed understood the
mentality of the Hindus and he pressurized the British to avoid replacing Urdu with Hindi.

Behaviour towards Indian National Congress

Sir Syed forbade the Muslims to join the Indian National Congress founded by A.O. Hume in
1885, as he could understand the objectives of this party.

Political Reforms

He restrained the Muslims from joining congress and struggle for special seat of the Muslims in
loc council. He also started a movement against the open competitive exams to avoid the
monopoly of the Hindus.

SLO 1.3.3

Analyse the contribution of Aligarh Movement towards the political and social upliftment of
Indian Muslims

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan played a vital role in improving the status of the Muslim community in
subcontinent. He worked tirelessly to restore relations with the British, particularly after the
War of Independence.When many British were of the opinion that the Muslims were disloyal
and untrustworthy. His, his writings, his tireless work and the example he set was to convince
the British to see the Muslims in a new light. Sir Syed played a major part in bringing about a
Muslim revival, largely through the work of the Aligarh Movement .Muslims came to value
education as a means of self-improvement and of obtaining better employment. From this
came greater feeling of self-worth. Linked to the Muslim revival was a greater political
awareness. As Hindus sought to take advantage of the poor relations between the Muslims and
the British, Sir Syed emphasised the threat to Muslims and developed his ‘Two Nation Theory’.
Once Muslims came to accept the wisdom of this theory, it was only a small step to call for
partition. For this reason Sir Syed Ahmed Khan can rightly be called ‘The Father of the Pakistan
Movement’.

Some of the important contribution of Aligarh Movement towards the political and social
upliftment of Indian Muslims are following
• It removed the element of mistrust between Muslims and British

• Imparted modern education to the Muslims of Sub-continent

• Brought economic prosperity to the Muslims of Sub- continent

• Helped in protection and promotion of Urdu language

• Brought political awareness in Muslims of Sub- continent

• Developed and promoted Two Nation Theory

• Educate Muslim community of Sub-continent

• Established Muslim league

• Helped in evolution of leadership in Muslim Community

• Regained honorable status in society

SLO 1.3.4

REASONS THAT LED TO START KHILAFAT MOVEMENT 1919-1924

The World War I broke out in 1914. UK, USA, France, Russia and Italy went into an alliance
against German y, Austria nd Turkey. Turkey was the centre of Islamic world in those days, and
the Khalifah of Turkey was owned as Khalifah of the whole Islamic world. The centre of Muslim
world was in serious danger. Hijjaz-e-Muqqadas was in Turkish domain. In case of defeat of
Turkey both sacred cities, Makkah and Madina, could go into the possession of Christian allied
forces. Keeping all the apprehensions in view, the Indian Muslims organized a big movement
called the Khilafat Movement.

The Khilafat movement was a religio-political movement launched by the Muslims of British
India for the retention of the Ottoman Caliphate and for not handing over the control of
Muslim holy places to non-Muslims. Turkey sided with Germany in World War 1. As it began to
lose the war, concerns were expressed in India about the future of Turkey. It was a peak period
from 1919 to 1922 casting demonstrations, boycott, and other pressure by the two major
communities, the Hindus and the Muslims. Being brothers, the Indian Muslims realized their
religious duty to help the Muslim country. It was the extra territorial attachments based on
Islam. Another factor same to the first was that the Indian Muslims considered Ottoman
Caliphate a symbol of unity of the Muslim world as Ummah.
REASONS

• Ottoman Khilafat should be kept intact.

• Territorial solidarity of Turkey be preserved.

• Control of holy the places should not be given to non-Muslims.

• British forget their promises regarding the

• To defend the Ottoman Empire

SLO 1.3.5

Analyse the impact of Khilafat Movement (Positive-Negative) on the Muslims of Sub-continent

Khilafat Movement was a protest movement of Indian Muslims, launched for the protection of
the Ottoman Empire and its territorial integrity at the end of World War I. Indian National
Congress and its leader Mahatma Gandhi also supported the Khilafat Movement paving way for
Hindus’ support to the movement. The movement started in 1919 and ended in 1924 with the
abolishment of the position of Khalifa by the new government of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk in
Turkey.

The positive impact of the Khilafat Movement

Emergence of political leadership/ Muslims become politically organised

Khilafat Movement provided a platform for Indian Muslims to speak against the British in India.
For the first time after 1857, Muslims all over India started taking part in protest rallies, sit-ins,
and mass gatherings.

The movement led to the emergence of a new young political leadership that now has the
required know-how about the political agitation and tactics to use later during the Pakistan
Movement.

The movement provided Muslims an opportunity for political involvement and to get hands-on
experience. Muslims used the experience of the movement later in the struggle for the
achievement of a separate homeland for Muslims of the Indian subcontinent.

By this time, the Muslims had come to the realization that if they acted together they could
pressure the government in their favor. They realized that together they become powerful
enough to force the British to talk to them. Thus the lesson that Muslims learned was, ‘by only
creating unity among themselves they could protect their rights and interests.

It was the first major political mobilization of Indian Muslims after the 1857 revolt against the
British. The colonizers pointed out Muslims and held them responsible for the conflict. They
ruthlessly oppressed Muslims.

Being defeated in the war, the Muslims were not in a position to confront the British with the
same resistance again. The Khilafat Movement broke the ice and encouraged Muslims to
demonstrate. People fully participated in the movement and resisted the British with all force
all over India.

Before Khilafat Movement, Muslims were scattered and never came together for a common
cause. Khilafat Movement provided a stage for Muslims of the Indian subcontinent to raise
their voice by bringing them closer to each other. In other words, the movement united
Muslims of India after a long time.

The support from the Congress and Gandhi’s role as chief organizer of the Movement created
an environment of Hindu-Muslim unity. For the time being, the differences between both of
the communities got aside. Both Hindus and Muslims started acting against the British in unity
first time after the war of 1857. Thus, an atmosphere of cordiality, goodwill, cooperation, and
mutual respect between both of the communities prevailed as long as Gandhi supported
Khilafat Movement.

Economic loss

Muslims had to face economic problems and losses because of Khilafat Movement. Many had
resigned from government jobs. Now after the movement, they faced unemployment and
economic stress.

Around 18000 poor peasants had migrated to Afghanistan as some of the Muslim clerics
declared India Darul Harb. The migrating peasants, when reached Afghanistan, the Afghan
officials sent them back instead of well coming them. These migrants had sold their lands,
property, and everything they owned. When they came back, they had nothing on which they
could live a decent life.

Educational loss

In view of the call from Khilafat Movement leadership, Muslims boycotted English, government
schools, courts, elections, etc. The boycott of schools adversely impacted the education of
Muslim children. In effect, Muslims faced difficulty to re-admit them at the school and ensure
the continuity of education of their children.
Torture and murder

In order to control the situation, the British government arrested tens and hundreds of activists
and put them in jails under the notorious Rowlatt Act, 1919. In addition, many people died
during disturbances as police cracked down whereas many died in jails while serving long long,
and life sentences. As a result of life sentences and killings, many families had to suffer
economically as their bread earners rotted in jails.

SLO 1.4.4

Significance of Lahore Resolution (Pakistan Resolution) in terms of its deman d and its impact
on the politics of the subcontinent.

The Muslim nationalism reached its highest watermark on 23rd March, 1940, when the All-India
Muslim League passed the historic Lahore Resolution in its 27th annual session held in Lahore
(Minto Park).

On 21st March, 1940, the working committee of the Muslim League appointed a committee to
draft the famous Lahore Resolution. On 22nd March, 1940, the committee submitted the
resolution. Next day, on 23rd March, 1940, Fazl-ul-Haq, the premier of Bengal, moved the
resolution which was seconded by Chaudary Khaliquzaman and supported by sir Zafar Ali Khan,
Nawab Ismail Khan and others.

The experience of Congress Rule compelled the Muslims to launch the movement for separate
homeland. The Hindus made them realize that Hindu government would mean an anti-Muslim
rule in India. The Muslims‟ disappointment from the Congress leadership decided to open a
new phase of history. Quaid-i-Azam‟s article in Time and Tide concluded that Muslims are a
nation. No Constitution can be enforced by ignoring Muslims. His comments on March 13, 1940
are remarkable: “If some satisfactory settlement cannot be found for Muslims in united India,
the Muslim will have to demand for division of the country.”

The Lahore Resolution:

The Muslim League held its annual session at Lahore on 22-24 March 1940. The Lahore
Resolution was moved by Maulvi Fazlul Haq and seconded by Ch. Khaliquzzaman that finally
approved on March 24, 1940. Jinnah rightly expressed his valuable remarks about the political
circumstances of India and the Muslims stand. He said:

“Indian problem is not communal but international. No Constitution can work without
recognizing this reality. Muslims of India will not accept a constitution that establishes a
government of the Hindu majority on them. If Hindus and Muslims are placed under one
democratic system, this would mean Hindu.

• Text of the Resolution:

They decided that the Federal system under Government of India Act, 1935 was not acceptable
for the Muslims.

• No revised constitutional plan would be acceptable unless it was framed with their
approval and consent.

• Adjacent units where Muslims are in a majority, as in Northwest and East, should be
constituted as Independent States where the constituent units will be autonomous and
sovereign.

• Protection of minorities would be given priority.

Significance:

The Lahore Resolution carries a great importance in the history of the Pakistan Movement
because it marked a turning point in the Muslim attitude towards the future constitutional
arrangements in the Sub-continent. The Muslims changed their demand from a federal system
to a sovereign independent nation, Pakistan. Thus after the adoption of the resolution, Pakistan
became a magic word for the Muslims throughout the light and breadth of country. This spirit
was carried forward to the general elections of 1945-46, in which the Muslims gave their
verdict clearly in the favour of Pakistan.

This Resolution did not specify any demarcation of the territory but it defined the future plan of
struggle for the establishment of the Muslims states (later the word ‘states’ was replaced by
‘state’ in 1946) in the Northwestern and Eastern areas where the Muslims were in
overwhelming majority.

This Resolution did not specify any demarcation of the territory but it defined the future plan of
struggle for the establishment of the Muslims states (later the word „states‟ was replaced by
„state‟ in 1946) in the Northwestern and Eastern areas where the Muslims were in
overwhelming majority. It also intended to give importance to the autonomy of the states.
There was no use of the word Pakistan but Pakistan was kernel of the Resolution. This was the
first decisive step towards the achievement of a separate homeland. After this firm decision,
only in sovot yours the Muslims got a separate state of their own. That is why we can say this
resolution was the height of the struggle.

Conclusion:
The Lahore Resolution set an independent Muslim State as the goal for the Muslims of the Sub-
continent. Consequently, henceforth in the shape of Pakistan the Muslims had a clear target for
their political struggle. This changed strategy worked wonders and the whole Muslim nation
gathered under the banner of Muslim-League and within seven years succeeded in achieving an
independent Muslim State on 14th August, 1947.

SLO 1.4.4

Major features of 3rd June Plan 1947.

Both Simla Conference and Cabinet Mission Plan failed to produce an amicable solution of the
constitutional and political problem India. I Lord Wavell could not unite the parties, and the
British government had to replace him with Lord Mountbatten. The June 3, 1947 Plan was an
elaborate one. It covered the whole of the sub-continent. The government took final decision
to divide it into two independent states. The principle of partition was approved.

In the first quarter of 1 947Lord Atlee the new prime minister of England declared that British
will leave sub-continent by June 1948. Till then the British government will make the necessary
arrangements to accommodate the transfer of power to the local people.

He called back Lord Wavell and sent Lord Mountbatten as new viceroy of India.

The main task of him was to arrange the transfer and divide the assets, resources and land
between the two future parts of Indian sub-continent. He arrived in India in March 1947.

On 3rd June Lord Mountbatten came up with a plan of division of sub-continent.

In it he sealed the fate of the future state of Pakistan. This plan became famous as 3rd

June Plan. Some salient features of this plan are as under:

• The British will not impose a constitution but the Constituent Assembly will frame a
constitution.

• The constitution will not be imposed on the areas that do not accept it. Opinion will be
sought from them if they want to set up a separate CA (Constituent Assembly).

• Punjab & Bengal Assemblies will meet in two parts, members from Muslim majority
areas and other districts separately to decide if the province be partitioned.
• If any part decides for partition, each group will decide which CA they wish to join.

• Sind Assembly will decide about joining either side.

• Referendum in NWFP

• Balochistan: appropriate method

• Boundary Commission for Punjab and Bengal

• Princely states to decide for themselves keeping in view their geographical contiguity.

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE PLAN JUNE 1947

• The non-Muslim majority provinces were included in Bharat. In the district Sylhat the
people took part in a referendum. A very large majority favoured Pakistan and Sylhet was
included in Pakistan. Sylhat became a district of East

• The members of the Sindh Assembly voted for Pakistan and Sindh became a province of
Pakistan.

• The Shahi Jirga and Quetta Municipality voted for Pakistan and Balochistan became a
part of Pakistan.

• A referendum was held in NWFP the people had to choose either of the two, Pakistan or
Bharat. A dominating majority voted for Pakistan and N\VFP joined Pakistan.

• The Provinces of the Punjab and Bengal were to be divided into two parts. Sir Radcliffe,
a British lawyer. Was appointed the Chairman of the Boundary Commission. Two members
each were nominated by the Congress and Muslim League to help the Chairman. The two
provinces were divided into two parts. Sir Radcliffe was in contact with Nehru and Lord
Mountbatten.. He conspired and did injustice

• With Pakistan. Many Muslim majority areas were given to Bharat and Pakistan was
deprived of its right share. As the Muslim League had accepted Sir Radcliffe as arbitrator so the
Quaid-e-Azam did not raise any objection to the decision of the Boundary Commission.

• The princely states themselves decided in favour of either Pakistan or Bharat. While
taking the decision, every state kept its geographical position and special circumstances in view.
Disputes erupted in the states of Hyderabad Daccan, Junagarh, Manavadar and Jammu and
Kashmir. The majority of first three states was non-Muslim and the u1ers were Muslims, by
faith. All three Muslim rulers thought either to maintain their independent states or to join
Pakistan. Bharat invaded all the three states one by one and forcibly brought them into its own
fold. The position of state c Jammu and Kashmir was just the Opposite. Here the ruler was a
non-Muslim and a large majority of Kashmiris was Muslim. Pakistan supported the right of self-
determination of the Kashmiris Geographically the state seems to be a natural part of Pakistan
All the elements favoured the Pakistani stand but Bharat committed aggression and sent its
forces to bring Jammu and Kashmiris under her control, So far both the countries have fought
three wars to resolve the dispute of Kashmir but it proved all in vain. The wars were fought in
1948, 1965 and 1971. Pakistan has been persistently supporting the right of self of Kashmiris
and Kashmiris themselves are fighting for their liberation. About nine million Kashmiris have
been martyred by Bharati forces to crush the struggle of the Kashmiris.

SLO 1.4.5

Salient features of Indian independence Act 1947

To give legal shape to the June 3 Plan, the Indian Independence Act was promulgated (July
1947).

• Two independent dominion states on August 15, 1947

• Their legislatures will have all powers to make laws for the respective states.

• Government of India Act, 1935, to be interim constitution subject to changes due to

Indian Independence Act 1947.

• Governor Generals can amend the Interim Constitution until March 31, 1948.

• All arrangements between the British and the Princely states to come to an end and
they will have new arrangements with the new states.

• British King will no longer use the title of the King of India

The Partition Process:

Punjab

The Muslim members favoured joining new CA. the non-Muslims voted for partition and joining
India.

Bengal
Muslims favoured joining new CA while non-Muslims favoured partitioning and joining India.
Sindh

The Assembly voted to join Pakistan. NWFP

Referendum decided in favour of Pakistan while Dr. Khan‟s govt. boycotted it after it became
clear that it would lose.

Balochistan

Shahi Jirga and the non-official members of Quetta Municipal Committee opted for Pakistan.
Sylhet

Referendum was held to join East Bengal for joining Pakistan.

Governor General‟s Issue:

Mountbatten wanted to be joint GG (Governor General) of India and Pakistan while ML decided
to appoint Jinnah as the first Governor General of Pakistan in July.

Transfer of Power:

1st meeting of the Constituent Assembly was held on August 11, 1947 and the ceremonies on
August 14. Radio announcement was made at midnight 14-15 Aug. Oath taking ceremony for
GG (Governor General) and PM (Prime Minister) was held on August 15 1947.

Boundaries determined on August 17:

Boundaries Commission award declared many controversial decisions about certain areas like
Gurdaspur, Zira Tehsil etc, but the ML accepted it with protest.

SLO 1.4.6, 1.4.7, 1.4.8

• Structure and Objectives of the Boundary commission

• Instructions given to the Boundary commission

• Impact of decision of the Boundary commission on Pakistan

Background:

According to the provision of the 3rd June Plan, two Boundary commissions viz. The Punjab
Boundary Commission and the Bengal Boundary Commission were constituted. These
commissions were placed under the chairmanship of Sir Cyril Radcliffe, an English Lawyer.
Members of the Boundary Commissions were as under:

Members Of The Punjab Boundary Commission:

Chairman: Sir Cyril Radcliffe

i) Mr. Justice Din Mohammad (Pakistan)

ii) Mr. Justice Mohammad Munir (Pakistan)

iii) Mr. Justice Mehar Chand Mahajan (India)

iv) Mr. Justice Tej Singh (India)

Members Of The Bengal Boundary Commission:

Chairman: Sir Cyril Radcliffe

i) Mr. Justice S.A Rehman (Pakistan)

ii) Mr. Justice Abu Saleh Mohammad Akram (Pakistan)

iii) Mr. Justice C.C. Biswas (India)

iv) Mr. Justice B.K Mukherjee (India)

Chairman of the Boundary Commission Sir Cyril Radcliffe arrived in India on 8th July, 1947 and
instructed both the Commissions to demarcate the boundaries of their respective provinces on
the basis of the contiguity of the Muslim and non-Muslim areas according to the 1941 census.

Unjust Award In Punjab:

In Punjab, the Radcliffe Award snatched a number of Muslim majority areas from Pakistan.
These included Gurdaspur, Pathankot and Batala Tehsil (Gurdaspur district), Anjala Tehsil
(Amritsar), Jullundur Tehsil (Jullundur district) and Zira and Ferozepur tehsils (Ferozepur
district). Out of these, Pathankot tehsil was given to India in order to provide a link between
Kashmir and India.
In the Punjab, both Ferozpur and Gurdaspur were given to India. Again , the Muslims were
disappointed by this decision. Ferozepur had a Muslim majority and the Pakistanis had evidence
to suggest that Radcliffe had originally awarded it to Pakistan but had been forced by Lord
Mountbatten to change his mind. Gurdaspur also had a Muslim majority. By awarding it to
India, the Indians now had a border with Kashmir and future disputes between India and
Pakistan became inevitable.

Unjust Award In Bengal:

Similarly, in Bengal province the most important question was related with the future of
Calcutta. It was the capital of province. Although, the Muslims made a quarter of the
population of Calcutta, large section of its population consisted of scheduled castes that were
allied with the Muslim League. In any case, for more than two hundred years Muslims of Bengal
had contributed to make Calcutta what it was in 1947 and centre of commerce and industry.

The city of Calcutta was the biggest educational, industrial and commercial centre. The
development of Calcutta was based on the toil of Muslim peasantry of Bengal. East Bengal
produced most of the raw material which had to be sent to Calcutta because all the factories
and mills were in Calcutta.

The Congress leaders were determined to get Calcutta by foul and fair means. Eventually,
Calcutta was awarded to India, ignoring the claims of the Muslims.

Purpose of Boundary Commission

The formation of the Boundary Commission was to demarcate the boundary between Pakistan
and India in the provinces of Punjab and Bengal. In these provinces, there was a mixed
population of different communities i.e. Sikhs, Hindus, and Muslims. Hence, it was very difficult
as to where to draw the boundary.

Unjustness of the Commission and its impact on Pakistan

Awarding Calcutta to India

Radcliffe awarded Calcutta to India, even though Muslim majority areas surrounded it. Calcutta
was the capital of Bengal. It was the biggest, commerce and educational center of the province.
The entire development of Calcutta depended on the toil of the Muslim peasantry of Bengal.
East Bengal produced most of the raw material which had to be sent to Calcutta because all
factories and mills were in Calcutta. Ignoring these all factors Radcliffe awarded Calcutta to
India.

Awarding Muslim majority areas to India in Punjab

The Boundary Commission in sheer violation of the Indian Independence Act 1947 awarded
Muslim majority areas of Ferozpur and Gurdaspur in Punjab to India.

Awarding Ferozpur to India

Ferozpur had a Muslim majority and Radcliffe had originally awarded it to Pakistan but
Mountbatten had forced him to change his mind. Ferozpur had canal headworks from where
water flew to irrigate the Indus plain in Pakistan.

India on April 1, 1947, blocked water to Pakistan and diverted the flow of water to the east.
Blockage of water could have threatened the very survival of Pakistan because Pakistan as an
agricultural country depended upon crop farming practiced on Indus

Awarding Gurdaspur to India

Rade Cliffe awarded Gurdaspur to India. With Gurdaspur awarding it to India, the Indians now
had a border with Kashmir and future disputes between India and Pakistan became inevitable.
On 27th October 1948, India landed its troops into Kashmir through Gurdaspur. Since then
Kashmir is an issue between Pakistan and India. Wars have been fought between both states
causing irreparable human and economic loss on both sides.
 PAKISTAN STUDIES
COSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN
 CONSTITUTION”

Constitution is a basic document in the handling of domestic affairs. It sets out the framework
for governance and exercise of power. It gives guiding lines of relationships among the
federating units.

Importance of constitution for a state

THE OBJECTIVE RESOLUTION 1949

The Objectives Resolution was the first constitutional document that proved to be the
„foundation‟ of the constitutional developments in Pakistan. It provided parameters and
sublime principles to the legislators. It made the constitution-making process easy task setting
some particular objectives before them that would be acceptable to the people of Pakistan who
had suffered a lot under the Hindu-dominated majority. The Resolution was moved by Liaquat
Ali Khan, the then Prime Minister of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, and approved on March
12, 1949

The Constituent Assembly (1947-54)

The first Constituent Assembly came into existence under Indian Independence Act 1947. The
elections were held in July 1946 to decide the destiny of the All India Muslim League (AIML)‟s
claim that it is the only representative party of the Indian Muslims that desire separate
homeland, Pakistan. The members from the districts that became part of Pakistan were
declared members of the Constituent Assembly. The number of such members was 69. It
increased to 79 after the 1947 when some states joined Pakistan and then increase in the
population. There were two major parties, Muslim League and Congress in the Assembly at that
time. This Assembly had dual functions to perform.

The first prime Minister of Pakistan, Liaquat Ali Khan presented the Objective Resolution in the
First Constituent Assembly, which was passed on March 12th 1949

SALIENT FEATURES OF OBJECTIVE RESOLUTION

 Sovereignty of Allah

Sovereignty belongs to Allah Almighty alone, but He has delegated it to the state of Pakistan,
and through its people to be exercised as sacred trust within the limits imposed by Him.

 Islamic Democracy

State will exercise its power and authority through the elected representatives of the people
and Islamic democracy will be exercised in the century.
  Islamic Principles

The Islamic principles of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance and social justice shall fully be
followed.

 Islamic ways of living

The Muslims shall be enabled to live individually and collectively in accordance with the
teaching of Quran and Sunah.

 Protection to Minorities

Adequate provisions shall be made for the minorities to profess, propagate and practice their
religions and develop their cultures and traditions.

 Federal from of Government

Pakistan shall be a federation, in which provinces will enjoy autonomy within the constitutional
limits.

 Fundamental Rights

Fundamental rights of freedom, equality, and property, expression of thought, belief, worship
and association shall be guaranteed to all the citizens of Pakistan.

 Free Judiciary

Judiciary shall be independent and will work without any political and economic pressure.

 National language

Urdu will be the national language of the country.

 Protection of Boundaries of Pakistan

Protection of water, land and Air boundaries will be protected. It will be the responsibility of
the Government the take suitable steps for this purpose.

 Source of law

It was mentioned in the Objective Resolution that source of law in Pakistan is Holy Quran and
Sunnah. No Law can be formed in Pakistan which is against Holy Quran and Sunnah.

 Development of Backward Areas

It was mentioned in the Objective Resolution in 1949 that remote or backward area should be
developed equally to other developed areas of the country.

 Answerable Government

It was mentioned in the Objective Resolution in that Pakistan would be free & independent
state. Government of the Pakistan would be bound to make the decisions according to the
public opinion and answerable to the people.

 Democratic System of Government

In 1949, it was declared that democratic system of Government would be established in

Pakistan according to the Islamic concepts.

 National Development

It was also declared in 1949 that the people of Pakistan would be completely independent.
Government should provide equal opportunities to the people, for economic and social
development of the people. Government will take all possible steps in this regard.

IMPORTANCE OF OBJECTIVE RESOLUTION 1949

The Objectives Resolution is a basic and primary document of the constitutional history of
Pakistan. It is a framework that provides mechanism to achieve goals for a better life of the
people of Pakistan. Its important that it embraces centrality of Islam to polity sustaining their
links with the pre-independence period. The AIML leaders were modernist Muslims not in
favors of an orthodox religious state. Therefore, they selected the middle way abiding by the
Islamic laws and the international democratic values. The Resolution remained „Preamble of all
the constitutions due to its importance

 The Objective Resolution is one of the greatest steps after independence. The objective
of establishment of Pakistan has been achieved by the Muslims of South Asia through
this resolution.
 The Objective Resolution has attained the status of Magna Carta in the constitutional
history of Pakistan. It was included as preamble in all the three constitutions, and its
Islamic principles were incorporated in all the constitutions of Pakistan.
 The approval of Objective Resolution led the representatives of Muslims to adopt the
golden principles of democracy instead of theocracy. They built up an Islamic state
above all the geographical, racial and national limitations.
 In 1985, President General Zia-ul-Haq made it permanent part of constitution by an
amendment in Constitution
  Objective Resolution rejected the different concepts of secularism in the country which
were present at that time and clarified that Pakistan will be an Islamic State.
 In Objective Resolution it was declared that minorities should be protected

The Resolution declared the sovereignty of God as the distinctive political philosophy. The
Western democracy gives the notion that sovereignty lies in the people but this Resolution is
important having the concept of the sovereignty of God. It clarified that people would utilize
powers gifted by God so they would have to work within the limits prescribed by Him. The
exercise of the powers is a sacred trust. The representatives of the people of Pakistan will
manage the affairs under the universal ideology of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance,
and social justice with the spirit of an Islamic framework.

The Resolution pledged to give the due respect and rights to the minorities, backward and
depressed classes in the benign society of Pakistan. Their rights, interests, religion and culture
were not confuted. It’s important that the Resolution promised the federating units for due
powers, autonomy and territorial integrity.

Objections by Non-Muslims

The major objection by the Non-Muslims was that the government was trying to mix the
religion and politics that was against the spirit of democracy. The non-Muslims objected on the
„Sovereignty of Allah‟ and minorities‟ rights, saying it would promote inequality in the society.
They were also of view that Shariah was not adequate for the modern time. They feared that it
would encourage the religious extremists to work for the establishment of a „theocratic state.

CONCLUSION

Objective Resolution was the first step towards Islamization in Pakistan. No-doubt Objective
Resolution has a great importance in the constitutional history of Pakistan because all the
questions related to the rights of the minorities; basic rights of the people and nature of
constitution were described in it.
 “KEY IDEAS OF THE SPEECH DELIVERED BY MUHAMMAD ALI JINNAH
TO THE CONSTITUTIENT ASSEMBLY ON 11TH AUGUST 1947”

BACKGROUND

Pakistan emerged as an independent country on the world map on 14 August 1947 in

accordance with the Indian Independence Act 1947. The act provided partition of the Indian
subcontinent into India and Pakistan on Aug 15, 1947. It also provided that the Government of
India Act 1935 would act as a temporary constitution unless the two new states made their
own. Moreover, two sovereign constituent assemblies for both of the states set up by the royal
consent. The constituent assemblies would have the dual role of framing the new constitution
and form the government for their respective states

Constituent Assembly of Pakistan met for the first time on 11th August 1947 under the
presidency of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan. Mr. Jinnah’s addressed this first
meeting which is considered pivotal as this speech presents a blueprint for what the new
Muslim state, Pakistan, should like in the future.

KEY IDEAS OF QUAID I AZAM MUHAMMAD ALI JINNAH SPEECH

 Maintenance of law and order

The first and foremost thing Jinnah emphasized in his speech was the maintenance of
law and order. He urged the assembly to realize this responsibility as the first duty and
exercise all powers to maintain law and order to ensure the protection of life, property,
and religious beliefs of the citizens
 End bribery and corruption
The second most important thing that Jinnah emphasized was to do away with bribery
and corruption. He asked the assembly to take stringent measures to put down the
menace of bribery and corruption
 Tackling of black market
Jinnah was very much concerned with the curse of black marketing and considered it a
colossal crime against humanity causing a disturbance in the control and regulation
system of foodstuffs and essential commodities, wholesale starvation, and even deaths.
. He advised the assembly to put measures in advance in order to check the monster
 Nepotism and jobbery
Jinnah in his speech talked about the evil of nepotism and jobbery emphasizing of the
members of the assembly to crush it relentlessly. He made it clear that he won’t tolerate
any kind of jobbery, nepotism or influence directly or indirectly brought to bear upon
him
 Time will prove partition was only solution
 He also talked about the need for partition in the speech. Jinnah referred to both pro
and anti-partition views and said that yes there were people who supported partition
and there were people who opposed partition. To him, the partition was inevitable as
he thought a united India would have led to terrific disaster. He left it on the test of the
time to decide whether the partition was necessary or not
 Urge on making Pakistan as strong nation
Jinnah urged residents of the new country to bury the hatchet and work in cooperation
as one people. He emphasized show of exemplary unity by standing above all types of
discrimination. To him, it was the only way to make Pakistan one of the great nations of
the world.
 Religious freedom and same and equal status of citizenship
Jinnah in his speech categorically stated that as a citizen of state people will enjoy the
same and equal status. They will enjoy equal rights, privileges, and obligations. He made
it clear that the citizens would not be discriminated against on the basis of religion.
People will enjoy practicing their religion and faith. Creed, caste, and religion would
have nothing to do with the business of the state.

“FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE CONSTITUTION MAKING PROCESS IN THE INITIAL YEARS OF
PAKISTAN”

Constitution is a set of basic principles and framework for governance and exercise of political
power and legal authority. It clarifies the scope of power, relationship among various
institutions within the government and society. It has precedence over ordinary laws and
cannot be changed like ordinary laws. The Government of India Act (1935) was modified and
promulgated in the newly state of Pakistan. The elected members in the 1946 elections made
the first Constituent Assembly that faced grievous circumstances.

MAJOR ISSUES

The major issues, the first constituent assembly faced, were about,

 Federalism
 Representation
 Separate or Joint Electorate
 The National Language Issue
 Parliamentary or Presidential system
 The Islamic or Secular State

FEDERALISM
There was consensus on federalism but yet there were many issues to be settled. The main was
that Pakistan consisted of two territorial parts, East Pakistan (with more population, less
territory but administratively one unit) and West Pakistan. Federalism is meant to
accommodate such kind of diversity maintaining the unity of the state or country.

Division of power:

It was the most difficult question that how the power would be divided between Centre and
the Provinces. The heritage of British rule gave the tradition of a Strong Centre. But the
provinces were demanding more Autonomy and Provincial Rights. In the Interim Constitution
and the 1956 Constitution tradition of strong centre continued.

REPRESENTATION

Representation at the federal level was another conflicting issue because East Pakistan and
West Pakistan were different in population and size. On the other hand there was diversity in
Western part of Pakistan. The provinces of West Pakistan were also different in population and
size. All of them were sensitive to their representation and provincial autonomy. To have a
Standard Formula for the representation of units and population the Constituent Assembly (CA)
formed a Basic Principle Committee (BPC) on March 12, 1949. The primary task of this
committee was to frame a set of basic principles for the future constitution of Pakistan.

First BPC Report:

This committee presented its first report on 28th September 1950. According to this report two
houses of the parliament were proposed. The lower house was to be elected on the basis of
POPULATION and the upper house was to be elected on the basis of equal representation for all
the provinces of Pakistan namely East Bengal, West Punjab, Sindh, NWFP and Baluchistan.
Equal powers were proposed for the both Houses. No mention of National Language was made.
East Bengal opposed this report and Liaqat Ali Khan withdrew it.

SECOND BPC

BPC presented its final report on 22nd December 1952. According to this report two Houses of
the Parliament will enjoy the equal status and powers. It proposed equal representation to East
and West wing. This report also faced reaction in both the wings of Pakistan. The principle of
parity was not appreciated in both East Pakistan and Punjab.

Muhammad Ali Bogra Formula

Muhammad Ali Bogra immediately after assuming the office of the Prime Minister presented a
formula to resolve the deadlock in constitution making. According to this formula Pakistan
would have a bicameral legislature. In upper house there would be EQUAL representation to
each of five units. In lower house population will be represented. In this way more
representation was given to East Pakistan.

Both wings would have equal strength in joint sessions of the two houses.

Reaction to Bogra Formula

It was welcomed in both parts of the country. The principle of parity and representation of the
population was appreciated. It also solved the problem of national language by suggesting Urdu
and Bengali both as national language.

One Unit of West Pakistan October 1955

One Unit of West Pakistan was established on 14th October 1955. The provinces of Punjab,
Sindh, NWFP and Baluchistan would be amalgamated in one unit to establish parity between
the two parts of the country

SEPARATE OR JOINT ELECTORATES

Separate electorate was adopted on the demand of Muslims in 1909 by the British
Government. But the minorities did not favour this after independence. Religious elements
supported this as a part of heritage.

East: decided for Joint Electorate.

West: Separate electorate.

1957: Joint Electorate was adopted for all Pakistan by the National Assembly

THE NATIONAL LANGUAGE ISSUE

Pre-independence: Muslim elite all over India adopted Urdu. In 1948 Jinnah declared that Urdu
would be the national language but provinces could use their languages. Opposition against
Urdu was there in East Bengal. This became more pronounced after the death of Jinnah as
controversies erupted on constitution making. Language Movement started in East Pakistan
February, 1952.

There was a complaint about anti Bengali language attitude of the federal government. Two-
language formula was adopted in 1954. Since 1973 Urdu was adopted as national language
along with the support for development of regional languages.

PARLIMENTARY OR PRERSIDENTIAL SYSTEM

There was a consensus for parliamentary system. But there was a limited demand for
presidential system. Supporters of Presidential system became dominant after the 1958
military takeover. The 1962 Constitution was a Presidential constitution.

THE ISLAMIC OR SECULAR STATE

From the very beginning of Pakistan Movement there was an agreement that the state will
have close relationship with Islam. Muslims defined their national identity with reference to
Islam and its heritage. Some opposition came from the Congress members of the Constituent
Assembly, and a few secularists.

There was a BROAD AGREEMENT that the state will identify itself with Islam. The Constituent
Assembly took Time to define the precise relationship between the state and Islam.

THE SALIENT FEATURES OF 1956 CONSTITUTION

After the approval of Objective Resolution in 1949, the “Constituent Assembly formed many
committees including Basic Principles Committee headed by the Prime Minister. The
Committee, under the chairmanship of Liaquat Ali Khan presented the interim report on
September 28, 1950, which was criticized due to its incompleteness, and was asked to be
revised. Second report of basic principle committee presented to Khawaja Nazim-ud-Din in
1952 but this report was also rejected. Later on Ch. Muhammad Ali started the constitutional
process in Pakistan, when he became Prime Minster.

Constitution of 1956

After taking the charge, Ch. Muhammad Ali started the working on constitution-making. The
draft of a federal parliamentary Constitution was passed by the Constituent Assembly in 1956
which was enforced on March 23, 1956 in the country. This constitution contained of 234
articles.

THE ISLAMIC PROVISION OF CONSTITUATION 1956

 Country’s name

In the constitution of 1956, the name of country was declared an Islamic Republic of Pakistan

 Sovereignty of Allah

In the constitution of 1956, Objective Resolution was included in the preamble of the
Constitution, and Sovereignty over the whole world belongs to Allah Almighty.

 Islamic ways of life

It is mentioned is the constitution of 1956, that Islamic ways of livings will be introduced in the
country. Full opportunities will be given to Muslim to spend their live according to Islam.

 Muslim President

According to the Constitution of 1956, the president of the country will be a Muslim.

 Protection of Islamic Values

System of Islamic values will be implemented in the country. In-Islamic values will be banned in
Pakistan

 Islamic laws

No law will be enforced, which is repugnant to the teachings of Quran and Sunnah and the
existing laws will be brought into conformity with Islam.

 System of Zakat and Aquaf

System of Zakat and Aquaf will be introduced in Pakistan.

 Organization of Islamic Research

According to the Constitution of 1956, it was declared organization of Islamic Research will be
established, which will do research for the legislation and enforcement of Islamic principles.

 Protection to Minorities

Rights of Minorities will be protected in the country. They can spend their lives according to
their own religion and culture

 Elimination of Riba (Usury) Riba

will eliminated from the country as soon as possible.

 Relation with muslims countries

Pakistan will establish good relations with other Islamic countries for the Unit of Muslim World.

 Unity of Muslim World

Pakistan will establish good relations with other Islamic countries for the Unity of Muslim
World.

 Welfare of state
Pakistan will be a welfare state and the government will try its best to eliminate the poverty &
illiteracy from the country. And basic facilities like food, shelter & cloth shall be provided to the
people.

 End of Racial & Provincial Discriminations

The government will try to eliminate Racial, Provincial, Communal and other discriminations
from the country.

 End of Illiteracy

The Government will take certain steps to eliminate the illiteracy from the country & education
will be declared free & compulsory in Pakistan. Government will also take suitable steps for the
adult education in the country.

 Compulsory Teachings of Holy Quran

In the constitution of 1956, it was declared that the government should take steps for the
compulsory education of Holy Quran in Pakistan.

 Separate Electorate

It was declared in the constitution of 1956 that separate electorate would be provided to the
minorities.

 Free Judiciary

Judiciary shall be independent and will work without any political and economic pressure.

 National language

Urdu & Bengali will be the national languages of the country.

Cancellation of Constitution of 1956

Constitution of 1956 was constituted after the hard struggle of the 9 years from 1947 to 1956
but Chief of Army Staff General Ayub Khan dismissed the constitution of 1956 on 7th October
1958. Constitution of 1956 was implemented in Pakistan only for 2 years & 7 months. General
Ayub Khan dismissed the government and later on the President of Pakistan Sikandar Mirza. He
imposed First Martial Law in Country on 7th October 1958.
 THE SALIENT FEATURES OF CONSTITUTION 1962

Background

Military took over on 7 October 1958 and consequently Ayub Khan became Chief Martial Law
Administrator. One major task was to frame a new Constitution. The administration was critical
of Parliamentary system because it caused instability in the past. They sought stability of the
nation in the gradual development of democracy.

Constitution making

The government introduced Basic Democracies in October 1959. Under this system Forty
Thousand basic democrats (local councilors) were to be elected in each province. They have to
perform functions as local government and their role in developmental work. They also acted
as an electoral college for the election of president and the national assembly. Elections for the
Basic Democracies (BD) were held in December 1959 and January 1960. Then Presidential
referendum was held by the elected BD members on February 17, 1960. A Constitutional
Commission was established in February 1960 under the chairmanship of Justice Shahabuddin,
former Chief Justice.

Commission presented its report in May 1961 after then two committees reviewed it. Under
the report of these committees the new Constitution was drafted. Ayub announced the
Constitution on March 1, 1962. Elections to the National Assembly (NA) and Provincial
Assemblies (PAs) were held in April and May 1962 respectively. The new Constitution was
enforced on June 8, 1962. Martial Law was withdrawn. The new Constitution was consisted of
250 articles, 5 schedules.

ISLAMIC PROVISIONS OF CONSTITUTION 1962

 Sovereignty of Allah

Objective Resolution was also included in the preamble of the Constitution, according to which
sovereignty belongs to Allah and He delegates the authority to the Muslims, who exercise it as a
sacred trust.

 Formation of Islamic Society

It is mentioned in the constitution of 1962 that Islamic Society will be established in the country

 Country’s name

The name of the country was proposed as “Republic of Pakistan”, which was later on amended
as “Islamic Republic of Pakistan”.
  Islamic ways of livings

Such an environment will be provided to the people that they live freely according to Islam

 Source of law

No law will be enforced, which is against to the Islamic teachings. All the existing laws will be
brought into conformity with Islamic teachings

 Islamic Principles

Pakistan will be a welfare state. Principles of Democracy, Freedom, Equality, Tolerance and
Social justice will be implemented in the country

 Muslim President

It was declared in the constitution of 1962 that the president of Pakistan would be a Muslim

 Unity of Muslim World

It was mentioned in the constitution that Government would be given special intention towards
the unity of Islamic World.

 Protection to Minorities

Rights of Minorities will be fully protected in the country

 Teachings of Holy Quran

The Quranic and Islamic teachings will be made compulsory for the Muslims

 Islamic Organizations

The Government will establish the organizations for proper maintenance of Zakat, Auqaf and
Masjids

 Islamic Ideology Council

The Islamic Ideology Council will be established to recommend to both central and provincial
governments to take measures to encourage the Muslims to live in accordance with the
principles of Islam

 Islamic Research Institute

 The government will establish the Islamic Research Institute to give its opinion regarding the
Islamic principles

 Elimination of Riba (Usury)

Riba will eliminate from the country as soon as possible

 Free Judiciary

Judiciary shall be independent and will work without any political and economic pressure.

 End of Racial & Provincial Discriminations

The government will try to eliminate the Racial, Provincial, Communal and other discriminations
from the country

 End of Illiteracy

The Government will take certain steps to eliminate the illiteracy from the country & education
will be declared free & compulsory in Pakistan. Government will also take suitable steps for the
adult education in the country

 System of Zakat and Aquaf

System of Zakat and Aquaf will be introduced in Pakistan

 Welfare State

Pakistan will be a welfare state and the government will try its best to eliminate the poverty &
illiteracy from the country. Basic facilities like food, shelter & cloth shall be provided to the
people

 National language

Urdu & Bengali will be the national language of the country

Cancellation of Constitution of 1962

President Ayub Khan resigned on 25th March 1969 in the regard of Public Movement against
his government. Commander in Chief General Yayah Khan imposed Martial Law in the country
and took over the government. That was the 2nd Martial Law which was imposed in the
country. All the provincial and federal governments were dismissed and announced elections in
the country.
 THE SALIENT FEATURES OF CONSTITUTION OF 1973

Background

Abrogation of the 1962 Constitution on March 25, 1969 led to second martial law in the
country. Yahya Khan handed over power to Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto on December 20, 1971 after the
first general elections. But martial law continued and there was no constitution. National
Assembly approved an Interim Constitution, which was enforced on April 21, 1972.

Constitution making

Constitutional Committee comprising National Assembly (NA) members from all parties was set
up in April 1972. Law Minister was the Chairman of this Committee.

All parties agreed on the future political system in October 1972. The Committee reported on
December 31, 1972. After long deliberations and compromises final draft was approved
unanimously on April 10, 1973. The new Constitution was enforced on August 14, 1973.

General Yayah Khan took over the country on 25th March 1969 and General Elections were
held in the country in 1970. After the General Elections the situation became violent. East
Pakistan separated from the federation and became Bangladesh on 16th December 1971. After
the separation of East Pakistan in 1971, the Military Regime transferred the power to Zulfiqar
Ali Bhutto on December 20, 1971, who imposed interim Constitution in the country on April 12,
1972. Then a draft of permanent Constitution was presented before the Assembly and it was
approved in April 1973. The constitution was enforced on August 14, 1973. This constitution
was consisted of 280 clauses, which was Federal Parliamentary in nature.

Islamic Provisions of Constitution of 1973

All the Islamic provisions of the previous constitutions were included in the Constitution of
1973. Some more Islamic provisions were also added, which are as under

 Sovereignty of Allah

The Objective Resolution was included in the preamble of the Constitution of 1973. According
to which sovereignty- over the whole world belongs to Allah. The people of Pakistan will
exercise the sovereignty within the limits as a sacred trust of Allah

 Country’s Name

The country’s name will be Islamic Republic of Pakistan.

 Official Religion of the State

The official religion of the country will be Islam

 Muslim President and Prime Minister

The President and Prime Minister of Pakistan will be Muslims, who believe in oneness of Allah
and the finality of the Prophet Hood of Muhammad (SAW).

 Definition of a Muslim

For the first time, the definition of a Muslim was included in the Constitution of 1973. A person
who does believe in oneness of Allah, the absolute finality of Prophet Hood of Muhammad
(PBUH), the day of Judgment and divine Books of Allah, is a Muslim‟

 Protection of Islamic Laws

All the existing laws will be brought into conformity with Islamic principles and no law will be
enforced, which is repugnant to the teachings of Islam

 Compulsory Islamic Teachings & Quran

The teaching of Quran and Islamic studies will he made compulsory in schools and colleges

 Teaching of Arabic and printing of Quran

The teaching of Arabic will be compulsory from 6 to 8 classes in schools and printing of Quran
will be made error free

 Islamic Values

Islamic values for example, democracy, equity, liberty and equality will be the main objectives
of the Constitution

 Islamic Society

The Muslims will be allowed to lead individually or collectively in accordance principles of Islam
to form an Islamic society

Zakat and Usher

According to the Constitution of 1973, the government will establish the system of Zakat and
Usher by establishing the Zakat & Usher Councils

 Elimination of Riba (Usury or Interest)

The government will eliminate Riba and make the economy of the country free from Riba
  Islamic Ideology Council

The Islamic Ideology Council will be established, which will guide the legislature to make the
laws in accordance with Islamic teachings and bring the existing.

 Unity of Islamic World:

Government will give full intension towards the unity of Muslim world

 Protection to Minorities

Government will provide full right to the Minorities they spend their lives according to their
own religion and culture.

 End of Racial & Provincial Discriminations

The government will try to eliminate Racial, Provincial, Communal and other discriminations
from the country

 End of Illiteracy

The Government will take certain steps to eliminate the illiteracy from the country. Education
will be declared free & compulsory in Pakistan. Government will also take suitable steps for the
adult education in the country

 Welfare State

Pakistan will be a welfare state. Government tried its best to eliminate the poverty & illiteracy
in the country. And basic facilities like food, shelter & cloth shall be provided to the people

 National language

Urdu will be the national language of the country

 Free Judiciary

Judiciary shall be independent and will work without any political and economic pressure

 Protection of Ideology of Pakistan

It is mentioned in the constitution of 1973 that President, Prime Minister, Federal Minister,
Speaker, Deputy Speaker, Chairman Senate, Deputy Chairman Senate, Provincial Governors,
Chief Minister, Provincial Speakers, Provincial Deputy Speakers & Provincial Minister will take
Oath to be loyal with the ideology of Pakistan and the Islamic Ideology
  Objective Resolution as the Permanent Part of the Constitution

In 1985, General Zia-ul-Haq made an amendment in the constitution and Objective Resolution
declared the permanent part of the constitution

Importance of constitution 1973

Constitution of 1973 has a great importance in the constitutional history of Pakistan because a
lot of Islamic Clauses are added in the constitution as compared to the previous constitutions

Suspension of Constitution of 1973

Constitution of 1973 was suspended by General Zia-ul-Haq in 1977 and he imposed the 3rd
Martial Law in the country. General Zia-ul-Haq re-activated this constitution in 1985. Later on
this constitution again suspended by Pervaiz Musharaf in his regime twice partially in 1999 and
2007.

COMPARE THE THREE CONSTITUTION OF PAKISTAN IN TERM OF THEIR NATURE AND

FEATURES

The first constitution was promulgated in 1956, the second in 1962, and the third and current
constitution in 1973. As per the date of their promulgation, they are called the 1956
constitution, the 1962 constitution, and the 1973 Constitution respectively.

The 1956 Constitution lasted only for a couple of years and a few months as the then-president
Iskandar Mirza abrogated it by imposing the first Martial Law in the country. After four years of
his rule, Field Marshal Ayub Khan introduced the 1962 Constitution which remained enforced
as long as he was in power.

When Bhutto came to power in 1971, his government promulgated the 1973 constitution with
the complete consent of the opposition parties. Despite military coups and a number of
amendments by military rulers, the 1973 constitution stills act as the constitution of Pakistan.

Comparison of all three constitutions of Pakistan

Following are the similarities and differences found among all three constitutions framed and
promulgated in the country at different times under different rulers.

Similarities among the constitutions

All the three constitutions of 1956, 1962, and 1973 provided,

  only a Muslim would be the head of the state and the executive;
 legislation in alignment with Islamic laws and repealing of laws repugnant to Islam;
 Objectives Resolution 1949 as part of the preamble;
 elections on basis of Universal suffrage
 Pakistan would be named the Islamic Republic of Pakistan

COMPARISON

CONSTITUTION 1956

 President would be more powerful. He could choose Prime Minister from National
Assembly.
 He would also have the power to dismiss PM, the government, and the assembly.
 It provided the parliamentary form of government
 It provided One house parliament/unicameral legislature.
 There would be only a national assembly.
 Urdu and Bengali were declared as National languages
 There was no provision with regard to the definition of a Muslim.
 It provided that people will directly elect members of the national assembly
 Unlike the 1973 constitution, there was no mention of Islam as the official religion of the
state.
 The minimum age limit for the president would be 40 years
CONSTITUTION 1962
 It did not provide the post of PM
 President was all-powerful with the authority to dismiss the national and provincial
assemblies
 It provided the presidential form of government
 It provided a unicameral legislature called National Assembly
 Urdu and Bengali were declared as national languages
 No provision regarding the definition of a Muslim
 It provided that Basic Democrats would act as an electoral college for the election of the
president, the national and provincial assemblies.
 It also did not mention religion Islam as the official religion of the state
 The minimum age limit for the president would be 35 years.

CONSTITUTION 1973
 The post of president would be symbolic. He/she would act only with the advice of the
prime minister.
 The prime minister would be more powerful and elected by the national assembly.
 Like that of 1956 constitution, it also provided a parliamentary form of government
 There would be two-house parliament consisting of the Senate (upper house) and
National Assembly (Lower House).
  Only Urdu was declared as the national language as Bengali-speaking East Pakistan had
seceded from West Pakistan.
 Provision of the definition of a Muslim
 Under this definition, Qadiyanis were declared non-Muslims in Pakistan
 Like the 1956 constitution and unlike the 1962 constitution, the 1973 constitution
provided that people would directly elect members of both national and provincial
assemblies.
 Islam would be the official religion of the state
 The minimum age limit for the president would be 45 years

“STEPS TOWARDS ISLAMAIZATION IN PAKISTAN WITH REFERENCE TO CONSTITUTION 1956,

1962 AND 1973”
Pakistan is the Single State which was obtained on the base of Islam in the world.

Steps towards Islamization

The process towards the enforcement of Islam in Pakistan is as under,

 Objective Resolution (1949)

The Objective Resolution was passed on 12th March, 1949, it laid down the basis for future
constitution. A lot of Islamic clauses like supremacy of Allah, National Language Urdu, and
Protection to Minorities, Free Judiciary and Islamic Laws etc were included in it

 Constitution of 1956

In 1956 Ch. Muhammad Ali Prime Minister enforced first constitution in Pakistan that
constitution was also Islamic because a lot of Islamic Clauses were included in it like Supremacy
of Allah, End of Usury & in-Islamic Values, Protection to Minorities, Free Judiciary and Islamic
Laws etc

 Constitution of 1962

In 1962 President General Ayub Khan enforced 2nd constitution in Pakistan that constitution
was also Islamic because a lot of Islamic Clauses were included in it like Supremacy of Allah, End
of Usury & in-Islamic Values, Protection to Minorities & Judiciary, Islamic Laws etc.

 Constitution of 1973

The Islamic reflection in the Constitution of 1973 is prominent and many Islamic provisions are
added in it. The complete sovereignty of Allah over the world, Islam as official religion and
definition of a Muslim are the specific examples. The efforts for Islamization also continued in
the country in forth coming periods

Steps Towards Islamization by the Martial law Government From 1977 to till

DISCUSS THE FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS GIVEN IN THE CONSTITUTION OF PAKISTAN 1973

 No person shall be deprived of life or liberty, save in accordance with law (article 9)
 Safeguard as to arrest and detention. All arrested person must be informed of grounds
of their arrest, they have right to consult and defended by lawyer of their choice.
 Right of fair trial under article 10A
 Slavery, forced labor is prohibited and no child under age of 14 year be employed in
factory and mines.
 There shall be protection against retrospective punishment
 There shall be protection against double punishment and self-incrimination.
 Freedom of movement to everyone
 Freedom of assembly for all citizens
 Freedom of association for all citizens
 There shall be freedom of trade, business and profession for all citizens.
 Freedom of speech for all citizens
 All citizens shall have right to have access to information in all matters of public
importance under article 19A.
 Freedom to profess religion and to manage religious institution in country
 Safeguard against the taxation for the purposes of any particular religion.
 Safeguard as to educational institutes in respect of religion etc.
 All citizens have right to acquire, hold and dispose of property in any part of Pakistan.
 Protection of property rights of owners.
 All citizens are equal and there shall be no discrimination on bases of sex etc.
 Free and compulsory education to all children of age 5 to 16 by Government
 No discrimination in respect of access to public places.
 Safeguard against discrimination in services.
 All citizens have right to preserve their particular language, script and culture

DETAILS

9 Security of person

No person shall be deprived of life or liberty saves in accordance with law.

10 Safeguards as to arrest and detention

(1) No person who is arrested shall be detained in custody without being informed, as soon
 as may be, of the grounds for such arrest, nor shall he be denied the right to consult
and be defended by a legal practitioner of his choice.

(2) Every person who is arrested and detained in custody shall be produced before a
magistrate within a period of twenty-four hours of such arrest, excluding the time
necessary for the journey from the place of arrest to the court of the nearest
magistrate, and no such person shall be detained in :custody beyond the said period
without the authority of a magistrate.

(3) Nothing in clauses (1) and (2) shall apply to any person who is arrested or detained
under any law providing for preventive detention.

(4) No law providing for preventive detention shall be made except to deal with persons
acting in a manner prejudicial to the integrity, security or defence of Pakistan or any
part thereof, or external affairs of Pakistan, or public order, or the maintenance of
supplies or services, and no such law shall authorise the detention of a person for a
period exceeding 20[three months] 20 unless the appropriate Review Board has, after
affording him an opportunity of being heard in person, reviewed his case and reported,
before the expiration of the said period, that there is, in its opinion, sufficient cause for
such detention, and, if the detention is continued after the said period of 21[three
months] 21, unless the appropriate Review Board has reviewed his case and reported,
before the expiration of each period of three months, that there is, in its opinion,
sufficient cause for such detention.

Explanation-I: In this Article, "the appropriate Review Board" means:-

(i) in the case of a person detained under a Federal law, a Board appointed by the
Chief Justice of Pakistan and consisting of a Chairman and two other persons, each
of whom is or has been a Judge of the Supreme Court or a High Court; and

(ii) in the case of a Person detained under a Provincial law, a Board appointed by the
Chief Justice of the High Court concerned and consisting of a Chairman and two
other persons, each of whom is or has been a Judge of a High Court.
 Explanation-II: The opinion of a Review Board shall be expressed in terms of the views of
the majority of its members.

(5) When any person is detained in pursuance of an order made under any law providing
for preventive detention, the authority making the order shall, 22[within fifteen
days] 22 from such detention, communicate to such person the grounds on which the
order has been made, and shall afford him the earliest opportunity of making a
representation against the order:

Provided that the authority making any such order may refuse to disclose facts which
such authority considers it to be against the public interest to disclose.

(6) The authority making the order shall furnish to the appropriate Review Board all
documents relevant to the case unless a certificate, signed by a Secretary to the
Government concerned, to the effect that it is not in the public interest to furnish any
documents, is produced.

(7) Within a period of twenty-four months commencing on the day of his first detention in
pursuance of an order made under a law providing for preventive detention, no person
shall be detained in pursuance of any such order for more than a total period of eight
months in the case of a person detained for acting in a manner prejudicial to public
order and twelve months in any other case:

Provided that this clause shall not apply to any person who is employed by, or works
for, or acts on instructions received from, the enemy 23[or who is acting or attempting
to act in a manner prejudicial to the integrity, security or defence of Pakistan or any part
thereof or who commits or attempts to commit any act which amounts to an anti-
national activity as defined in a Federal law or is a member of any association which has
for its objects, or which indulges in, any such anti-national activity] 23.

(8) The appropriate Review Board shall determine the place of detention of the person
detained and fix a reasonable subsistence allowance for his family.
 (9) Nothing in this Article shall apply to any person who for the time being is an enemy
alien.

24[

10A. Right to fair trial

For the determination of his civil rights and obligations or in any criminal charge against
him a person shall be entitled to a fair trial and due process.

] 24

11 Slavery, forced labour, etc. prohibited

(1) Slavery is non-existent and forbidden and no law shall permit or facilitate its
introduction into Pakistan in any form.

(2) All forms of forced labour and traffic in human beings are prohibited.

(3) No child below the age of fourteen years shall be engaged in any factory or mine or any
other hazardous employment.

(4) Nothing in this Article shall be deemed to affect compulsory service:-

(a) by any person undergoing punishment for an offence against any law; or

(b) required by any law for public purpose provided that no compulsory service shall be
 of a cruel nature or incompatible with human dignity.

12 Protection against retrospective punishment

(1) No law shall authorize the punishment of a person:-

(a) for an act or omission that was not punishable by law at the time of the act or
omission; or

(b) for an offence by a penalty greater than, or of a kind different from, the penalty
prescribed by law for that offence at the time the offence was committed.

(2) Nothing in clause (1) or in Article 270 shall apply to any law making acts of abrogation or
subversion of a Constitution in force in Pakistan at any time since the twenty-third day
of March, one thousand nine hundred and fifty-six, an offence.

13 Protection against double punishment and self incrimination

No person:-

(a) shall be prosecuted or punished for the same offence more than once; or

(b) shall, when accused of an offence, be compelled to be a witness against himself.

14 Inviolability of dignity of man, etc.

(1) The dignity of man and, subject to law, the privacy of home, shall be inviolable.
 (2) No person shall be subjected to torture for the purpose of extracting evidence.

15 Freedom of movement, etc

Every citizen shall have the right to remain in, and, subject to any reasonable restriction
imposed by law in the public interest, enter and move freely throughout Pakistan and to
reside and settle in any part thereof.

16 Freedom of assembly

Every citizen shall have the right to assemble peacefully and without arms, subject to any
reasonable restrictions imposed by law in the interest of public order.

25[

17. Freedom of association:

(1) Every citizen shall have the right to form associations or unions, subject to any
reasonable restrictions imposed by law in the interest of sovereignty or integrity of
Pakistan, public order or morality.

(2) Every citizen, not being in the service of Pakistan, shall have the right to form or be a
member of a political party, subject to any reasonable restrictions imposed by law in
the interest of the sovereignty or integrity of Pakistan and such law shall provide that
where the Federal Government declares that any political party has been formed or is
operating in a manner prejudicial to the soverignty or integrity of Pakistan, the Federal
Government shall, within fifeen days of such declaration, refer the matter to the
 Supreme Court whose decision on such reference shall be final.

(3) Every political party shall account for the source of its funds in accordance with law.

] 25

18 Freedom of trade, business or profession

Subject to such qualifications, if any, as may be prescribed by law, every citizen shall have
the right to enter upon any lawful profession or occupation, and to conduct any lawful trade
or business:

Provided that nothing in this Article shall prevent:-

(a) the regulation of any trade or profession by a licensing system; or

(b) the regulation of trade, commerce or industry in the interest of free competition
therein; or

(c) the carrying on, by the Federal Government or a Provincial Government, or by a

corporation controlled by any such Government, of any trade, business, industry or
service, to the exclusion, complete or partial, of other persons.

19 Freedom of speech, etc

.
Every citizen shall have the right to freedom of speech and expression, and there shall be
freedom of the press, subject to any reasonable restrictions imposed by law in the interest
of the glory of Islam or the integrity, security or defence of Pakistan or any part thereof,
friendly relations with foreign States, public order, decency or morality, or in relation to
contempt of court, 33[commission of] 33 or incitement to an offence.
34[

19A. Right to information

Every citizen shall have the right to have access to information in all matters of public
importance subject to regulation and reasonable restrictions imposed by law.

] 34

20 Freedom to profess religion and to manage religious institutions

Subject to law, public order and morality:-

(a) every citizen shall have the right to profess, practice and propagate his religion; and

(b) every religious denomination and every sect thereof shall have the right to establish,
maintain and manage its religious institutions.

21 Safeguard against taxation for purposes of any particular religion

No person shall be compelled to pay any special tax the proceeds of which are to be spent
on the propagation or maintenance of any religion other than his own.

22 Safeguards as to educational institutions in respect of religion, etc.

(1) No person attending any educational institution shall be required to receive religious
instruction, or take part in any religious ceremony, or attend religious worship, if such
instruction, ceremony or worship relates to a religion other than his own.
 (2) In respect of any religious institution, there shall be no discrimination against any
community in the granting of exemption or concession in relation to taxation.

(3) Subject to law:

(a) no religious community or denomination shall be prevented from providing

religious instruction for pupils of that community or denomination in any
educational institution maintained wholly by that community or denomination; and

(b) no citizen shall be denied admission to any educational institution receiving aid
from public revenues on the ground only of race, religion, caste or place of birth.

(4) Nothing in this Article shall prevent any public authority from making provision for the
advancement of any socially or educationally backward class of citizens.

23 Provision as to property

Every citizen shall have the right to acquire, hold and dispose of property in any part of
Pakistan, subject to the Constitution and any reasonable restrictions imposed by law in the
public interest.

24 Protection of property rights.

(1) No person shall be compulsorily deprived of his property save in accordance with law.

(2) No property shall be compulsorily acquired or taken possession of save for a public
purpose, and save by the authority of law which provides for compensation therefore
and either fixes the amount of compensation or specifies the principles on and the
 manner in which compensation is to be determined and given.

(3) Nothing in this Article shall affect the validity of :-

(a) any law permitting the compulsory acquisition or taking possession of any property
for preventing danger to life, property or public health; or

(b) any law permitting the taking over of any property which has been acquired by, or
come into the possession of, any person by any unfair means, or in any manner,
contrary to law; or

(c) any law relating to the acquisition, administration or disposal of any property which
is or is deemed to be enemy property or evacuee property under any law (not being
property which has ceased to be evacuee property under any law); or

(d) any law providing for the taking over of the management of any property by the
State for a limited period, either in the public interest or in order to secure the
proper management of the property, or for the benefit of its owner; or

(e) any law providing for the acquisition of any class of property for the purpose of

(i) providing education and medical aid to all or any specified class of citizens or

(ii) providing housing and public facilities and services such as roads, water supply,
sewerage, gas and electric power to all or any specified class of citizens; or

(iii) providing maintenance to those who, on account of unemployment, sickness,

infirmity or old age, are unable to maintain themselves ; or

(f) any existing law or any law made in pursuance of Article 253.

(4) The adequacy or otherwise of any compensation provided for by any such law as is
referred to in this Article, or determined in pursuance thereof, shall not be called in
question in any court.
25 Equality of citizens.

(1) All citizens are equal before law and are entitled to equal protection of law.

(2) There shall be no discrimination on the basis of sex 35[] 35.

(3) Nothing in this Article shall prevent the State from making any special provision for the
protection of women and children.

36[

25A. Right to education

The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of five to
sixteen years in such manner as may be determined by law.

] 36

26. Non-discrimination in respect of access to public places.

(1) In respect of access to places of public entertainment or resort not intended for
religious purposes only, there shall be no discrimination against any citizen on the
ground only of race, religion, caste, sex, residence or place of birth.

(2) Nothing in clause (1) shall prevent the State from making any special provision for
women and children.
27. Safeguard against discrimination in services.

(1) No citizen otherwise qualified for appointment in the service of Pakistan shall be
discriminated against in respect of any such appointment on the ground only of race,
religion, caste, sex, residence or place of birth:

Provided that, for a period not exceeding 37[forty] 37 years from the commencing day,
posts may be reserved for persons belonging to any class or area to secure their
adequate representation in the service of Pakistan:

Provided further that, in the interest of the said service, specified posts or services may
be reserved for members of either sex if such posts or services entail the performance
of duties and functions which cannot be adequately performed by members of the
other sex 39[:] 39
40[Provided also that under-representation of any class or area in the service of
Pakistan may be redressed in such manner as may be determined by an Act of Majlis-e-
Shoora (Parliament).] 40

(2) Nothing in clause (1) shall prevent any Provincial Government, or any local or other
authority in a Province, from prescribing, in relation to any post or class of service
under that Government or authority, conditions as to residence in the Province. for a
period not exceeding three years, prior to appointment under that Government or
authority.

28 Preservation of language, script and culture

Subject to Article 251 any section of citizens having a distinct language, script or culture
shall have the right to preserve and promote the same and subject to law, establish
institutions for that purpose.
EVALUATE THE PRACTICAL IMPLEMENTATION OF THESE RIGHTS IN PAKISTAN
PAKISTAN STUDIES
ND
2 YEAR
SLO 3.1.1

Distribution of power with reference to 1973 constitution

Powers divided in three lists

1. Federal list

2. Provincial list

3. Concurrent list (abolished and mostly transferred to provincial list-18th amendment)

• Defence federal list

• Foreign policy federal list

• Finance federal list

• Health provincial list

• Sanitation provincial list

• Education provincial list

• Tourism provincial list

SLO 3.2.

CONCEPT OF “LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT”

Local government is an organization or a group of such people who are elected by citizens and
run a district, town, country, or a region at local level.

A local government is type of public administration which in a majority of contexts, exists as the
lowest tier of administration within a given state. In Pakistan federal government is its highest
tier, provincial tier at the middle level and the lowest is local self government.

Local self government is the type of public administration and lowest tier of government in any
democratic system. Local self-government usually established to transfer powers at grass root
level.

SLO 3.2.2
LOCAL GOVERNMENT INTRODUCED BY MILITRY RULER GENERAL AYUB KHAN

• Basic democracy

General Ayub Khan, the president of Pakistan, issued an ordinance of Basic Democracies on
October 27 1959 and introduced the system of local government in Pakistan.

• It was attempt to initiate a grass-root level democratic system

• It was four tiered hierarchical structure consisting of the

o The Union council(RURAL AREAS) / Union committees(URBAN AREAS)

Lowest and basic tier of the system,

It was at grass-root level and base of the system

It consist of chairman and usually 15 members

Out of these 15 members two-third elected members and one-third nominated members
(however in 1962 constitution nomination for the union council was abolished through
amendment)

Election on the basis of adult franchise

Chairman was elected by members from among themselves

The elected representatives of the union councils were called basic democrats

Consist of 5-8 villages, about 8000-15,000 people

o The Tehsil council

The representative members were the chairman of the union councils and town
committees. Tehsil Council also had an equal number of officials and non-official members.
Official members included officials of the Tehsil administration whereas non-officials included
chairmen of all UCs within the Tehsil. Deputy Commissioner headed the council.

The official members were the representatives of the various nation- building departments of
the Tehsil and their number was fixed by district magistrate of the concerned district

Headed by Sub-divisional officer

No election, consist of officials and non-officials member

Official members are the chairman of all union councils in the Tehsil and the non-officials were
the head of all national assemblies departments in the Tehsil

Number of official members are equal to the number of non-official members

Tehsil council acting as coordinating body between union council and district council

o The District council

One of the most important tier of the system

Consisted of one chairman, officials and non-official members

The number of members not exceeds 40

Official members were selected from district level officers of the developmental departments

District magistrate acted as chairman of the council

Head of the council was Deputy Commissioner of district and vice chairman used to selected
from the amongst the chairman of Tehsil or the union councilor by Deputy Commissioner

This tier consist of officials and non-officials, number of both officials and non-officials are equal

o The Divisional council

The most upper tier, both official and non-official members

Maximum numbers of members are 45

It was headed by divisional commissioner

Members of divisional council are deputy commissioner, the vice chairman of the district within
division. The divisional level officers as a official members. Some other prominent persons
elected by commissioner and some were recommended by deputy commissioner

Number of officials and non-officials are equal

NOTE to solve the problems at grass root level, to transfer powers at grass root level
LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT INTRODUCED BY MILITARY RULER, GENERAL ZIA UL HAQ 1979

The military ruler General Zia-ul-Haq introduced a local government system “The Local Bodies
System 1979” in Pakistan. Contrary to Ayub’s Basic Democracies system, the Local Bodies
System 1979 was characterized with three tiers in rural areas and three to four tiers in urban
areas depending upon the size of the town/city.

• 10 August 1979 inter-provincial conference held Islamabad regarding the structure and
establishment of local self government.

• Three tier system in rural areas

Union council

Tehsil council

District council

• Union council and district council would be elected on adult franchise

• Chairmen of union council would be the members of tehsil council

• No elections conducted for tehsil council

• In urban areas, distribution such as

5000-10000 town committees

10,000-500,000 municipal committee

More than 500000 municipal corporations (Karachi and Lahore).

LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT SYSTEM INTRODUCED BY MILITRY RULER, GENERAL PERVAIZ

MUSHARAFF 2001

In order to establish democracy at grassroots level, the regime of General Pervaiz Musharaf,
introduced the Local Government System. The system of Local Government was installed on
August 14, 2001, after holding of elections. Direct elections on non-party basis were held in five
phases for members of Union Councils, Union Nazims, and Naib Union Nazims during 2000 thru
to 2001. On the basis of these direct elections, indirect elections were held in July-August 2001
for Zila Nazims and Naib Zila Nazims and also for Tehsil-Town Nazims and Naib Nazims. In order
to attract people towards electoral politics, the minimum age for local government elections
was lowered from 21 to 18 years. One-third seats were reserved for women.
The main purpose of introducing the Local Government System was to empower the people at
the grassroots level and to transfer power from the elite to the masses. This system of
grassroots democracy envisaged yielding new political leaders. It was also anticipated to solve
people’s problems at local level, allow public participation in decision-making and ensure the
provision of speedy justice. The essence of this system was that the Local Governments would
be accountable to the citizens for all their decisions. It would enable the proactive elements of
society to participate in community work, development related activities and would remove
rural-urban divide.

The new System provided a three-tier Local Government structure:

The District Government

The Tehsil Government

The Union Administration

• Three tier system

Union council

Tehsil council

District council

• Union council

Comprise of 21 members

Led by Nazim, who was directly elected

Distribution of seats as following, nazim1, naib nazim1, Muslim men 8, Muslim women 4,
worker/ peasants 4, worker/ peasant women 2 and minorities 1.

The District Government consisted of the Zila Nazim and District Administration. The District
Administration consisted of district offices including sub-offices at Tehsil level, who were to be
responsible to the District Nazim assisted by the District Coordination Officer. The District
Coordination Officer was appointed by the Provincial Government and was the coordinating
head of the District Administration. The Zila Nazim was accountable to the people through the
elected members of the Zila Council. A Zila Council consisted of all Union Nazims in the District,
which consisted of members elected on the reserved seats. These seats were reserved for
women, peasants, workers, and minority community. The Zila Council had its Secretariat under
the Naib Zila Nazim and had a separate budget allocation. Adequate checks and balances were
introduced in the System.

• Tehsil council

The middle tier, the Tehsil, had Tehsil Municipal Administration headed by the Tehsil Nazim.
Tehsil Municipal Administration consisted of a Tehsil Nazim, Tehsil Municipal Officer, Tehsil
Officers, Chief Officers and other officials of the Local Council Service and officials of the offices
entrusted to the Tehsil Municipal Administration. The Tehsil Municipal Administration was
entrusted with the functions of administration, finances, and management of the offices of
Local Government and Rural Development, and numerous other subjects at the regional,
Divisional, District, Tehsil and lower levels.

Tehsil nazim and tehsil naib nazim directly elected by adult franchise

Members included all naib nazims of union councils

• District council

Led by zila nazim, not member of assembly, zila naib nazim acting as speaker of district
assembly

The lowest tier, the Union Administration was a corporate body covering the rural as well as
urban areas across the whole District. It consisted of Union Nazim, Naib Union Nazim and three
Union Secretaries and other auxiliary staff. The Union Nazim was the head of the Union
Administration and the Naib Union Nazim acted as deputy to the Union Nazim during his
temporary absence. The Union Secretaries coordinated and facilitated in community
development, functioning of the Union Committees and delivery of municipal services under
the supervision of Union Nazim.

SLO 3.2.3

THE MERITS AND DEMERITS OF THE SYSTEM OF THE LOCAL BODIES IN DIFFERENT POLITICAL
ERA OF PAKISTAN

Merits and demerits of the local system introduced by General Ayub Khan

• Merits

Enhance political awareness

Industrial and agricultural sector of Pakistan

Enhance social and cultural activities

Train political leadership at grass-root level

Political stability

Establishment of arbitrary courts

• Demerits

Undue interference of bureaucrats

Limited powers of institutions

Unlimited powers of commissioner and deputy commissioner

Failure in providing civic facilities

Monopoly of government officials in development projects

Illiterate basic democrats

Merits and demerits of the local system introduced by General Zia ul Haq

Merits

• The first-ever local Council elections on basis of adult franchise

For the first time, the provincial governments held elections to local councils based on adult
franchise in both villages and cities simultaneously all over the country including Gilgit-
Baltistan, Federal Area, Tribal Areas, and Azad Kashmir.

• Increased measures for local empowerment

Unlike the Basic Democracies System of Ayub Khan, there were no appointed or unofficial
members in councils. Public representatives headed the councils and enjoyed significant
autonomy. Now, they could make and approve decisions about their own budgets and taxation.

• Most representative in nature since independence

The Local Bodies Government System 1979introduced in 1979 by General Zia-ul-Haq was the
most representative in nature since independence. It provided representation for women,
peasant workers in the councils. Moreover, it also provided reserved seats for minorities.

Although this representation was not enough, it was a step towards empowerment and
inclusion of people in politics.

Demerits
Influence of provincial governments

Although the new system provided an increased measure of empowerment, still the councils
were not independent enough. the provincial government could influence the councilors by
using its authority of allocating funds for the councils.

Absence of constitutional protection

No constitutional protection was given to elected local councils as it was a presidential

ordinance. This lack of constitutional protection put local governments vulnerable to the whims
of bureaucracy and provincial government to suspend local government heads and make
changes at their will.

The increased role of elite politics in rural areas

The new local government system provided a non-Party-based election. The restriction on
political parties to contest elections led to an increased role of the rural elite who dominated
rural politics.

Rural-Urban power Disparity

The system favored the Urban councils as they enjoyed higher levels of revenue than rural
councils. In contrast, the rural and semi-urban councils were dependent on provincial
governments for financial support.

Merits and demerits of the local system introduced by General Pervaiz Musharraf

SLO 3.3.1

GOOD GOVERNENCE

Governance is the exercise of political, economic and administrative authority to manage a

nation’s affairs. It is a complex mechanism, processes, relationships and institution through
which citizens and groups articulates their interest, exercise their rights and obligations and
mediate their differences.

Good governance is there for set of governance, where in public resources and problems are
managed, effectively, efficiently and in response to critical needs of society. Effective
democratic form of governance forms of governance rely on public participation, accountability
and transparency.
“Way of measuring how public institutions conduct public affairs and manage public resources
in a preferred way”

“Good governance is an approach to government that is committed to creating a system

founded justice and peace that protects individual’s human rights and civil liberties”

Good governance is the process whereby public institutions conduct public affairs, manage
public resources and guarantee the realization of human rights in a manner essentially free of
abuse and corruption, and with due regard for the rule of law.

Good governance is a real drive behind a country’s development. It protects the human rights,
delivers the justice, maintains law an order and provides equal opportunities to the masses. It
delivers the fruits of progress and development to all and sundry. It is required at all levels of
society and state. In today’s globalized world good governance helps to meet eh challenges of
the world. It makes the system of the state effective and efficient. People of the country enjoy
equal rights under good governance. Minorities live freely and exercise their religion. No one
considers himself above law. Everyone, no matter how influential he is, is accountable before
law. Corruption is unheard of in a country where good governance prevails. Not only
government officials but also common citizens are aware of their duties and play their role
sincerely. In such cooperative environment, economy boosts and investment increases leading
to the prosperity of the country. In this way good governance helps to reap the fruits of
globalization.

GOOD GOVERNANCE

Good governance has 8 major characteristics. It is participatory, consensus oriented,

accountable, transparent, responsive, effective and efficient, equitable and inclusive and
follows the rule of law. It assures that corruption is minimized, the views of minorities are taken
into account and that the voices of the most vulnerable in society are heard in decision-making.
It is also responsive to the present and future needs of society.

1 - Participation

Participation by both men and women is a key cornerstone of good governance. Participation
could be either direct or through legitimate intermediate institutions or representatives. It is
important to point out that representative democracy does not necessarily mean that the
concerns of the most vulnerable in society would be taken into consideration in decision
making. Participation needs to be informed and organized. This means freedom of association
and expression on the one hand and an organized civil society on the other hand.

2- Rule of law
Good governance requires fair legal frameworks that are enforced impartially. It also requires
full protection of human rights, particularly those of minorities. Impartial enforcement of laws
requires an independent judiciary and an impartial and incorruptible police force.

3- Transparency

Transparency means that decisions taken and their enforcement are done in a manner that
follows rules and regulations. It also means that information is freely available and directly
accessible to those who will be affected by such decisions and their enforcement. It also means
that enough information is provided and that it is provided in easily understandable forms and
media.

4- Responsiveness

Good governance requires that institutions and processes try to serve all stakeholders within a
reasonable timeframe.

5- Consensus oriented

There are several actors and as many view points in a given society. Good governance requires
mediation of the different interests in society to reach a broad consensus in society on what is
in the best interest of the whole community and how this can be achieved. It also requires a
broad and long-term perspective on what is needed for sustainable human development and
how to achieve the goals of such development. This can only result from an understanding of
the historical, cultural and social contexts of a given society or community.

6- Equity and inclusiveness

A society’s well being depends on ensuring that all its members feel that they have a stake in it
and do not feel excluded from the mainstream of society. This requires all groups, but
particularly the most vulnerable, have opportunities to improve or maintain their well being.

7- Effectiveness and efficiency

Good governance means that processes and institutions produce results that meet the needs of
society while making the best use of resources at their disposal. The concept of efficiency in the
context of good governance also covers the sustainable use of natural resources and the
protection of the environment.

8- Accountability

Accountability is a key requirement of good governance. Not only governmental institutions but
also the private sector and civil society organizations must be accountable to the public and to
their institutional stakeholders. Who is accountable to whom varies depending on whether
decisions or actions taken are internal or external to an organization or institution. In general
an organization or an institution is accountable to those who will be affected by its decisions or
actions. Accountability cannot be enforced without transparency and the rule of law.

SLO 3.3.2

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ISLAMIC STATE ESTABLISHED BY THE HOLY PROPHET (PBUH) AND
HAZRAT UMAR (RA)

Islamic state established by Holy Prophet PBUH

• All citizens should be equal before law

• No discrimination among the citizens

• Basic rights of citizens should be safeguard

• Basic human rights

• Justice without discrimination’

• Discourage of all moral vices

• Work for the promotion of virtue

• Provide free and compulsory education

• Establishment of peace

Islamic state established by Hazrat Umar R.A

• Sense of responsibility

• Services above self

• Social security

• Equality

• Vigilance and accountability

• Supremacy of law

• Freedom of expression

• Democracy

• Rights of minorities

• Discipline

SLO 3.3.3

THE LAST SERMON OF THE HOLY PROPHET (PBUH) AS THE MOST COMPREHENSIVE CHARTER OF
HUMAN RIGHTS

• This sermon was delivered on the ninth day of Islamic month of ZIL-HIJJAH year 632 in
Mecca.

• One of the most important treatise in history on the subject of human rights.

Important principles embodied in these sermons are,

• Unity of Mankind

• End to age of darkness and ignorance

• Muslim brotherhood

• Peace

• Inviolability of life and property

• Abolition of Interest

• Tolerance and Moderation

• Charity

• Payment of debt

• Justice

• Fair play in commercial dealings

• Rights of women

• Kindness towards slaves

• Kindness

• Issue of descent

• Obedience of Ameer

• Equality

“Remember! Your Rab is one ,your father is one, yes ! An Arab has no superiority over a non-
Arab and non-Arab over Arab a red over white or white over red, but on the basis of God
fearing”

• Elimination of slavery

“Your slaves, your slaves! Give them to eat what you yourself eat, give them wear like you
yourself wear”

• Rights of life and property

“The Prophet SAW said that the blood and the property of others is more scared than the
Kahab”

• Rights of honour and prestige

• Religious moderation

• Legal rights

• Rights oh inheritance

• Rights of women

• End of vengeance and hatred

Following are the basic points mentioned in this khutbah:

O People

Lend me an attentive ear, for I know not whether after this year, I shall ever be amongst you
again. Therefor listen to what I am saying to you very carefully and take these words to those
who could not be present here today.
O People

Just as you regard this month, this day, this city as sacred, so regard the life and property of
every Muslim as a sacred trust. Return the goods entrusted to you to their rightful owners. Hurt
no one so that no one may hurt you. Remember that you will indeed meet your Lord, and that
He will indeed reckon your deeds. Allah has forbidden you to take usury (interest); therefore all
interest obligation shall henceforth be waived. Your capital, however, is yours to keep. You will
neither inflict nor suffer any inequity.

Allah has Judged that there shall be no interest and that all interest due to Abbas Ibn ‘Abd al
Muttalib (the Prophet's uncle) shall henceforth be waived.

Beware of Satan for the safety of your religion. He has lost all hope that he will ever be able to
lead you astray in big things, so beware of following him in small things.

O People

It is true that you have certain rights in regard to your women, but they also have rights over
you. Remember that you have taken them as your wives, only under Allah's trust and with His
permission. If they abide by your right then to them belongs the right to be fed and clothed in
kindness. Do treat you women well and be kind to them, for they are your partners and
committed helpers. And it is your right that they do not make friends with anyone of whom you
do not approve, as well as never to be unchaste.

O People

Listen to me in earnest, worship Allah, say your five daily prayers (Salah), fast during the month
of Ramadan, and give your wealth in Zakat.

Perform Hajj if you can afford to.

All mankind is from Adam and Eve, an Arab has no superiority over a non-Arab nor a non-Arab
has any superiority over an Arab; also a white has no superiority over a black, nor a black has
any superiority over a white- except by piety and good action. Learn that every Muslim is a
brother to every Muslim and that the Muslims constitute one brotherhood. Nothing shall be
legitimate to a Muslim, which belongs to a fellow Muslim unless it was given freely and
willingly. Do not therefor, do injustice to yourselves.

Remember one day you will appear before Allah and answer for your deeds. So beware, do not
stray from the path of righteousness after I am gone. People, no prophet or apostle will come
after me and no new faith will be born. Reason well therefore, O people, and understand words
which I convey to you. I leave behind me two things, the Quran and the Sunnah (Hadith), and if
you follow these you will never go astray. All those who listen to me shall pass on my words to
others and those to others again; and may the last ones understand my words better than
those who listened to me directly. Be my witness, O Allah, that I have conveyed your message
to your people."

SLO 3.3.4

DISCUSS OBSTACLES IN IMPLEMENTATION OF GOOD GOVERNANCE IN PAKISTAN

Good governance directly related to the good citizenship. Good governance can be established
only in a stable and strong political culture.

Following are the major obstacles interposed in the way os establishing good governance in
Pakistan are,

• Bad citizens

• Illiteracy and ignorance

• Poverty

• Culture based on war and terrorism

• Oppressive political system

• Social system based on corruption and dishonest practices

SLO 3.3.5

REMEDIES TO OVERCOME THE OBSTACLES HINDERING THE IMPLEMENTATION OF GOOD

GOVERNANCE IN PAKISTAN

Problem of good governance is not a simple one it is very complex and complicated, in fact this
is not a one problem it is the amalgamate of a multitude problems.

Introducing Democratic culture

Abolishing Feudalism

Promoting National integration and maintaining provincial autonomy

End clashes between different Institutions

Corruption free society

Strict accountability

Devolution of power at grass root level

Empowerment of law enforcing institutions:

One of the roadblocks in the way towards the establishment of good governance in Pakistan is
weak institutions. Influential individuals bypass the institutions responsible for the check and
balance in the system. Similarly, the successive governments often have used the institutions
for their own interests.

To ensure good governance it is important for institutions like National Accountability Bureau
(NAB), Federal Investigation Agency (FIA), the judiciary, etc. to act independently of any political
or any other pressure while dealing the cases of corruption, crimes, etc.

Empowerment of political institutions

One of the remedies for obstacles to good governance can be the empowerment of democratic
and political institutions i.e. election commission, political parties, and parliament. These
institutions should work within their constitutional ambit instead of being used for any vested
interest. For this reason, they should keep away from interfering in each other’s domain.
Furthermore, the political system will become strong in long as a result of the involvement of
people in politics and government formation.

Access to public record and procedures

Requests made by media and citizens should be provided enabling the public to access official
public records. This will provide transparency to the process enabling citizens to take specific
actions depending on the process of their request.

Community policing system

A community policing system should be introduced and supported. This will inculcate a sense of
ownership and responsibility in the minds and hearts of the local police to deliver o their own
people. Loot and robbing, mistreatment and extrajudicial actions and extortion by the police
itself can be reduced to a greater extent through the promotion of community policing.

The government should introduce an effective electronic monitoring system of service delivery.
Cases of corruption and fraud usually take place in handing taking. Public officials take bribes by
being away from the offices and departments. A computerized system of checking the data can
help to verify the work being performed by public officials.
PAKISTAN STUDIES
ND
2 YEAR
CULTURAL HERITAGE OF PAKISTAN
SLO 4.1.1

CULTURE
• Culture is the characteristics and knowledge of a particular group of people
encompassing language, religion, social habits music and art.
• Culture is an umbrella term which encompasses the social behavior and norms found in
human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits
of the individuals in these groups.
• Every society is subject to a peculiar culture that covers its socio-economic, political and
religious aspects.
• Word ‘culture’ comes from the Latin word ‘cultura,’ related to cult or worship. In its
broadest sense, the term refers to the result of human interaction.
• A culture is a distinctive set of
Manners (customs, practices, rules)
Morals (values, beliefs, norms)
Arts (visual, literary, performing, aural, etc) and
Traditions including knowledge and history shared by a large group of people.
Types of Culture
Culture has broadly been classified into two types which are discussed below.
Material Culture
Material culture is the name of physical, tangible and explicit type of culture. It is the culture
which has material evidence of its existence. Examples in this type may include;
o Infrastructure of a culture
o Clothing and food in a culture
o Literature of a culture
To elucidate this point further we can take example of Cuba. In this island country the 'cars' are
a bit old fashioned. Despite political reasons for this, this thing is taken as a part of Cuban
culture. Any documentary on Cuba doesn't complete without showing the old models cars as
part of Cuban culture. Similarly, we eat burger at multinational fast food chains. Basically this
denotes the Western food culture. Another manifestation of material culture is Gothic style
buildings usually built in European countries.
Non-Material Culture
This type reflects non-tangible, immaterial and implicit culture. It is not apparent in the
infrastructure or other material objects of a society. It is to be found in thoughts, ideas, values
and rituals of a society. They affect the actions of human beings in society. This type of culture
includes:
Norms
Customs
 Values
Folkways
Language

SLO 4.1.2
DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF CULTURE
Different components of culture are following,
o Languages
o Dresses
o Art
o Crafts
o Music and festivals

SLO 4.1.3
CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND PLURALISM
The existence of a variety of cultural or ethnic groups within a society is known as cultural
diversity. Cultural diversity is the quality of diverse or different cultures, as opposed to
monoculture, the global monoculture, or a homogenization of cultures. The term cultural
diversity can also refer to having different cultures respect each other's differences. Moreover,
it is often used to mention the variety of human societies or cultures in a specific region, or in
the world as a whole.
The importance of cultural diversity can be interpreted on the basis of these related actions:
• Recognizing that there is a large amount of cultures that exist
• Respecting each other’s differences
• Acknowledging that all cultural expressions are valid
• Valuing what cultures have to bring to the table
• Empowering diverse groups to contribute
• Celebrating differences, not just tolerating them
A condition in which minority groups participates fully in the dominant society yet maintain
their cultural differences is known as cultural pluralism.
Cultural pluralism is a term used when smaller groups within a larger society maintain their
unique cultural identities, whereby their values and practices are accepted by the dominant
culture, provided such are consistent with the laws and values of the wider society.
cultural pluralism refers to a phenomenon where minority groups participate fully in the
dominant society, but while maintaining their cultural differences.
SLO 4.1.4
ROLE OF CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND PLURALISM TOWARDS THE ENRICHMENT OF SOCIETY IN
PAKISTAN
The term cultural diversity refers to the existence of more than one culture in a society or
country. In other words, it means the existence of more than one race, languages, traditions,
religions, etc.
The term “pluralism” refers to the treatment of people as equal and the same citizens
irrespective of any difference. The difference can be cultural, ethnic, religious backgrounds.
It is rare to find a nation-state with a single culture, race, or religion. The existence of this
diversity requires acceptance at both individual and state levels for peace and development.
There is no way other than accepting and appreciating the diversity for peace, prosperity, and
development of a nation.
Thus pluralism plays a pivotal role in the enrichment of society in many respects as discussed
below:
Tolerance and Peace
Acceptance and respecting people belonging to another religious, sectarian, racial, or ethnic
group other than one’s own sows the seeds of peace and tolerance. Today’s one of the biggest
issues Pakistan faces is intolerance. Terrorism in the name of religion has destroyed peace and
the overall development of the nation. Similarly, the menace of sectarianism has taken the lives
of tens and thousands of innocent people over the years. Thus by the promotion of the spirit of
accepting cultural and religious diversity in our country lead to a tolerant culture in the society.
Promotion of national integration and cohesion
A characteristic of pluralism is that the state caters to the needs and aspirations of people.
These people may belong to different religious, sectarian, ethnic groups, and regions. This
creates a sense o patriotism and being empowered thereby promoting national integration.
Similarly, if projected, the common cultural values and positive aspects can act as a catalyst in
the promotion of national cohesion.
Promotion of democratic values
In pluralism, as discussed above, the acceptance of diversity means ethnic-religious
communities, as well as political ideologies, are being respected. With that, the state also
provides equal opportunities for the people to play their role in the political, economic, and
social arena of a country. This is how pluralism can help evolve nations into democratic
societies.
Power-sharing
One of the key characteristics of a pluralistic society is that it is dominated by a multiplicity of
small groups rather than by a single elite. These small groups become well organized over time.
Although a few can be larger and more influential than the others the powersharing element
restricts them to relatively narrow areas such as defense, foreign policy, or banking.
Equality of political opportunity
Pluralism emphasizes the equality of political opportunity. This means that all communities or
nationalities enjoy equal and the same political rights. And all have an equal chance to
participate in a government as per law of the land.
Consensus making
Another advantage of a pluralistic society is the consensus-building on the “rules of the game”
that on democratic principles and values binds the members of a society together. For example,
in democratic states, people of different interest groups accept regular and open elections, the
right to vote, political equality, majority rule, and free speech. They also accept the right to
assemble, differences of opinion, and the other rules important for peaceful and orderly
politics. And, most importantly, they abide by the outcomes of elections

ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS OF PAKISTAN

SLO 4.2.1
LOCATE THE AREAS OF ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS i.e SOAN VALLEY, MEHRGARH, KOT DIJI, INDUS
VALLEY AND GANDHARA ON THE GIVEN MAP OF PAKISTAN
1. Soan Civilization (500,000 – 125,000 BCE)
2. Mehrgarh Civilization (7000 – 2500 BCE)
3. Kot Diji Civilization ( 3300 BCE. )
4. Indus Valley Civilization (3300 BCE -1300 BCE)
5. Gandhara Civilization (1st millennium BCE to the beginning of the 2nd Millennium CE)

• SOAN VALLEY CIVILLIZATION

The Soon Valley (Urdu: ‫د‬ ‫ )نوِس ِ ی او‬is in the north west of Khushab District, Punjab, Pakistan. Its
largest settlement is the town of Naushera.[1] The valley extends from the village of Padhrar to
Sakesar, the highest peak in the Salt Range.
• Mehrgarh Civilization (7000 – 2500 BCE)
Mehrgarh is located near the Bolan Pass, to the west of the Indus River valley and between the
cities of Quetta, Sibi, and Kalat in Balochistan where it emerged and lasted for a period of 5500
years.

• Kot Diji Civilization ( 3300 BCE. )

The civilization has been named after Mehegarh, a village on the East bank of the Indus
opposite Mohenjodaro and about 24 kilometers south of Khairpur in the province of Sindh.
• Indus Valley Civilization (3300 BCE -1300 BCE)
The civilization was first identified in 1921 at Harappa in the Punjab region and then in 1922 at
Mohenjo-daro (Mohenjodaro), near the Indus River in the Sindh (Sind) region. Both sites are in
present-day Pakistan, in Punjab and Sindh provinces, respectively.

• Gandhara Civilization (1st millennium BCE to the beginning of the 2nd Millennium CE)
was the name of the region which included the Peshawar valley, Swat, Buner, Bajaur, and hills
of Swat Valley situated in the north of today’s Pakistan.
SLO 4.2.2
LIST THE CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER OF VARIOUS CIVILIZATIONS THAT FLOURISHED IN PRESENT
DAY PAKISTAN
Following is a chronological list of ancient civilizations that emerged and disappeared on the
land making today’s Pakistan.
1. Soan Civilization (500,000 – 125,000 BCE)
2. Mehrgarh Civilization (7000 – 2500 BCE)
3. Kot Diji Civilization ( 3300 BCE. )
4. Indus Valley Civilization (3300 BCE -1300 BCE)
5. Gandhara Civilization (1st millennium BCE to the beginning of the 2nd Millennium CE)

SLO 4.2.3
SIGNIFICANT FEATURES OF ANCIENT CIVILLIZATION OF PAKISTAN
Soan Civilization (500,000 – 125,000 BCE)
• The origin of the Soan Civilization dates back to 500,000 – 125,000 BP. It was a stone-
age civilization that emerged in the Sown Valley in the Potohar region of Pakistan. From Soan
valley, the civilization spread into India and Nepal in the Siwaliks of Himalayas.
Archaeologists have named this civilization ‘Soan Civilization’ after the name of the River Soan
which irrigates Soan Valley where the primitive humans started to live together.
• Use of stone tools
The Soan Civilization dates back to the lower Palaeolithic phase of the stone age as tools up to 2
m years ago have been discovered. Unlike the other ancient civilizations of Pakistan, the people
of the Soan Civilization made use of edged pebbles and stone tools. The excavations have
helped archaeologists discover numerous flake types and hundreds of edged pebble tools, e.g.
hand axes, cleavers, choppers, discoid, scrapers, cores, etc.
The stone tools were made of cobbles, quartzite pebbles, and boulders which were taken from
various fluvial sources in the Siwalik region of India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Bhutan.
• Cave life and source of livelihood
During the age of the Soan Civilization, men lived in caves. In order to protect themselves from
wild animals etc., they lived in groups and cooperated with each other. They gathered food,
hunted wild animals, birds and ate wild fruits, nuts, berries,s, etc. They did not practice. Thus
hunting was the main source of livelihood of the people of the Soan Civilization.
Mehrgarh Civilization (7000 – 2500 BCE)
• Origin, location, and Name
Archeologists trace the origin of the Mehrgarh Civilization back to the stone age. It emerged
approximately 7000 – 2500 BCE in Pakistan. It has been named after the village of Mehrgarh
village located in Balochistan.
Mehrgarh is near Bolan Pass between the cities of Quetta, Sibi, and Kalat in Balochistan where
it emerged and lasted for a period of 5500 years.
• The practice of Farming and herding
The people of the Mehrgarh Civilization practiced agriculture. They domesticated both crops
and animals. The animals domesticated in this period included sheep, goats, cattle, camels
whereas cultivated crops of this age included wheat, barley, emmer, etc. They also
domesticated dates e.g. Jujubes, etc.
The scholars consider the Mehrgarh period as the Early Food-Processing phase. No such shreds
of evidence of such agricultural pursuits have been found before this period. In other words,
Mehegarh is the first known hub of agriculture among all ancient civilizations.
• Crafts
The people of the Mehrgarh Civilization were very good at crafts. They demonstrated their
mettle in flint making, metalworking, bead manufacture, and tanning. Discovery at Mehergarh
concerning craft artifacts includes fashioned tools made of copper ore and bitumen lined large-
sized containers.
The pottery objects found at Mehergarh show people of this period used potter’s wheel.
Moreover, they decorated the pots with motifs of different animals and other sophisticated
designs. They used bronze and copper in the later stages for making pottery.
• Housing
The people of the Mehegarh Civilization built houses with mudbricks. Excavations have
disclosed remains of granaries where the people stored their grains.
• Forerunner of Indus Valley Civilisation
Mehrangarh civilization was the forerunner of the Indus valley civilization. The people of
Mehrgarh moved to the Indus valley with their culture which thereafter evolved and developed
into Indus Valley Civilization.
Kot Diji Civilization ( 3300 BCE. )
• Origin, Location, and name
The origin of the Kot Diji Civilization Dates back to 3300-2600 BCE. The civilization has been
named after Mehegarh, a village on the west bank of the Indus opposite Mohenjodaro and
about 24 kilometers south of Khairpur in the province of Sindh.
• Practice of Farming
The people of the Kot Diji Civilization practiced crop cultivation and livestock farming. They
grew different kinds of wheat and other grains. Likewise, they also domesticated herd animals.
• Housing
Excavations at Mehrgarh suggest that the people of Kot Diji Civilization lived in fortified houses
made of unbaked mud bricks.
• Town design
The Kot Diji civilization was an urban civilization. The Town design more or less similar to the
later Indus Valley civilization. Like that of Indus Valley Civilization, the city consisted of two
parts of the citadel and the lower town.
The citadel was part of the town built on high ground for elites. The citadel contained several
bastions at regular intervals. The outer part of the city consisted of houses of mud bricks on
stone foundations.
• Art
Excavations reveal that these people had good skills in the manufacture of terracotta figurines
of both humans and animals. For instance, a female figurine believed to be a mother goddess
has been discovered. Similarly, a toy bullock cart also has been discovered at the site.
• Crafts
The people of Kot Diji Civilization were very good craftsmen. They mastered pottery-making
from terracotta and bronze-made pottery items of bronze and terracotta.
• Pottery made of Bronze
The people of this period mastered the skills of Pottery-making with bronze as the basic
substance. Most people manufacture these bronze pots for personal ornaments. The pots were
decorated and designed with horizontal, wavy lines, loops, and triangular patterns. The
excavations at the site reveal that people of this civilization used the potter’s wheel in the
manufacture of pottery.
• Pottery made of material other than Bronze
The people of the Kot Dijji period also used terracotta as the basic substance in pottery-making.
Pottery objects made of terracotta include pans, storage jars, etc.
• Crafts other than pottery
People of this period produced balls, bangles, beads, bronze arrowheads, and well-fashioned
stone implements.
• Implements made of Lithic material
The term lithic refers to a particular type of rock used to make different tools. The Kot Dijians
used to make leaf-shaped arrowheads and well-fashioned stone implements.
• Forerunner of the Indus Valley Civilization
According to archaeologists, the Kot Diji Civilization was the forerunner of the Harappan
civilization. Findings and discoveries at different sites point towards the gradual transition from
Kot Diji tradition to the Harappan tradition. For instance, the town design with a citadel and
lower outer urban area is more or less similar.

Indus Valley Civilization (3300 BCE -1300 BCE)

Indus Valley Civilization was a bronze-aged civilization that emerged in 3300 BCE in the lower
Indus plain at Mohenjo Daro in today’s Pakistan. This civilization was one of the ancient
civilizations of Pakistan, named after the River Indus which irrigated the plains where
archaeologists carried on excavations and identified the early sites.
• Town Planning
Town planning is a remarkable feature of the Indus Valley Civilization. The town had two parts
(a) citadel (b) Lower Town.
Citadel: The citadel was an elevated part of the city surrounded by a brick wall. This upper part
of the town contained high official, civil, and religious offices and buildings. It also contained a
great bath and a large granary, an assembly hall, and a high official office.
Great Bath: The Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro is the most striking structure. Archaeologists
assume that some ritual of vital importance took place at the Great bath.
Granary: In Mohejodaro, to the west of the Great Bath, there are the remains of a single large
granary. On the contrary, there were a remarkable number of granaries at Harappa ranged in
two rows of six, with a central passage.
An official residence: To another side of the Great bath, there are remains of a residence of an
important official.
Assembly Hall
There are also remains of another important building that archaeologists believed to be that of
an assembly hall.
Lower Town
The lower areas around the citadel were part of the city where common men resided. Like that
of the citadel, a wall from all sides covered the lower town at Mohenjaro whereas there was no
such wall around the lower town in the rest of the sites.
Lay-out of the Lower Town (Roads and lanes)
The layout of the lower town depicted a grid system divided by roads into ward-like portions.
The roads and lanes running from east to west and north to south cut each other at 90°.
According to archaeologists, town planning was a strikingly unique feature of Indus valley
civilization.
Use of mud bricks
The roads, canals, and buildings of the lower town featured large-scale use of standard-size
bricks – both baked and unbaked. The use of bricks as the chief building block indicates the
brick making was a large-scale industry of the people of Indus valley civilization.
• Drainage system
Another feature was an advanced system of drainage that the Indus people had developed
thousands of years before. They had developed waterproof drains to direct the wastewater and
sewage from houses to outside the town. In order to prevent leakage of the water, they used
gypsum with the burned bricks.
Moreover, the houses had a connection with the covered drains in the streets that drained the
wastewater and sewage out of the city. The excavations have also revealed that soak pits made
of pots were installed at places at standard gaps.
• Houses
The Indus people lived in parallel rows of double-room houses. Excavations at the sites also
have revealed houses with more than two rooms and bigger in size at Mohenjodaro and
Harrapa. Each house contained private wells, toilets, and washrooms connected with gutters
under the roads by finely made drains thus making it as advanced as that of any developed city
of the modern age.
The sizes of the houses point towards the classification of people on basis of the economic
status. Archaeologists believe poor people used double-room houses whereas the rich
inhabited the houses bigger in size with more than two rooms.
• Agriculture (Crop farming and stock breeding)
The ancient Indus people practiced crop farming, horticulture, and livestock farming.
Cultivation
The Indus people cultivated peas, barley, wheat and grew date trees. They also cultivated
sesame from which they extracted oil. In Mohenjo-Daro, the excavation does not point towards
the cultivation of rice but in Lothal India people cultivated rice in 1, 800 BCE. These findings
point towards the Indus Valley Civilization as the earliest civilization to have grown cotton for
the first time.
Archaeologists further believe that the Indus people did not know canal irrigation. They rather
used the flood water of the River Indus to cultivate crops.
• Trade Practice
The archaeological excavations and discoveries suggest that the Indus people practiced
extensive inland and foreign trade both by sea and land. For instance, archeologists have found
a vast dock made of bricks and little boats made of terracotta in one of the civilization sites,
Lothal, in India points towards trade practice by sea.
• Barter system
The Harrapans did not have any concept of currency as excavations do not reveal any such
artifact. They most probably used the barter system for the exchange of different goods and
commodities.
Excellent system of weights and measures
The excavations reveal that the people of the Indus valley civilization had developed a
wonderful system of weights and measures. For instance, they used hand-made balance for
measurement. With reference to the weights, they used equal-sized and weighed stones.
Imports and exports
People of the Indus Valley Civilization engaged themselves in both exports and imports. They
imported copper, gold, silver, lapsi lazuli, Jade from Arabia, Afghanistan, Iran, Badak-shan, and
Central Asia respectively. Similarly, they exported lead, copper, etc. from India to other regions
of the world.
• Crafts
The people of the Indus Valley Civilization were also skilled craftsmen. They showed excellent
skills in spinning and weaving wool and cotton. Likewise, they demonstrated masterly skills in
making pottery, seals, and beads; metalworking and jewelry making in gold. They also mastered
the making of bronze implements, copper beakers, saws, chisels, and knives of different metals.
• Pottery
Artifacts related to ceramics and pottery include articles made by fine pottery wheels. The
earthenware made of hand found at different sites are very few. They also used plain pottery
made of red clay. Though painted ware was also in use their production was at a very limited
scale.
Another type of ceramics in use was straight and angular-shaped knobbed ware with geometric
and animal designs.
Jewelry
Jewelry making was another striking feature of the Indus Valley Civilization. The Jewelry
ornaments found during different excavations include beads, bracelets, necklaces, bangles, ear
ornaments, rings, head ornaments, brooches, girdles, etc. The material used in the manufacture
of jewelry included gold, silver, copper, ivory, clay, etc.
Among these, all the most commonly used jewelry were beads worn both by women and men.
According to archeologists, the Harrapans were the first people to practice introduce jewelry
making. Their workmanship in the craft of jewelry making has made them a subject of study
and curiosity throughout the world.
• Art –Sculpture making and figurines
Sculpture making as part of art is one of the salient features of the Indus Valley Civilization. As
an art, it includes terracotta figurines and bronze statues of both men and animals. Some of the
art forms of Indus people are as follows:
Sculptures made of Terracota
Terracotta is a clay-based ceramic used to make sculptures, earthenware, toys, etc. at the time
of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Mother Goddess
Excavation at Mohejodaro has helped discover a mother goddess adorned with necklaces and
wearing a loincloth. There is a fan-shaped headdress with a cup-like projection on each side
Moreover, pellet eys and beaked nose also feature this terracotta figurine of the mother
goddess.
• Sculptures made by Bronze casting
Bronze Casting is the process in which people pour molten bronze into a frame of a model
sculpture. When the bronze cools down and becomes hard after a couple of days, it is removed
from the mold of the model sculpture.
Excavations reveal that the people of the Indus Valley Civilization practiced Bronze casting. They
made human and animal figures(buffalo and goat) by using the technique of bronze casting.
• Indus Script
Another important feature of the Indus Valley Civilization was literacy. They knew writing and
reading as the excavations have revealed a script with links to the Dravidian language family.
The script still awaits its interpretation as scholars have not been able to decipher it . By
examining the artifacts related to the script, the archeologists suggest that the writing was from
right to the left and from left to right in alternate lines.

Gandhara Civilization (1st millennium BCE to the beginning of the 2nd Millennium CE)
Gandhara was the name of the region which included the Peshawar valley, Swat, Buner, Bajaur,
and hills of Swat Valley situated in the north of today’s Pakistan. The region of Gandhara gave
birth to one of the glorious and ancient civilizations of Pakistan known as the Gandhara
civilization
The Well known cities of the Gandhara Civilization included: Takshasila (Taxila); Purushapura
(Peshawar) and Pushkalavati (Mardan).
• Buddhism as the dominant religion
Though various kingdoms reigned the region Gandhara between 500BCE and 1050 CE, the most
common factor making them all part of one civilization was their great reverence for Buddhism.
Furthermore, Buddhism is one of the major world religions with 506 million adherents founded
by Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha 6th century BCE in the Indian subcontinent.
• Gandhara Art (Indo-Greek Art)
Studies suggest that Gandhara art is an amalgam of Indian and Greco-Roman art. The most
notable among the Indo-Greek art is sculpture making which developed in the Gandhara region
during the first and the seventh century.
Initially, the Gandharans used green phyllite and gray-like blue mica in sculpture-making. They
started to use stucco, a cement-based plaster to manufacture the sculptures of Buddha.
Furthermore, they painted the sculptures with gold or something golden-colored.
• Architecture
The remains of religious structures i.e. stupas and monasteries act as the main sources that
inform about the Gandharan architecture.
Stupas
Stupas are stone and sand-made structures with a cylinder-like base (drum) and a hemispheric
dome. The dome contains a post with one or two canopies on it. They also contain large
decorated false dormers. Moreover, they are surrounded by a specially made path circular
path.
Buddhist use stupas as the place of meditation. Traditionally stupas are Buddhist sacred
structures that contain the remains of Buddhist monks. The post supported by the dome and
canopies on it is believed to represent the axis of the world. Buddhists practiced
circumambulation (pradakhshina), an important Buddhist ritual and religious practice, by
walking on the path around the stupas.
Monasteries
Unlike stupa, a monastery is a complex of buildings containing double-storied living quarters for
the Buddhist priests.
Remains of the world’s largest Buddhist monastery exist at Takht-e-Bahi Mardan in KPK,
Pakistan. It was a complex of buildings featured by assembly halls, dining areas, and a
courtyard and double-storied Buddhist living quarters. The complex also contained a portion of
a temple with a number of stupas, a courtyard, and living cells. The remains also point towards
a tantric complex containing meditations dark cells with very low openings.
Building blocks and material
The people of the Gandhara Civilization used two important stones, the Kanjur, and the schist
in the construction of temples, monasteries, stupas, houses, etc. The Kanjur is a fossil rock that
can easily be molded into different shapes. The Gandharan sculpture makers have used these
rocks in making Buddha figures and decorative items like brackets. They also used beautifully
cut and rough stones joined by plaster in the construction of houses.
• Cities and civic architecture
Unlike the uniformity in religious architecture, the civic structure changed from time to time as
per the change in the dominant culture of the region. The towns that developed during
Gandhara Civilization depict both organic and planned settlements. The main features of the
planned cities included shops, villas, palaces, temples, gates, huts, pavilions, watchtowers, and
fortified walls, etc.
Symbol of learning and human development
The Gandhara civilization is considered to be a symbol of human development in the area of
human knowledge, religion, art, and history for the world. Modern-day. For instance, The
modern city of Taxila was famous as a center of learning art, architecture, medicine, and
religion.