Critical Texts Antologies
Critical Texts Antologies
Texts
FRU11011
Part 1
(Michaelmas
Term)
1.
GENRE
Plato
(427/28
BC
–
348/47
BC)
(i)
“Concerning
the
gods
then,”
said
I,
“this
is
the
sort
of
thing
that
we
must
allow
or
not
allow
them
[the
young]
to
hear
from
childhood
up,
if
they
are
to
honor
the
gods
and
their
fathers
and
mothers,
and
not
to
hold
their
friendship
with
one
another
in
light
esteem.”
“What
then
of
this?
If
they
are
to
be
brave,
must
we
not
extend
our
prescription
to
include
also
the
sayings
that
will
make
them
least
likely
to
fear
death?
Or
do
you
suppose
that
anyone
could
ever
become
brave
who
had
that
dread
in
his
heart?”
“And
again
if
he
believes
in
the
reality
of
the
underworld
and
its
terrors,
do
you
think
that
any
man
will
be
fearless
of
death
and
in
battle
will
prefer
death
to
defeat
and
slavery?”
“Then
it
seems
we
must
also
exercise
supervision,
in
the
matter
of
such
tales
as
these,
over
those
who
undertake
to
supply
them
and
request
them
not
to
dispraise
in
this
undiscriminating
fashion
the
life
in
Hades
but
rather
praise
it,
since
what
they
now
tell
us
is
neither
true
nor
edifying
to
men
who
are
destined
to
be
warriors.”
“Then,”
said
I,
“beginning
with
this
verse,
we
will
expunge
everything
of
the
same
kind:
Rather
were
I
in
the
fields
up
above
to
be
serf
to
another
Tiller
of
some
poor
plot
which
yields
him
a
scanty
subsistence,
Than
to
be
ruler
and
king
over
all
the
dead
who
have
perished.
[Aeschylus,
“Fragment
350”]
“and
this:
Lest
unto
men
and
immortals
the
homes
of
the
dead
be
uncovered
Horrible,
noisome,
dank,
that
the
gods
too
hold
in
abhorrence.
[Homer,
Iliad,
20.64]
“and:
Oh
me!
so
it
is
true
that
even
in
the
dwellings
of
Hades
Spirit
there
is
and
wraith,
but
within
there
is
no
understanding.
[Homer,
Iliad,
10.495]
“and
this:
Sole
to
have
wisdom
and
wit,
but
the
others
are
shadowy
phantoms.
[Homer,
Iliad,
23.103]
“and:
Forth
from
his
limbs
unwilling
his
spirit
flitted
to
Hades,
Wailing
its
doom
and
its
lustihood
lost
and
the
May
of
its
manhood.
[Homer,
Iliad,
16.856]
“and:
Under
the
earth
like
a
vapor
vanished
the
gibbering
soul.
[Homer,
Iliad,
23.100]
“and:
Even
as
bats
in
the
hollow
of
some
mysterious
grotto
Fly
with
a
flittermouse
shriek
when
one
of
them
falls
from
the
cluster
Whereby
they
hold
to
the
rock
and
are
clinging
the
one
to
the
other,
Flitted
their
gibbering
ghosts.
[Homer,
Odyssey,
24.6-‐10]
2
“We
will
beg
Homer
and
the
other
poets
not
to
be
angry
if
we
cancel
those
and
all
similar
passages,
not
that
they
are
not
poetic
and
pleasing
to
most
hearers,
but
because
the
more
poetic
they
are
the
less
are
they
suited
to
the
ears
of
boys
and
men
who
are
destined
to
be
free
and
to
be
more
afraid
of
slavery
than
of
death.”
“Then
we
must
further
forbid
in
these
matters
the
entire
vocabulary
of
terror
and
fear,
Cocytus
named
of
lamentation
loud,
abhorred
Styx,
the
flood
of
deadly
hate,
the
people
of
the
infernal
pit
and
of
the
charnel-‐house,
and
all
other
terms
of
this
type,
whose
very
names
send
a
shudder
through
all
the
hearers.
And
they
may
be
excellent
for
other
purposes,
but
we
are
in
fear
for
our
guardians
lest
the
habit
of
such
thrills
make
them
more
sensitive
and
soft
than
we
would
have
them.”
“Yes.”
“And
the
opposite
type
to
them
is
what
we
must
require
in
speech
and
in
verse?”
“Obviously.”
The
Republic,
Book
III,
386a-‐387c,
trans.
Paul
Shorey
(slightly
modified)
(ii)
“So
this
concludes
the
topic
[logos]
of
tales.
That
of
diction
[lexis],
I
take
it,
is
to
be
considered
next.
So
we
shall
have
completely
examined
both
the
matter
and
the
manner
of
speech.”
And
Adeimantus
said,
“I
don’t
understand
what
you
mean
by
this.”
“Well,”
said
I,
“we
must
have
you
understand.
Perhaps
you
will
be
more
likely
to
apprehend
it
thus.
Is
not
everything
that
is
said
by
tale-‐tellers
or
poets
a
narration
of
past,
present,
or
future
things?”
“Do
not
they
proceed
either
by
pure
narration
or
by
a
narrative
that
is
carried
out
through
imitation,
or
by
both?”
“This
too,”
he
said,
“I
still
need
to
have
made
plainer.”
“I
seem
to
be
a
ridiculous
and
obscure
teacher,”
I
said;
“so
like
men
who
are
unable
to
express
themselves
I
won't
try
to
speak
in
wholes
and
universals
but
will
separate
off
a
particular
part
and
by
the
example
of
that
try
to
show
you
my
meaning.
Tell
me,
do
you
know
the
first
lines
in
the
Iliad
in
which
the
poet
says
that
Chryses
implored
Agamemnon
to
release
his
daughter,
and
that
the
king
was
angry
and
that
Chryses,
failing
of
his
request,
imprecated
curses
on
the
Achaeans
in
his
prayers
to
the
god?”
“I
do.”
“You
know
then
that
up
to
the
following
verses:
“And
prayed
unto
all
the
Achaeans,
/
Chiefly
to
Atreus’
sons,
twin
leaders
who
marshalled
the
people
[Homer,
Iliad,
1.15]”,
the
poet
himself
is
the
speaker
and
does
not
even
attempt
to
suggest
to
us
that
anyone
but
himself
is
speaking.
But
what
follows
he
speaks
as
if
he
were
himself
Chryses
and
tries
as
far
as
possible
to
make
us
believe
that
not
Homer
is
the
speaker,
but
the
priest,
an
old
man.
And
in
this
manner
he
has
composed
nearly
all
the
rest
of
his
narration
about
the
events
in
Ilion,
those
in
Ithaca,
and
those
in
the
entire
Odyssey.”
“Now,
there
is
thus
narration
both
when
he
delivers
speeches
and
when
he
presents
the
matter
between
speeches?”
“Of
course.”
“But
when
he
delivers
a
speech
as
if
he
were
someone
else,
shall
we
not
say
that
he
thereby
assimilates
his
own
diction
as
far
as
possible
to
that
of
the
person
whom
he
announces
as
about
to
speak?”
3
“We
shall
obviously.”
“And
is
not
likening
one's
self
to
another
speech
or
bodily
movement
an
imitation
of
him
to
whom
one
likens
one's
self?”
“Surely.”
“In
such
case
then
it
appears
he
and
the
other
poets
carry
out
their
narration
through
imitation
[mimesis].”
“Certainly.”
“But
if
the
poet
should
conceal
himself
nowhere,
then
his
entire
poetizing
and
narration
would
have
been
accomplished
without
imitation.
And
lest
you
may
say
again
that
you
don't
understand,
I
will
explain
to
you
how
this
would
be
done.
If
Homer,
after
telling
us
that
Chryses
came
with
the
ransom
of
his
daughter
and
as
a
suppliant
of
the
Achaeans
but
chiefly
of
the
kings,
had
gone
on
speaking
not
as
if
being
Chryses
but
still
as
Homer,
you
are
aware
that
it
would
not
be
imitation
but
narration,
pure
and
simple
[diegesis].
It
would
have
produced
something
like
this
(I
will
state
it
without
meter
for
I
am
not
a
poet):
‘The
priest
came
and
prayed
that
to
them
the
gods
should
grant
to
take
Troy
and
come
safely
home,
but
that
they
should
accept
the
ransom
and
release
his
daughter,
out
of
reverence
for
the
god,
and
when
he
had
thus
spoken
the
others
were
of
reverent
mind
and
approved,
but
Agamemnon
was
angry
and
bade
him
to
depart
and
not
come
again
lest
the
scepter
and
the
fillets
of
the
god
should
not
avail
him.
And
before
his
daughter
should
be
released,
he
said,
she
would
grow
old
in
Argos
with
him,
and
he
ordered
him
to
be
off
and
not
vex
him
if
he
wished
to
get
home
safe.
And
the
old
man,
on
hearing
this,
was
frightened
and
left
in
silence,
and
having
walked
away
from
the
camp,
he
prayed
at
length
to
Apollo,
invoking
the
appellations
of
the
god,
and
reminding
him
of
and
asking
requital
for
any
of
his
gifts
that
had
found
favour
whether
in
the
building
of
temples
or
the
sacrifice
of
victims.
In
return
for
these
things
he
prayed
that
the
Achaeans
should
suffer
for
his
tears
by
the
god’s
arrows.’
It
is
in
this
way,
my
dear
fellow,”
I
said,
“that
simple
narration
[diegesis]
is
produced
without
imitation
[mimesis].”
“Understand
then,”
said
I,
“that
the
opposite
of
this
arises
when
one
removes
the
words
of
the
poet
between
and
leaves
the
alternation
of
speeches.”
“This
too
I
understand,”
he
said,
“it
is
what
happens
in
tragedy.”
“You
have
understood
me
most
rightly,”
I
said,
“and
now
I
think
I
can
make
plain
to
you
what
I
was
unable
to
before,
that
there
is
one
kind
of
poetry
and
tale-‐telling
which
works
wholly
through
imitation,
as
you
remarked:
tragedy
and
comedy;
and
another
which
employs
the
recital
of
the
poet
himself,
best
exemplified,
I
presume,
in
the
dithyramb
[a
choral
lyrical
song
devoted
to
Dionysus];
and
there
is
again
that
which
employs
both,
in
epic
poetry
and
in
many
other
places,
if
you
follow
me.”
“Recall
then
also
the
preceding
statement
that
we
were
done
with
the
‘what’
of
speech
and
still
had
to
consider
the
‘how.’”
“I
remember.”
“What
I
meant
then
was
just
this:
that
we
must
reach
a
decision
whether
we
are
to
suffer
our
poets
to
narrate
as
imitators
or
in
part
as
imitators
and
in
part
not,
and
what
sort
of
things,
in
each
case,
we
allow
them
or
not
to
imitate
at
all.”
“I
am
guessing,”
he
said,
“that
you
are
considering
whether
we
shall
admit
tragedy
and
comedy
into
our
city
or
not.”
4
to
be
amongst
us,
and
we
should
send
him
away
to
another
city,
after
pouring
myrrh
down
over
his
head
and
crowning
him
with
fillets
of
wool,
but
we
ourselves,
for
our
souls’
good,
should
continue
to
employ
the
more
austere
and
less
delightful
poet
and
tale-‐teller,
who
would
imitate
the
diction
of
the
good
man
and
would
tell
his
tale
in
the
patterns
which
we
prescribed
in
the
beginning,
when
we
set
out
to
educate
our
soldiers.”
Epic
poetry
and
tragedy,
as
well
as
comedy,
dithyrambic
poetry,
and
the
music
of
the
flute
and
of
the
lyre
in
most
of
their
forms,
are
all
in
their
general
conception
modes
of
imitation
[mimesis].
They
differ,
however,
from
one
another
in
three
respects
–
the
medium,
the
objects,
the
manner
or
mode
of
imitation,
being
in
each
case
distinct.
For
as
there
are
persons
who,
by
conscious
art
or
mere
habit,
imitate
and
represent
various
objects
through
the
medium
of
colour
and
form,
or
again
by
the
voice;
so
in
the
arts
above
mentioned,
taken
as
a
whole,
the
imitation
is
produced
by
rhythm,
language,
or
harmony,
either
singly
or
combined.
Thus
in
the
music
of
the
flute
and
of
the
lyre,
harmony
and
rhythm
alone
are
employed;
also
in
other
arts,
such
as
that
of
the
shepherd’s
pipe,
which
are
essentially
similar
to
these.
In
dancing,
rhythm
alone
is
used
without
harmony;
for
even
dancing
imitates
character,
emotion,
and
action,
by
rhythmical
movement.
There
is
another
art
which
imitates
by
means
of
language
alone,
either
in
prose
or
in
verse
(either
combining
verse-‐forms
with
each
other
or
using
a
single
kind
of
verse),
but
has
hitherto
remained
without
a
name.
For
there
is
no
common
term
we
could
apply
to
the
mimes
of
Sophron
and
Xenarchus
and
the
Socratic
dialogues
on
the
one
hand;
and,
on
the
other,
to
poetic
imitations
in
iambic,
elegiac,
or
any
similar
metre.
People
do,
indeed,
add
the
word
‘maker’
or
‘poet’
to
the
name
of
the
metre,
and
speak
of
elegiac
poets,
or
epic
(that
is,
hexameter)
poets,
as
if
it
were
not
the
imitation
that
makes
the
poet,
but
the
verse
that
entitles
them
all
indiscriminately
to
the
name.
Even
when
a
treatise
on
medicine
or
natural
science
is
published
in
verse,
the
name
of
poet
is
by
custom
given
to
the
author;
and
yet
Homer
and
Empedocles
have
nothing
in
common
but
the
metre,
so
that
it
would
be
fair
to
call
the
one
poet,
the
other
physicist
rather
than
poet.
On
the
same
principle,
even
if
a
writer
in
his
poetic
imitation
were
to
combine
all
metres,
as
Chaeremon
did
in
his
Centaur,
which
is
a
medley
composed
of
metres
of
all
kinds,
we
should
bring
him,
too,
under
the
general
term
poet.
So
much
then
for
these
distinctions.
There
are,
again,
some
arts
which
employ
all
the
abovementioned
means,
namely,
rhythm,
tune,
and
metre.
Such
are
dithyrambic
and
nomic
poetry,
and
also
tragedy
and
comedy;
but
between
them
the
difference
is
that
in
the
first
two
cases
these
means
are
all
employed
in
combination,
in
the
latter,
now
one
means
is
employed,
now
another.
Such,
then,
are
the
differences
of
the
arts
with
respect
to
the
medium
of
imitation.
5
rhythm,
harmony,
and
song
enter.
By
‘the
several
kinds
in
separate
parts,’
I
mean,
that
some
parts
are
rendered
through
the
medium
of
verse
alone,
others
again
with
the
aid
of
song.
6
and
are
now
capable
of
being
fully
analyzed.
The
romantic
genre
of
poetry
is
still
in
the
state
of
becoming;
that,
in
fact,
is
its
real
essence:
that
it
should
forever
be
becoming
and
never
accomplish
itself.
It
can
be
exhausted
by
no
theory
and
only
a
divinatory
criticism
would
dare
try
to
characterize
its
ideal.
It
alone
is
infinite,
just
as
it
alone
is
free;
and
it
recognizes
as
its
first
commandment
that
the
will
of
the
poet
can
tolerate
no
law
above
itself.
The
romantic
genre
of
poetry
is
the
only
one
that
is
more
than
a
genre,
that
is,
as
it
were,
the
art
of
poetry
itself
[Dichtkunst]:
for
in
a
certain
sense
all
poetry
is
or
should
be
romantic.
Posthumous
fragment
Arthur
Rimbaud
(1854-‐1891)
Les
inventions
d’inconnu
réclament
des
formes
nouvelles.
7
Theodor
Adorno
(1903-‐1969)
To
write
poetry
after
Auschwitz
is
barbaric.
L’Espace
littéraire
Jacques
Derrida
(1930-‐2004)
Un
texte
ne
saurait
appartenir
à
aucun
genre.
Tout
texte
participe
d’un
ou
de
plusieurs
genres,
il
n’y
a
pas
de
texte
sans
genre,
il
y
a
toujours
du
genre
et
des
genres
mais
cette
participation
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appartenance.
Parages
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théâtre
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familiarise
yourself
with
the
«
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8
2.
THEATRE
Aristotle
(384
BC
–
322
BC)
Note:
Aristotle’s
Poetics
was
the
main
source
for
the
rules
of
French
classical
theatre.
While
the
extant
Poetics
deals
principally
with
the
rules
of
tragedy,
many
of
these
were
also
applied
to
comedy,
e.g.
the
three
unities
[unités]
of
action,
time,
and
place,
the
respect
of
propriety
[bienséance]
and
the
requirement
of
verisimilitude
[vraisemblance].
1
Since
the
objects
of
imitation
are
men
in
action,
and
these
men
must
be
either
of
a
higher
or
a
lower
type
(for
moral
character
mainly
answers
to
these
divisions,
goodness
and
badness
being
the
distinguishing
marks
of
moral
differences),
it
follows
that
we
must
represent
men
either
as
better
than
in
real
life,
or
as
worse,
or
as
they
are.
It
is
the
same
in
painting.
Polygnotus
depicted
men
as
nobler
than
they
are,
Pauson
as
less
noble,
Dionysus
drew
them
true
to
life.
Now
it
is
evident
that
each
of
the
abovementioned
modes
of
imitation
will
exhibit
these
differences,
and
become
a
distinct
kind
in
imitating
objects
that
are
thus
distinct.
Such
diversities
may
be
found
even
in
dancing,
flute-‐playing,
and
lyre-‐playing.
So
again
in
language,
whether
prose
or
verse
unaccompanied
by
music.
Homer,
for
example,
makes
men
better
than
they
are;
Cleophon
as
they
are;
Hegemon
the
Thasian,
the
inventor
of
parodies,
and
Nicochares,
the
author
of
the
Deiliad,
worse
than
they
are.
The
same
thing
holds
good
of
dithyrambs
and
nomes
[a
song
or
hymn
sung
in
the
honour
of
the
gods];
here
too
one
may
portray
different
types,
as
Timotheus
and
Philoxenus
differed
in
representing
their
Cyclopes.
The
same
distinction
marks
off
tragedy
from
comedy;
for
comedy
aims
at
representing
men
as
worse,
tragedy
as
better
than
in
actual
life.
3
There
is
still
a
third
difference:
the
mode
in
which
each
of
these
objects
may
be
imitated.
For
the
medium
being
the
same,
and
the
objects
the
same,
the
poet
may
imitate
by
narration
–
in
which
case
he
can
either
take
another
personality
as
Homer
does,
or
speak
in
his
own
person,
unchanged
–
or
he
may
present
all
his
characters
as
living
and
moving
before
us.
These,
then,
as
we
said
at
the
beginning,
are
the
three
differences
which
distinguish
artistic
imitation
–
the
medium,
the
objects,
and
the
mode.
So
that
from
one
point
of
view,
Sophocles
is
an
imitator
of
the
same
kind
as
Homer
–
for
both
imitate
higher
types
of
character;
from
another
point
of
view,
of
the
same
kind
as
Aristophanes
–
for
both
imitate
persons
acting
and
doing.
Hence,
some
say,
the
name
of
“drama”
is
given
to
such
poems,
as
representing
action.
For
the
same
reason,
the
Dorians
claim
the
invention
both
of
tragedy
and
comedy.
The
claim
to
comedy
is
put
forward
by
the
Megarians
–
not
only
by
those
of
Greece
proper,
who
allege
that
it
originated
under
their
democracy,
but
also
by
the
Megarians
of
Sicily,
for
the
poet
Epicharmus,
who
is
much
earlier
than
Chionides
and
Magnes,
belonged
to
that
country.
Tragedy
too
is
claimed
by
certain
Dorians
of
the
Peloponnese.
In
each
case,
they
appeal
to
the
evidence
of
language.
They
say
that
they
call
outlying
villages
kômai,
while
the
Athenians
call
them
dêmoi,
the
assumption
being
that
comedians
were
so-‐called
not
from
the
revel
or
kômos,
but
because
they
toured
villages
when
expelled
from
the
town
in
disgrace.
And
they
say
that
the
Dorian
word
for
doing
is
dran,
and
the
Athenian,
prattein.
This
may
suffice
as
to
the
number
and
nature
of
the
various
modes
of
imitation.
4
Poetry
in
general
seems
to
have
sprung
from
two
causes,
each
of
them
lying
deep
in
our
nature.
First,
the
instinct
of
imitation
is
implanted
in
man
from
childhood,
one
difference
between
him
and
other
animals
being
that
he
is
the
most
imitative
of
living
creatures,
and
through
imitation
learns
his
earliest
9
lessons;
and
no
less
universal
is
the
pleasure
felt
in
things
imitated.
We
have
evidence
of
this
in
the
facts
of
experience.
Objects
which
in
themselves
we
view
with
pain,
we
delight
to
contemplate
when
reproduced
with
minute
fidelity:
such
as
the
forms
of
the
most
ignoble
animals
and
of
dead
bodies.
The
cause
of
this
again
is
that
to
learn
gives
the
liveliest
pleasure,
not
only
to
philosophers
but
to
men
in
general;
whose
capacity,
however,
of
learning
is
more
limited.
Thus
the
reason
why
men
enjoy
seeing
a
likeness
is
that
in
contemplating
it,
they
find
themselves
learning
or
inferring,
and
saying
perhaps:
“Ah,
that
is
he.”
For
if
you
happen
not
to
have
seen
the
original,
the
pleasure
will
be
due
not
to
the
imitation
as
such,
but
to
the
execution,
the
colouring,
or
some
such
other
cause.
Imitation,
then,
is
one
instinct
of
our
nature.
Next,
there
is
the
instinct
for
harmony
and
rhythm,
metres
being
manifestly
sections
of
rhythm.
Persons,
therefore,
starting
with
this
natural
gift
developed
by
degrees
their
special
aptitudes,
till
their
rude
improvisations
gave
birth
to
poetry.
Poetry
now
diverged
in
two
directions,
according
to
the
individual
character
of
the
writers.
The
graver
spirits
imitated
noble
actions,
and
the
actions
of
good
men.
The
more
trivial
sort
imitated
the
actions
of
meaner
persons,
at
first
composing
satires,
as
the
former
did
hymns
to
the
gods
and
the
praises
of
famous
men.
A
poem
of
the
satirical
kind
cannot
indeed
be
put
down
to
any
author
earlier
than
Homer;
though
many
such
writers
probably
there
were.
But
from
Homer
onward,
instances
can
be
cited
–
his
own
Margites
[a
comic
mock-‐epic
attributed
at
the
time
to
Homer],
for
example,
and
other
similar
compositions.
The
appropriate
metre
was
also
here
introduced;
hence
the
measure
is
still
called
the
iambic
or
lampooning
measure,
being
that
in
which
people
lampooned
one
another.
Thus
the
older
poets
were
distinguished
as
writers
of
heroic
or
of
lampooning
verse.
As
Homer
is
pre-‐eminent
among
poets
in
the
serious
style,
for
he
alone
combined
dramatic
form
with
excellence
of
imitation,
so
he
too
first
laid
down
the
main
lines
of
comedy,
by
dramatising
the
ludicrous
instead
of
writing
personal
satire.
His
Margites
bears
the
same
relation
to
comedy
that
the
Iliad
and
Odyssey
do
to
tragedy.
But
when
tragedy
and
comedy
came
to
light,
the
two
classes
of
poets
still
followed
their
natural
bent:
the
lampooners
became
writers
of
comedy,
and
the
epic
poets
were
succeeded
by
tragedians,
since
drama
was
a
larger
and
higher
form
of
art.
Whether
tragedy
has
as
yet
perfected
its
proper
types
or
not;
and
whether
it
is
to
be
judged
in
itself,
or
in
relation
also
to
the
audience,
this
raises
another
question.
Be
that
as
it
may,
tragedy
–
as
also
comedy
–
was
at
first
mere
improvisation.
The
one
originated
with
the
authors
of
the
dithyramb,
the
other
with
those
of
the
phallic
songs,
which
are
still
in
use
in
many
of
our
cities.
Tragedy
advanced
by
slow
degrees;
each
new
element
that
showed
itself
was
in
turn
developed.
Having
passed
through
many
changes,
it
found
its
natural
form,
and
there
it
stopped.
Aeschylus
first
introduced
a
second
actor;
he
diminished
the
importance
of
the
Chorus,
and
assigned
the
leading
part
to
the
dialogue.
Sophocles
raised
the
number
of
actors
to
three,
and
added
scene-‐
painting.
Moreover,
it
was
not
till
late
that
the
short
plot
was
discarded
for
one
of
greater
compass,
and
the
grotesque
diction
of
the
earlier
satyric
form
for
the
stately
manner
of
tragedy.
The
iambic
measure
then
replaced
the
trochaic
tetrameter,
which
was
originally
employed
when
the
poetry
was
of
the
satyric
order,
and
had
greater
affinities
with
dancing.
Once
dialogue
had
come
in,
Nature
herself
discovered
the
appropriate
measure.
For
the
iambic
is,
of
all
measures,
the
most
colloquial:
we
see
it
in
the
fact
that
conversational
speech
runs
into
iambic
lines
more
frequently
than
into
any
other
kind
of
verse;
rarely
into
hexameters,
and
only
when
we
drop
the
colloquial
intonation.
The
additions
to
the
number
of
“episodes”
or
acts,
and
the
other
accessories
of
which
tradition
tells,
must
be
taken
as
already
described;
for
to
discuss
them
in
detail
would,
doubtless,
be
a
large
undertaking.
5
Comedy
is,
as
we
have
said,
an
imitation
of
characters
of
a
lower
type
–
not,
however,
in
the
full
sense
of
the
word
“bad”,
the
ludicrous
being
merely
a
subdivision
of
the
ugly.
It
consists
in
some
defect
or
ugliness
which
is
not
painful
or
destructive.
To
take
an
obvious
example,
the
comic
mask
is
ugly
and
distorted,
but
does
not
imply
pain.
The
successive
changes
through
which
tragedy
passed,
and
the
authors
of
these
changes,
are
well
known,
whereas
comedy
has
had
no
history,
because
it
was
not
at
first
treated
seriously.
It
was
late
before
the
Archon
granted
a
comic
chorus
to
a
poet;
the
performers
were
till
then
voluntary.
Comedy
had
already
taken
definite
shape
when
comic
poets,
distinctively
so
called,
are
heard
of.
Who
furnished
it
with
masks,
or
prologues,
or
increased
the
number
of
actors,
these
and
other
similar
details
remain
unknown.
As
for
the
plot,
it
came
originally
from
Sicily;
but
of
Athenian
writers,
Crates
was
the
first
who,
abandoning
the
“iambic”
or
lampooning
form,
generalised
his
themes
and
plots.
10
Epic
poetry
agrees
with
tragedy
in
so
far
as
it
is
an
imitation
in
verse
of
characters
of
a
higher
type.
They
differ,
in
that
epic
poetry
admits
but
one
kind
of
metre,
and
is
narrative
in
form.
They
differ,
again,
in
their
length:
for
tragedy
endeavours,
as
far
as
possible,
to
confine
itself
to
a
single
revolution
of
the
sun,
or
but
slightly
to
exceed
this
limit;
whereas
the
epic
action
has
no
limits
of
time.
This,
then,
is
a
second
point
of
difference;
though
at
first
the
same
freedom
was
admitted
in
tragedy
as
in
epic
poetry.
Of
their
constituent
parts
some
are
common
to
both,
some
peculiar
to
tragedy;
whoever,
therefore,
knows
what
is
good
or
bad
in
tragedy,
knows
also
about
epic
poetry.
All
the
elements
of
an
epic
poem
are
found
in
tragedy,
but
the
elements
of
a
tragedy
are
not
all
found
in
the
epic
poem.
6
Of
the
poetry
which
imitates
in
hexameter
verse,
and
of
comedy,
we
will
speak
hereafter.
Let
us
now
discuss
tragedy,
resuming
its
formal
definition,
as
resulting
from
what
has
been
already
said.
Tragedy,
then,
is
an
imitation
of
an
action
that
is
admirable,
complete,
and
possesses
magnitude;
in
language
embellished
with
each
kind
of
artistic
ornament,
the
several
kinds
being
found
in
separate
parts
of
the
play;
performed
by
actors,
not
through
narration;
effecting
through
pity
and
terror
the
proper
purgation
[katharsis]
of
such
emotions.
By
“language
embellished,”
I
mean
language
into
which
rhythm,
harmony,
and
song
enter.
By
“the
several
kinds
in
separate
parts,”
I
mean,
that
some
parts
are
rendered
through
the
medium
of
verse
alone,
others
again
with
the
aid
of
song.
Now
as
tragic
imitation
implies
persons
acting,
it
necessarily
follows,
in
the
first
place,
that
spectacular
equipment
will
be
a
part
of
tragedy.
Next,
song
and
diction,
for
these
are
the
medium
of
imitation.
By
“diction”
I
mean
the
mere
metrical
arrangement
of
the
words:
as
for
“song,”
it
is
a
term
whose
sense
every
one
understands.
Again,
tragedy
is
the
imitation
of
an
action;
and
an
action
implies
personal
agents,
who
necessarily
possess
certain
distinctive
qualities
both
of
character
[ethos]
and
thought
[dianoia];
for
it
is
by
these
that
we
qualify
actions
themselves,
and
these
–
thought
and
character
–
are
the
two
natural
causes
from
which
actions
spring,
and
on
actions
again
all
success
or
failure
depends.
Hence,
the
plot
[mythos]
is
the
imitation
of
the
action:
for
by
“plot”
I
here
mean
the
arrangement
of
the
incidents.
By
“character”
I
mean
that
in
virtue
of
which
we
ascribe
certain
qualities
to
the
agents.
Thought
is
required
wherever
a
statement
is
proved,
or,
it
may
be,
a
general
truth
enunciated.
Every
tragedy,
therefore,
must
have
six
parts,
which
parts
determine
its
quality
–
namely,
plot,
character,
diction,
thought,
spectacle,
song.
Two
of
the
parts
constitute
the
means
of
imitation,
one
the
mode,
and
three
the
objects
of
imitation.
And
these
complete
the
list.
These
elements
have
been
employed,
we
may
say,
by
the
poets;
in
fact,
every
play
contains
spectacular
elements
as
well
as
character,
plot,
diction,
song,
and
thought.
But
most
important
of
all
is
the
structure
of
the
incidents.
For
tragedy
is
an
imitation,
not
of
men,
but
of
an
action
and
of
life,
and
life
consists
in
action,
and
its
end
is
a
mode
of
action,
not
a
quality.
Now
character
determines
men’s
qualities,
but
it
is
by
their
actions
that
they
are
happy
or
the
reverse.
Dramatic
action,
therefore,
is
not
with
a
view
to
the
representation
of
character:
character
comes
in
as
subsidiary
to
the
actions.
Hence
the
incidents
and
the
plot
are
the
end
of
a
tragedy;
and
the
end
is
the
chief
thing
of
all.
Again,
without
action
there
cannot
be
a
tragedy,
but
there
may
be
tragedy
without
character.
The
tragedies
of
most
of
our
modern
poets
fail
in
the
rendering
of
character;
and
of
poets
in
general
this
is
often
true.
It
is
the
same
in
painting;
and
here
lies
the
difference
between
Zeuxis
and
Polygnotus.
Polygnotus
delineates
character
well:
the
style
of
Zeuxis
is
devoid
of
ethical
quality.
Again,
if
you
string
together
a
set
of
speeches
expressive
of
character,
and
well
finished
in
point
of
diction
and
thought,
you
will
not
produce
the
essential
tragic
effect
nearly
so
well
as
with
a
play
which,
however
deficient
in
these
respects,
has
a
plot
and
artistically
constructed
incidents.
Additionally,
the
most
important
devices
by
which
tragedy
sways
emotion
are
parts
of
the
plot:
reversals
of
a
given
situation,
and
recognition
scenes.
A
further
proof
is
that
novices
in
the
art
are
capable
of
accuracy
in
diction
and
character
before
they
can
construct
the
plot.
It
is
the
same
with
almost
all
the
early
poets.
The
plot,
then,
is
the
first
principle,
and,
as
it
were,
the
soul
of
a
tragedy:
character
holds
the
second
place.
A
similar
fact
is
seen
in
painting.
The
most
beautiful
colours,
laid
on
confusedly,
will
not
give
as
much
pleasure
as
the
chalk
outline
of
a
portrait.
Thus
tragedy
is
the
imitation
of
an
action,
and
of
the
agents
mainly
with
a
view
to
the
action.
11
Third
in
order
is
thought,
that
is,
the
faculty
of
saying
what
is
possible
and
pertinent
in
given
circumstances.
In
the
case
of
oratory,
this
is
the
function
of
the
political
art
and
of
the
art
of
rhetoric:
and
so
indeed
the
older
poets
make
their
characters
speak
the
language
of
civic
life;
the
poets
of
our
time,
the
language
of
the
rhetoricians.
Character
is
that
which
reveals
moral
purpose,
showing
what
kind
of
things
a
man
chooses
or
avoids.
Speeches,
therefore,
which
do
not
make
this
manifest,
or
in
which
the
speaker
does
not
choose
or
avoid
anything
whatever,
are
not
expressive
of
character.
Thought,
on
the
other
hand,
is
found
where
something
is
proved
to
be,
or
not
to
be,
or
a
general
maxim
is
enunciated.
Fourth
among
the
elements
enumerated
comes
diction,
by
which
I
mean,
as
has
been
already
said,
the
expression
of
the
meaning
in
words;
and
its
essence
is
the
same
both
in
verse
and
prose.
Of
the
remaining
elements,
song
holds
the
chief
place
among
the
embellishments.
The
spectacle
has,
indeed,
an
emotional
attraction
of
its
own,
but,
of
all
the
parts,
it
is
the
least
artistic,
and
connected
least
with
the
art
of
poetry.
For
the
power
of
tragedy,
we
may
be
sure,
is
felt
even
apart
from
representation
and
actors.
Besides,
the
production
of
spectacular
effects
depends
more
on
the
art
of
the
stage
machinist
than
on
that
of
the
poet.
7
These
principles
being
established,
let
us
now
discuss
the
proper
structure
of
the
plot,
since
this
is
the
first
and
most
important
thing
in
tragedy.
Now,
according
to
our
definition,
tragedy
is
an
imitation
of
an
action
that
is
complete,
and
whole,
and
of
a
certain
magnitude;
for
there
may
be
a
whole
that
is
wanting
in
magnitude.
A
whole
is
that
which
has
a
beginning,
a
middle,
and
an
end.
A
beginning
is
that
which
does
not
itself
follow
anything
by
causal
necessity,
but
after
which
something
naturally
is
or
comes
to
be.
An
end,
on
the
contrary,
is
that
which
itself
naturally
follows
some
other
thing,
either
by
necessity,
or
as
a
rule,
but
has
nothing
following
it.
A
middle
is
that
which
follows
something
as
some
other
thing
follows
it.
A
well
constructed
plot,
therefore,
must
neither
begin
nor
end
at
haphazard,
but
conform
to
these
principles.
Again,
a
beautiful
object,
whether
it
be
a
living
organism
or
any
whole
composed
of
parts,
must
not
only
have
an
orderly
arrangement
of
parts,
but
must
also
be
of
a
certain
magnitude;
for
beauty
depends
on
magnitude
and
order.
Hence
a
very
small
animal
organism
cannot
be
beautiful;
for
the
view
of
it
is
confused,
the
object
being
seen
in
an
almost
imperceptible
moment
of
time.
Nor,
again,
can
one
of
vast
size
be
beautiful;
for
as
the
eye
cannot
take
it
all
in
at
once,
the
unity
and
sense
of
the
whole
is
lost
for
the
spectator;
as,
for
instance,
if
there
were
one
a
thousand
miles
long.
As
in
the
case
of
animate
bodies
and
organisms,
a
certain
magnitude
is
therefore
necessary,
and
a
magnitude
which
may
be
easily
embraced
in
one
view;
so
in
the
plot,
a
certain
length
is
necessary,
and
a
length
which
can
be
easily
embraced
by
memory.
The
limit
of
length
in
relation
to
dramatic
competition
and
sensuous
perception
is
no
part
of
artistic
theory.
For
had
it
been
the
rule
for
a
hundred
tragedies
to
compete
together,
the
performance
would
have
been
regulated
by
the
water-‐clock,
as
indeed
we
are
told
was
formerly
done.
But
the
limit
as
fixed
by
the
nature
of
the
drama
itself
is
this:
the
greater
the
length,
the
more
beautiful
will
the
piece
be
by
reason
of
its
size,
provided
that
the
whole
be
perspicuous.
And
to
define
the
matter
roughly,
we
may
say
that
the
proper
magnitude
is
comprised
within
such
limits
that
the
sequence
of
events,
according
to
the
law
of
probability
or
necessity,
will
admit
of
a
change
from
bad
fortune
to
good,
or
from
good
fortune
to
bad.
8
Unity
of
plot
does
not,
as
some
persons
think,
consist
in
the
unity
of
the
hero.
For
infinitely
various
are
the
incidents
in
one
man’s
life
which
cannot
be
reduced
to
unity;
and
so,
too,
there
are
many
actions
of
one
man
out
of
which
we
cannot
make
one
action.
Hence,
the
error,
as
it
appears,
of
all
poets
who
have
composed
a
Heracleid,
a
Theseid,
or
other
poems
of
the
kind.
They
imagine
that
as
Heracles
was
one
man,
the
story
of
Heracles
must
also
be
a
unity.
But
Homer,
as
in
all
else
he
is
of
surpassing
merit,
here
too
–
whether
from
art
or
natural
genius
–
seems
to
have
happily
discerned
the
truth.
In
composing
the
Odyssey,
he
did
not
include
all
the
adventures
of
Odysseus
–
such
as
his
wound
on
Parnassus,
or
his
feigned
madness
at
the
mustering
of
the
host
–
incidents
between
which
there
was
no
necessary
or
probable
connection:
but
he
made
the
Odyssey,
and
likewise
the
Iliad,
to
centre
round
an
action
that
in
our
sense
of
the
word
is
one.
As
in
the
other
imitative
arts,
the
imitation
therefore
is
unified
when
the
object
imitated
is
one;
and
so
too
the
plot,
being
an
imitation
of
an
action,
must
imitate
one
action,
and
one
that
is
also
a
whole.
So
the
structural
unity
of
the
parts
must
be
such
that,
12
if
any
one
of
them
is
displaced
or
removed,
the
whole
will
be
disjointed
and
disturbed.
For
a
thing
whose
presence
or
absence
makes
no
visible
difference
is
not
an
organic
part
of
the
whole.
9
It
is,
moreover,
evident
from
what
has
been
said,
that
it
is
not
the
function
of
the
poet
to
relate
what
has
happened,
but
what
may
happen
–
what
is
possible
according
to
the
law
of
probability
or
necessity.
The
poet
and
the
historian
differ
not
by
writing
in
verse
or
in
prose.
The
work
of
Herodotus
might
be
put
into
verse,
and
it
would
still
be
a
species
of
history,
with
metre
no
less
than
without
it.
The
true
difference
is
that
one
relates
what
has
happened,
the
other
what
may
happen.
Poetry,
therefore,
is
a
more
philosophical
and
a
higher
thing
than
history,
for
poetry
tends
to
express
the
universal,
history
the
particular.
By
“the
universal”
I
mean
how
a
person
of
a
certain
type
will
on
occasion
speak
or
act,
according
to
the
law
of
probability
or
necessity;
and
it
is
this
universality
at
which
poetry
aims
in
the
names
she
attaches
to
the
characters.
The
particular
is,
for
example,
what
Alcibiades
did
or
suffered.
In
comedy,
this
is
already
apparent,
for
here
the
poet
first
constructs
the
plot
on
the
lines
of
probability,
and
then
inserts
characteristic
names;
unlike
the
lampooners
who
write
about
particular
individuals.
But
tragedians
still
keep
to
real
names,
the
reason
being
that
what
is
possible
is
credible:
what
has
not
happened
we
do
not
at
once
feel
sure
to
be
possible:
but
what
has
happened
is
manifestly
possible:
otherwise
it
would
not
have
happened.
Still,
there
are
even
some
tragedies
in
which
there
are
only
one
or
two
well-‐known
names,
the
rest
being
fictitious.
In
others,
none
are
well
known,
as
in
Agathon’s
Antheus,
where
incidents
and
names
alike
are
fictitious,
and
yet
they
give
none
the
less
pleasure.
We
must
not,
therefore,
at
all
costs
keep
to
the
received
legends,
which
are
the
usual
subjects
of
tragedy.
Indeed,
it
would
be
absurd
to
attempt
it;
for
even
subjects
that
are
known
are
known
only
to
a
few,
and
yet
give
pleasure
to
all.
It
clearly
follows
that
the
poet
or
maker
should
be
the
maker
of
plots
rather
than
of
verses;
since
he
is
a
poet
because
he
imitates,
and
what
he
imitates
are
actions.
And
even
if
he
chances
to
take
an
historical
subject,
he
is
none
the
less
a
poet;
for
there
is
no
reason
why
some
events
that
have
actually
happened
should
not
conform
to
the
law
of
the
probable
and
possible,
and
in
virtue
of
that
quality
in
them
he
is
their
poet
or
maker.
Of
all
plots
and
actions
the
episodic
are
the
worst.
I
call
a
plot
“episodic”
in
which
the
episodes
or
acts
succeed
one
another
without
probable
or
necessary
sequence.
Bad
poets
compose
such
pieces
by
their
own
fault,
good
poets,
to
please
the
players;
for,
as
they
write
showpieces
for
competition,
they
stretch
the
plot
beyond
its
capacity,
and
are
often
forced
to
break
the
natural
continuity.
But
again,
tragedy
is
an
imitation
not
only
of
a
complete
action,
but
of
events
inspiring
terror
or
pity.
Such
an
effect
is
best
produced
when
the
events
come
on
us
by
sunrise;
and
the
effect
is
heightened
when,
at
the
same
time,
they
follow
as
cause
and
effect.
The
tragic
wonder
will
then
be
greater
than
if
they
happened
of
themselves
or
by
accident;
for
even
coincidences
are
most
striking
when
they
have
an
air
of
design,
as
when,
for
instance,
the
statue
of
Mitys
at
Argos
fell
upon
his
murderer
while
he
was
a
spectator
at
a
festival
and
killed
him.
Such
events
seem
not
to
be
due
to
mere
chance.
Plots,
therefore,
constructed
on
these
principles
are
necessarily
the
best.
10
Plots
are
either
simple
or
complex,
for
the
actions
in
real
life,
of
which
the
plots
are
an
imitation,
obviously
show
a
similar
distinction.
An
action
which
is
one
and
continuous
in
the
sense
above
defined,
I
call
simple,
when
the
change
of
fortune
takes
place
without
reversal
of
the
situation
and
without
recognition.
A
complex
action
is
one
in
which
the
change
is
accompanied
by
such
reversal,
or
by
recognition,
or
by
both.
These
last
should
arise
from
the
internal
structure
of
the
plot,
so
that
what
follows
should
be
the
necessary
or
probable
result
of
the
preceding
action.
It
makes
all
the
difference
whether
any
given
event
happens
because
of
certain
other
events
or
after
certain
other
events.
11
Reversal
of
the
situation
is
a
change
by
which
the
action
veers
round
to
its
opposite,
subject
always
to
our
rule
of
probability
or
necessity.
Thus
in
the
Oedipus,
the
messenger
comes
to
cheer
Oedipus
and
free
him
from
his
alarms
about
his
mother,
but
by
revealing
who
he
is,
he
produces
the
opposite
effect.
Again
in
the
Lynceus,
Lynceus
is
being
led
away
to
his
death,
and
Danaus
goes
with
him,
meaning,
to
slay
him;
but
the
outcome
of
the
preceding
incidents
is
that
Danaus
is
killed
and
Lynceus
saved.
Recognition,
as
the
name
indicates,
is
a
change
from
ignorance
to
knowledge,
producing
love
or
13
hate
between
the
persons
destined
by
the
poet
for
good
or
bad
fortune.
The
best
form
of
recognition
is
coincident
with
a
reversal
of
the
situation,
as
in
the
Oedipus.
There
are
indeed
other
forms.
Even
inanimate
things
of
the
most
trivial
kind
may
in
a
sense
be
objects
of
recognition.
Again,
we
may
recognise
or
discover
whether
a
person
has
done
a
thing
or
not.
But
the
recognition
which
is
most
intimately
connected
with
the
plot
and
action
is,
as
we
have
said,
the
recognition
of
persons.
This
recognition,
combined
with
reversal,
will
produce
either
pity
or
terror;
and
actions
producing
these
effects
are
those
which,
by
our
definition,
tragedy
represents.
Moreover,
it
is
upon
such
situations
that
the
issues
of
good
or
bad
fortune
will
depend.
Recognition,
then,
being
between
persons,
it
may
happen
that
one
person
only
is
recognised
by
the
other
–
when
the
latter
is
already
known
–
or
it
may
be
necessary
that
the
recognition
should
be
on
both
sides.
Thus
Iphigenia
is
revealed
to
Orestes
by
the
sending
of
the
letter;
but
another
act
of
recognition
is
required
to
make
Orestes
known
to
Iphigenia.
Two
parts,
then,
of
the
plot
–
reversal
of
the
situation
and
recognition
–
turn
upon
surprises.
A
third
part
is
the
scene
of
suffering.
The
scene
of
suffering
is
a
destructive
or
painful
action,
such
as
death
on
the
stage,
bodily
agony,
wounds
and
the
like.
CLIMÈNE.
Rendez-‐vous,
ou
ne
vous
rendez
pas,
je
sais
fort
bien
que
vous
ne
me
persuaderez
point
de
souffrir
les
immodesties
de
cette
pièce
;
non
plus
que
les
satires
désobligeantes
qu’on
y
voit
contre
les
femmes.
URANIE.
Pour
moi,
je
me
garderai
bien
de
m’en
offenser,
et
de
prendre
rien
sur
mon
compte
de
tout
ce
qui
s’y
dit.
Ces
sortes
de
satires
tombent
directement
sur
les
mœurs,
et
ne
frappent
les
personnes
que
par
réflexion.
N’allons
point
nous
appliquer
nous-‐mêmes
les
traits
d’une
censure
générale
;
et
profitons
de
la
leçon,
si
nous
pouvons,
sans
faire
semblant
qu’on
parle
à
nous.
Toutes
les
peintures
ridicules
qu’on
expose
sur
les
théâtres
doivent
être
regardées
sans
chagrin
de
tout
le
monde.
Ce
sont
miroirs
publics
où
il
ne
faut
jamais
témoigner
qu’on
se
voie
;
et
c’est
se
taxer
hautement
d’un
défaut,
que
se
scandaliser
qu’on
le
reprenne.
[…]
DORANTE.
Vous
croyez
donc,
Monsieur
Lysidas,
que
tout
l’esprit
et
toute
la
beauté
sont
dans
les
poèmes
sérieux,
et
que
les
pièces
comiques
sont
des
niaiseries
qui
ne
méritent
aucune
louange
?
URANIE.
Ce
n’est
pas
mon
sentiment,
pour
moi.
La
tragédie,
sans
doute,
est
quelque
chose
de
beau
quand
elle
est
bien
touchée
;
mais
la
comédie
a
ses
charmes,
et
je
tiens
que
l’une
n’est
pas
moins
difficile
à
faire
que
l’autre.
DORANTE.
Assurément,
Madame,
et
quand,
pour
la
difficulté,
vous
mettriez
un
plus
du
côté
de
la
comédie,
peut-‐être
que
vous
ne
vous
abuseriez
pas.
Car
enfin,
je
trouve
qu’il
est
bien
plus
aisé
de
se
guinder
sur
de
grands
sentiments,
de
braver
en
vers
la
Fortune,
accuser
les
Destins,
et
dire
des
injures
aux
dieux,
que
d’entrer
comme
il
faut
dans
le
ridicule
des
hommes,
et
de
rendre
agréablement
sur
le
théâtre
les
défauts
de
tout
le
monde.
Lorsque
vous
peignez
des
héros,
vous
faites
ce
que
vous
voulez
;
ce
sont
des
portraits
à
plaisir,
où
l’on
ne
cherche
point
de
ressemblance
;
et
vous
n’avez
qu’à
suivre
les
14
traits
d’une
imagination
qui
se
donne
l’essor,
et
qui
souvent
laisse
le
vrai
pour
attraper
le
merveilleux.
Mais
lorsque
vous
peignez
les
hommes,
il
faut
peindre
d’après
nature
;
on
veut
que
ces
portraits
ressemblent
;
et
vous
n’avez
rien
fait
si
vous
n’y
faites
reconnaître
les
gens
de
votre
siècle.
En
un
mot,
dans
les
pièces
sérieuses,
il
suffit,
pour
n’être
point
blâmé,
de
dire
des
choses
qui
soient
de
bon
sens,
et
bien
écrites
:
mais
ce
n’est
pas
assez
dans
les
autres
;
il
y
faut
plaisanter
;
et
c’est
une
étrange
entreprise
que
celle
de
faire
rire
les
honnêtes
gens.
CLIMÈNE.
Je
crois
être
du
nombre
des
honnêtes
gens,
et
cependant
je
n’ai
pas
trouvé
le
mot
pour
rire
dans
tout
ce
que
j’ai
vu.
[...]
LYSIDAS.
Ceux
qui
possèdent
Aristote
et
Horace
voient
d’abord,
Madame,
que
cette
comédie
pèche
contre
toutes
les
règles
de
l’art.
URANIE.
Je
vous
avoue
que
je
n’ai
aucune
habitude
avec
ces
messieurs-‐là,
et
que
je
ne
sais
point
les
règles
de
l’art.
DORANTE.
Vous
êtes
de
plaisantes
gens
avec
vos
règles
dont
vous
embarrassez
les
ignorants,
et
nous
étourdissez
tous
les
jours.
Il
semble,
à
vous
ouïr
parler,
que
ces
règles
de
l’art
soient
les
plus
grands
mystères
du
monde,
et
cependant
ce
ne
sont
que
quelques
observations
aisées
que
le
bon
sens
a
faites
sur
ce
qui
peut
ôter
le
plaisir
que
l’on
prend
à
ces
sortes
de
poèmes
;
et
le
même
bon
sens
qui
a
fait
autrefois
ces
observations,
les
fait
aisément
tous
les
jours,
sans
le
secours
d’Horace
et
d’Aristote.
Je
voudrais
bien
savoir
si
la
grande
règle
de
toutes
les
règles
n’est
pas
de
plaire
;
et
si
une
pièce
de
théâtre
qui
a
attrapé
son
but
n’a
pas
suivi
un
bon
chemin.
Veut-‐on
que
tout
un
public
s’abuse
sur
ces
sortes
de
choses,
et
que
chacun
n’y
soit
pas
juge
du
plaisir
qu’il
y
prend
?
URANIE.
J’ai
remarqué
une
chose
de
ces
messieurs-‐là
;
c’est
que
ceux
qui
parlent
le
plus
des
règles,
et
qui
les
savent
mieux
que
les
autres,
font
des
comédies
que
personne
ne
trouve
belles.
DORANTE.
Et
c’est
ce
qui
marque,
Madame,
comme
on
doit
s’arrêter
peu
à
leurs
disputes
embarrassées.
Car
enfin,
si
les
pièces
qui
sont
selon
les
règles
ne
plaisent
pas,
et
que
celles
qui
plaisent
ne
soient
pas
selon
les
règles,
il
faudrait
de
nécessité
que
les
règles
eussent
été
mal
faites.
Moquons-‐
nous
donc
de
cette
chicane
où
ils
veulent
assujettir
le
goût
du
public,
et
ne
consultons
dans
une
comédie
que
l’effet
qu’elle
fait
sur
nous.
Laissons-‐nous
aller
de
bonne
foi
aux
choses
qui
nous
prennent
par
les
entrailles,
et
ne
cherchons
point
de
raisonnements
pour
nous
empêcher
d’avoir
du
plaisir.
URANIE.
Pour
moi,
quand
je
vois
une
comédie,
je
regarde
seulement
si
les
choses
me
touchent,
et
lorsque
je
m’y
suis
bien
divertie,
je
ne
vais
point
demander
si
j’ai
eu
tort,
et
si
les
règles
d’Aristote
me
défendaient
de
rire.
[...]
LYSIDAS.
Peut-‐on
souffrir
une
pièce
qui
pèche
contre
le
nom
propre
des
pièces
de
théâtre
?
Car
enfin
le
nom
de
poème
dramatique
vient
d’un
mot
grec,
qui
signifie
agir,
pour
montrer
que
la
nature
de
ce
poème
consiste
dans
l’action
;
et
dans
cette
comédie-‐ci
il
ne
se
passe
point
d’actions,
et
tout
consiste
en
des
récits
que
vient
faire
ou
Agnès
ou
Horace.
[...]
La
Critique
de
L’École
des
femmes,
from
Act
I,
Scene
VI
VOLTAIRE
(François-‐Marie
Arouet)
(1694-‐1778)
Note:
The
following
extract
is
from
the
preface
to
Voltaire’s
tragedy
Brutus
(1730).
The
text
demonstrates
the
attitude
towards
theatre
in
general
and
tragedy
in
particular
of
one
of
the
most
th
famous
and
successful
playwrights
of
the
18
century
(in
spite
of
his
modesty
in
the
final
paragraph).
th
Voltaire
bemoans
some
of
the
formal
restrictions
placed
on
the
18 -‐century
dramatist
(cf.
Aristotle’s
Poetics)
while
at
the
same
time
justifying
others.
[…]
15
De
la
rime
et
de
la
difficulté
de
la
versification
française
Ce
qui
m’effraya
le
plus
en
rentrant
dans
cette
carrière,
ce
fut
la
sévérité
de
notre
poésie,
et
l’esclavage
de
la
rime.
Je
regrettais
cette
heureuse
liberté
que
vous
avez
d’écrire
vos
tragédies
en
vers
non
rimés
;
d’allonger,
et
surtout
d’accourcir
presque
tous
vos
mots
;
de
faire
enjamber
les
vers
les
uns
sur
les
autres,
et
de
créer,
dans
le
besoin,
des
termes
nouveaux,
qui
sont
toujours
adoptés
chez
vous
lorsqu’ils
sont
sonores,
intelligibles
et
nécessaires.
Un
poète
anglais,
disais-‐je,
est
un
homme
libre
qui
asservit
sa
langue
à
son
génie
;
le
Français
est
un
esclave
de
la
rime,
obligé
de
faire
quelquefois
quatre
vers
pour
exprimer
une
pensée
qu’un
Anglais
peut
rendre
en
une
seule
ligne
;
l’Anglais
dit
tout
ce
qu’il
veut,
le
Français
ne
dit
que
ce
qu’il
peut
;
l’un
court
dans
une
carrière
vaste,
et
l’autre
marche
avec
des
entraves
dans
un
chemin
glissant
et
étroit.
Malgré
toutes
ces
réflexions
et
toutes
ces
plaintes,
nous
ne
pourrons
jamais
secouer
le
joug
de
la
rime
;
elle
est
essentielle
à
la
poésie
française.
Notre
langue
ne
comporte
que
peu
d’inversions,
nos
vers
ne
souffrent
point
d’enjambement,
du
moins
cette
liberté
est
très
rare
;
nos
syllabes
ne
peuvent
produire
une
harmonie
sensible
par
leurs
mesures
longues
ou
brèves
;
nos
césures
et
un
certain
nombre
de
pieds
ne
suffiraient
pas
pour
distinguer
la
prose
d’avec
la
versification
;
la
rime
est
donc
nécessaire
aux
vers
français.
De
plus,
tant
de
grands
maîtres
qui
ont
fait
des
vers
rimés,
tels
que
les
Corneille,
les
Racine,
les
Despréaux,
ont
tellement
accoutumé
nos
oreilles
à
cette
harmonie
que
nous
n’en
pourrions
pas
supporter
d’autres
;
et,
je
le
répète
encore,
quiconque
voudrait
se
délivrer
d’un
fardeau
qu’a
porté
le
grand
Corneille
serait
regardé
avec
raison,
non
pas
comme
un
génie
hardi
qui
s’ouvre
une
route
nouvelle,
mais
comme
un
homme
très
faible
qui
ne
peut
marcher
dans
l’ancienne
carrière.
Tragédies
en
prose
On
a
tenté
de
nous
donner
des
tragédies
en
prose
;
mais
je
ne
crois
pas
que
cette
entreprise
puisse
désormais
réussir
:
qui
a
le
plus
ne
saurait
se
contenter
du
moins.
On
sera
toujours
mal
venu
à
dire
au
public
:
je
viens
diminuer
votre
plaisir.
Si
au
milieu
des
tableaux
de
Rubens
ou
de
Paul
Véronèse
quelqu’un
venait
placer
ses
dessins
au
crayon,
n’aurait-‐il
pas
tort
de
s’égaler
à
ces
peintres
?
On
est
accoutumé
dans
les
fêtes
à
des
danses
et
à
des
chants
;
serait-‐ce
assez
de
marcher
et
de
parler,
sous
prétexte
qu’on
marcherait
et
qu’on
parlerait
bien,
et
que
cela
serait
plus
aisé
et
plus
naturel
?
Il
y
a
grande
apparence
qu’il
faudra
toujours
des
vers
sur
tous
les
théâtres
tragiques,
et
de
plus
toujours
des
rimes
sur
le
nôtre.
C’est
même
à
cette
contrainte
de
la
rime
et
à
cette
sévérité
extrême
de
notre
versification
que
nous
devons
ces
excellents
ouvrages
que
nous
avons
dans
notre
langue.
Nous
voulons
que
la
rime
ne
coûte
jamais
rien
aux
pensées,
qu’elle
ne
soit
ni
triviale
ni
trop
recherchée
;
nous
exigeons
rigoureusement
dans
un
vers
la
même
pureté,
la
même
exactitude
que
dans
la
prose.
Nous
ne
permettons
pas
la
moindre
licence
;
nous
demandons
qu’un
auteur
porte
sans
discontinuer
toutes
ces
chaînes,
et
cependant
qu’il
paraisse
toujours
libre
;
et
nous
ne
reconnaissons
pour
poètes
que
ceux
qui
ont
rempli
toutes
ces
conditions.
[...]
La
rime
plaît
aux
Français,
même
dans
les
comédies
Je
sais
combien
de
disputes
j’ai
essuyées
sur
notre
versification
en
Angleterre,
et
quels
reproches
me
fait
souvent
le
savant
évêque
de
Rochester
sur
cette
contrainte
puérile,
qu’il
prétend
que
nous
nous
imposons
de
gaîté
de
cœur.
Mais
soyez
persuadé,
milord,
que
plus
un
étranger
connaîtra
notre
langue,
et
plus
il
se
réconciliera
avec
cette
rime
qui
l’effraie
d’abord.
Non
seulement
elle
est
nécessaire
à
notre
tragédie,
mais
elle
embellit
nos
comédies
mêmes.
Un
bon
mot
en
vers
en
est
retenu
plus
aisément
:
les
portraits
de
la
vie
humaine
seront
toujours
plus
frappants
en
vers
qu’en
prose
;
et
qui
dit
vers,
en
français,
dit
nécessairement
des
vers
rimés
;
en
un
mot,
nous
avons
des
comédies
en
prose
du
célèbre
Molière,
que
l’on
a
été
obligé
de
mettre
en
vers
après
sa
mort,
et
qui
ne
sont
plus
jouées
que
de
cette
manière
nouvelle.
[...]
Défaut
du
théâtre
français
Nous
avons
en
France
des
tragédies
estimées,
qui
sont
plutôt
des
conversations
qu’elles
ne
sont
la
représentation
d’un
événement.
[…]
Notre
délicatesse
excessive
nous
force
quelquefois
à
mettre
en
récit
ce
que
nous
voudrions
exposer
aux
yeux.
Nous
craignons
de
hasarder
sur
la
scène
des
spectacles
nouveaux
devant
une
nation
accoutumée
à
tourner
en
ridicule
tout
ce
qui
n’est
pas
d’usage.
L’endroit
où
l’on
joue
la
comédie,
et
les
abus
qui
s’y
sont
glissés,
sont
encore
une
cause
de
cette
sécheresse
16
qu’on
peut
reprocher
à
quelques
unes
de
nos
pièces.
Les
bancs
qui
sont
sur
le
théâtre,
destinés
aux
spectateurs,
rétrécissent
la
scène,
et
rendent
toute
action
presque
impraticable.
Ce
défaut
est
cause
que
les
décorations,
tant
recommandées
par
les
anciens,
sont
rarement
convenables
à
la
pièce.
Il
empêche
surtout
que
les
acteurs
ne
passent
d’un
appartement
dans
un
autre
aux
yeux
des
spectateurs,
comme
les
Grecs
et
les
Romains
le
pratiquaient
sagement,
pour
conserver
à
la
fois
l’unité
de
lieu
et
la
vraisemblance.
[...]
Bienséances
et
unités
Du
moins,
que
l’on
me
dise
pourquoi
il
est
permis
à
nos
héros
et
à
nos
héroïnes
de
théâtre
de
se
tuer,
et
qu’il
est
défendu
de
tuer
personne
?
La
scène
est-‐elle
moins
ensanglantée
par
la
mort
d’Atalide
qui
se
poignarde
pour
son
amant,
qu’elle
ne
le
serait
par
le
meurtre
de
César
?
et
si
le
spectacle
du
fils
de
Caton,
qui
paraît
mort
aux
yeux
de
son
père,
est
l’occasion
d’un
discours
admirable
de
ce
vieux
Romain
;
si
ce
morceau
a
été
applaudi
en
Angleterre
et
en
Italie
par
ceux
qui
sont
les
plus
grands
partisans
de
la
bienséance
française
;
si
les
femmes
les
plus
délicates
n’en
ont
point
été
choquées,
pourquoi
les
Français
ne
s’y
accoutumeraient-‐ils
pas
?
La
nature
n’est-‐elle
pas
la
même
dans
tous
les
hommes
?
Toutes
ces
lois,
de
ne
point
ensanglanter
la
scène,
de
ne
point
faire
parler
plus
de
trois
interlocuteurs,
etc.,
sont
des
lois
qui,
ce
me
semble,
pourraient
avoir
quelques
exceptions
parmi
nous,
comme
elles
en
ont
eu
chez
les
Grecs.
Il
n’en
est
pas
des
règles
de
la
bienséance,
toujours
un
peu
arbitraires,
comme
des
règles
fondamentales
du
théâtre,
qui
sont
les
trois
unités
:
il
y
aurait
de
la
faiblesse
et
de
la
stérilité
à
étendre
une
action
au
delà
de
l’espace
de
temps
et
du
lieu
convenables.
Demandez
à
quiconque
aura
inséré
dans
une
pièce
trop
d’événements,
la
raison
de
cette
faute
:
s’il
est
de
bonne
foi,
il
vous
dira
qu’il
n’a
pas
eu
assez
de
génie
pour
remplir
sa
pièce
d’un
seul
fait
;
et
s’il
prend
deux
jours
et
deux
villes
pour
son
action,
croyez
que
c’est
parce
qu’il
n’aurait
pas
eu
l’adresse
de
la
resserrer
dans
l’espace
de
trois
heures
et
dans
l’enceinte
d’un
palais,
comme
l’exige
la
vraisemblance.
Il
en
est
tout
autrement
de
celui
qui
hasarderait
un
spectacle
horrible
sur
le
théâtre
:
il
ne
choquerait
point
la
vraisemblance
;
et
cette
hardiesse,
loin
de
supposer
de
la
faiblesse
dans
l’auteur,
demanderait
au
contraire
un
grand
génie
pour
mettre,
par
ses
vers,
de
la
véritable
grandeur
dans
une
action
qui,
sans
un
style
sublime,
ne
serait
qu’atroce
et
dégoûtante.
[...]
De
l’amour
Des
critiques
judicieux
pourraient
me
demander
pourquoi
j’ai
parlé
d’amour
dans
une
tragédie
dont
le
titre
est
Junius
Brutus
;
pourquoi
j’ai
mêlé
cette
passion
avec
l’austère
vertu
du
sénat
romain
et
la
politique
d’un
ambassadeur.
On
reproche
à
notre
nation
d’avoir
amolli
le
théâtre
par
trop
de
tendresse
;
et
les
Anglais
méritent
bien
le
même
reproche
depuis
plus
d’un
siècle,
car
vous
avez
toujours
un
peu
pris
nos
modes
et
nos
vices.
Mais
me
permettez-‐vous
de
vous
dire
mon
sentiment
sur
cette
matière
?
Vouloir
de
l’amour
dans
toutes
les
tragédies
me
paraît
un
goût
efféminé
;
l’en
proscrire
toujours
est
une
mauvaise
humeur
bien
déraisonnable.
Le
théâtre,
soit
tragique,
soit
comique,
est
la
peinture
vivante
des
passions
humaines.
L’ambition
d’un
prince
est
représentée
dans
la
tragédie
;
la
comédie
tourne
en
ridicule
la
vanité
d’un
bourgeois.
Ici,
vous
riez
de
la
coquetterie
et
des
intrigues
d’une
citoyenne
;
là,
vous
pleurez
la
malheureuse
passion
de
Phèdre
:
de
même,
l’amour
vous
amuse
dans
un
roman,
et
il
vous
transporte
dans
la
Didon
de
Virgile.
L’amour
dans
une
tragédie
n’est
pas
plus
un
défaut
essentiel
que
dans
l’Énéide
;
il
n’est
à
reprendre
que
quand
il
est
amené
mal
à
propos,
ou
traité
sans
art.
Les
Grecs
ont
rarement
hasardé
cette
passion
sur
le
théâtre
d’Athènes
:
premièrement,
parce
que
leurs
tragédies
n’ayant
roulé
d’abord
que
sur
des
sujets
terribles,
l’esprit
des
spectateurs
était
plié
à
ce
genre
de
spectacles
;
secondement,
parce
que
les
femmes
menaient
une
vie
beaucoup
plus
retirée
que
les
nôtres,
et
qu’ainsi,
le
langage
de
l’amour
n’étant
pas,
comme
aujourd’hui,
le
sujet
de
toutes
les
conversations,
les
poètes
en
étaient
moins
invités
à
traiter
cette
passion,
qui
de
toutes
est
la
plus
difficile
à
représenter,
par
les
ménagements
délicats
qu’elle
demande.
Une
troisième
raison,
qui
me
paraît
assez
forte,
c’est
que
l’on
n’avait
point
de
comédiennes
;
les
rôles
des
femmes
étaient
joués
par
des
hommes
masqués
:
il
semble
que
l’amour
eût
été
ridicule
dans
leur
bouche.
[...]
C’est
à
vous,
milord,
à
décider
si
j’ai
rempli
quelques-‐unes
de
ces
conditions
;
mais
que
vos
amis
daignent
surtout
ne
point
juger
du
génie
et
du
goût
de
notre
nation
par
ce
discours
et
par
cette
tragédie
que
je
vous
envoie.
Je
suis
peut-‐être
un
de
ceux
qui
cultivent
les
lettres
en
France
avec
moins
17
de
succès
;
et
si
les
sentiments
que
je
soumets
ici
à
votre
censure
sont
désapprouvés,
c’est
à
moi
seul
qu’en
appartient
le
blâme.
Pour
nous
[nous,
en
Occident],
au
théâtre
la
Parole
est
tout
et
il
n’y
a
pas
de
possibilité
en
dehors
d’elle;
le
théâtre
est
une
branche
de
la
littérature,
une
sorte
de
variété
sonore
du
langage,
et
si
nous
admettons
une
différence
entre
le
texte
parlé
sur
la
scène
et
le
texte
lu
par
les
yeux,
si
nous
enfermons
le
théâtre
dans
les
limites
de
ce
qui
apparaît
entre
les
répliques,
nous
ne
parvenons
pas
à
séparer
le
théâtre
de
l'idée
du
texte
réalisé.
Cette
idée
de
la
suprématie
de
la
parole
au
théâtre
est
si
enracinée
en
nous
et
le
théâtre
nous
apparaît
tellement
comme
le
simple
reflet
matériel
du
texte
que
tout
ce
qui
au
théâtre
dépasse
le
texte,
n’est
pas
contenu
dans
ses
limites
et
strictement
conditionné
par
lui,
nous
paraît
faire
partie
du
domaine
de
la
mise
en
scène
considérée
comme
quelque
chose
d’inférieur
par
rapport
au
texte.
Étant
donné
cet
assujettissement
du
théâtre
à
la
parole
on
peut
se
demander
si
le
théâtre
ne
posséderait
pas
par
hasard
son
langage
propre,
s’il
serait
absolument
chimérique
de
le
considérer
comme
un
art
indépendant
et
autonome,
au
même
titre
que
la
musique,
la
peinture,
la
danse,
etc.,
etc.
On
trouve
en
tout
cas
que
ce
langage
s’il
existe
se
confond
nécessairement
avec
la
mise
en
scène
considérée
:
1. D’une
part,
comme
la
matérialisation
visuelle
et
plastique
de
la
parole
;
2. Comme
le
langage
de
tout
ce
qui
peut
se
dire
et
se
signifier
sur
une
scène
indépendamment
de
la
parole,
de
tout
ce
qui
trouve
son
expression
dans
l’espace,
ou
qui
peut
être
atteint
ou
désagrégé
par
lui.
Ce
langage
de
la
mise
en
scène
considéré
comme
le
langage
théâtral
pur,
il
s’agit
de
savoir
s’il
est
capable
d’atteindre
le
même
objet
intérieur
que
la
parole,
si
du
point
de
vue
de
l’esprit
et
théâtralement
il
peut
prétendre
à
la
même
efficacité
intellectuelle
que
le
langage
articulé.
On
peut
en
d’autres
termes
se
demander
s’il
peut
non
pas
préciser
des
pensées,
mais
faire
penser,
s’il
peut
entraîner
l'esprit
à
prendre
des
attitudes
profondes
et
efficaces
de
son
point
de
vue
à
lui.
En
un
mot,
poser
la
question
de
l’efficacité
intellectuelle
de
l'expression
par
les
formes
objectives,
de
l’efficacité
intellectuelle
d’un
langage
qui
n’utiliserait
que
les
formes,
ou
le
bruit,
ou
le
geste,
c'est
poser
la
question
de
l’efficacité
intellectuelle
de
l’art.
Si
nous
en
sommes
venus
à
n’attribuer
à
l’art
qu’une
valeur
d’agrément
et
de
repos
et
à
le
faire
tenir
dans
une
utilisation
purement
formelle
des
formes,
dans
l’harmonie
de
certains
rapports
extérieurs,
cela
n’entache
en
rien
sa
valeur
expressive
profonde
;
mais
l’infirmité
spirituelle
de
l’Occident,
qui
est
le
lieu
par
excellence
où
l’on
a
pu
confondre
l’art
avec
l'esthétisme,
est
de
penser
qu’il
pourrait
y
avoir
une
peinture
qui
ne
servirait
qu’à
peindre,
une
danse
qui
ne
serait
que
plastique,
comme
si
l’on
avait
voulu
couper
les
formes
de
l’art,
trancher
leurs
liens
d’avec
toutes
les
attitudes
mystiques
qu’elles
peuvent
prendre
en
se
confrontant
avec
l’absolu.
On
comprend
donc
que
le
théâtre,
dans
la
mesure
même
où
il
demeure
enfermé
dans
son
langage,
où
il
reste
en
corrélation
avec
lui,
doit
rompre
avec
l’actualité,
que
son
objet
n’est
pas
de
résoudre
des
conflits
sociaux
ou
psychologiques,
de
servir
de
champ
de
bataille
à
des
passions
morales,
mais
d’exprimer
objectivement
des
vérités
secrètes,
de
faire
venir
au
jour
par
des
gestes
actifs
cette
part
de
vérité
enfouie
sous
les
formes
dans
leurs
rencontres
avec
le
Devenir.
Faire
cela,
lier
le
théâtre
aux
possibilités
de
l’expression
par
les
formes,
et
par
tout
ce
qui
est
gestes,
bruits,
couleurs,
plastiques,
etc.,
c’est
le
rendre
à
sa
destination
primitive,
c’est
le
replacer
dans
son
aspect
religieux
et
métaphysique,
c’est
le
réconcilier
avec
l’univers.
18
dans
les
drames
antiques
n’est
que
l’envers
de
la
liberté.
Les
passions
elles-‐mêmes
sont
des
libertés
prises
à
leur
propre
piège.
Le
théâtre
psychologique,
celui
d’Euripide,
celui
de
Voltaire
et
de
Crébillon
fils,
annonce
le
déclin
des
formes
tragiques.
Un
conflit
de
caractères,
quels
que
soient
les
retournements
qu’on
y
mette,
n’est
jamais
qu’une
composition
de
forces
dont
les
résultats
sont
prévisibles
:
tout
est
décidé
d’avance.
L’homme
qu’un
concours
de
circonstances
conduit
sûrement
à
sa
perte
n’émeut
guère.
Il
n’y
a
de
grandeur
dans
sa
chute
que
s’il
tombe
par
sa
faute.
Si
la
psychologie
gêne,
au
théâtre,
ce
n’est
point
qu’il
y
ait
trop
en
elle:
c’est
qu’il
n’y
a
pas
assez
;
il
est
dommage
que
les
auteurs
modernes
aient
découvert
cette
connaissance
bâtarde
et
l’aient
appliquée
hors
de
portée.
Ils
ont
manqué
la
volonté,
le
serment,
la
folie
d’orgueil
qui
sont
les
vertus
et
les
vices
de
la
tragédie.
Dès
lors,
l’aliment
central
d’une
pièce,
ce
n’est
pas
le
caractère
qu’on
exprime
avec
de
savants
«
mots
de
théâtre
»
et
qui
n’est
rien
d’autre
que
l’ensemble
de
nos
serments
(serment
de
se
montrer
irritable,
intransigeant,
fidèle,
etc.),
c’est
la
situation.
Non
pas
cet
imbroglio
superficiel
que
Scribe
et
Sardou
savaient
si
bien
monter
et
qui
n’avait
pas
de
valeur
humaine.
Mais
s’il
est
vrai
que
l’homme
est
libre
dans
une
situation
donnée
et
qu’il
se
choisit
lui-‐même
dans
et
par
cette
situation,
alors
il
faut
montrer
au
théâtre
des
situations
simples
et
humaines
et
des
libertés
qui
se
choisissent
dans
ces
situations.
Le
caractère
vient
après,
quand
le
rideau
est
tombé.
Il
n’est
que
le
durcissement
du
choix,
sa
sclérose
;
il
est
ce
que
Kierkegaard
nomme
la
répétition.
Ce
que
le
théâtre
peut
montrer
de
plus
émouvant
est
un
caractère
en
train
de
se
faire,
le
moment
du
choix,
de
la
libre
décision
qui
engage
une
morale
et
toute
une
vie.
La
situation
est
un
appel
;
elle
nous
cerne
;
elle
nous
propose
des
solutions,
à
nous
de
décider.
Et
pour
que
la
décision
soit
profondément
humaine,
pour
qu’elle
mette
en
jeu
la
totalité
de
l’homme,
à
chaque
fois
il
faut
porter
sur
la
scène
des
situations-‐
limites,
c’est-‐à-‐dire
qui
présentent
des
alternatives
dont
la
mort
est
l’un
des
termes.
Ainsi,
la
liberté
se
découvre
à
son
plus
haut
degré
puisqu’elle
accepte
de
se
perdre
pour
pouvoir
s’affirmer.
Et
comme
il
n’y
a
de
théâtre
que
si
l’on
réalise
l’unité
de
tous
les
spectateurs,
il
faut
trouver
des
situations
si
générales
qu’elles
soient
communes
à
tous.
Plongez
des
hommes
dans
ces
situations
universelles
et
extrêmes
qui
ne
leur
laissent
qu’un
couple
d’issues,
faites
qu’en
choisissant
l’issue
ils
se
choisissent
eux-‐mêmes
:
vous
avez
gagné,
la
pièce
est
bonne.
Chaque
époque
saisit
la
condition
humaine
et
les
énigmes
qui
sont
proposées
à
sa
liberté
à
travers
des
situations
particulières.
Antigone,
dans
la
tragédie
de
Sophocle,
doit
choisir
entre
la
morale
de
la
cité
et
la
morale
de
la
famille.
Ce
dilemme
n’a
plus
guère
de
sens
aujourd’hui.
Mais
nous
avons
nos
problèmes
:
celui
de
la
fin
et
des
moyens,
de
la
légitimité
de
la
violence,
celui
des
conséquences
de
l’action,
celui
des
rapports
de
la
personne
avec
la
collectivité,
de
l’entreprise
individuelle
avec
les
constantes
historiques,
cent
autres
encore.
Il
me
semble
que
la
tâche
du
dramaturge
est
de
choisir
parmi
ces
situations-‐limites
celle
qui
exprime
le
mieux
ses
soucis
et
de
la
présenter
au
public
comme
la
question
qui
se
pose
à
certaines
libertés.
C’est
seulement
ainsi
que
le
théâtre
retrouvera
la
résonance
qu’il
a
perdue,
seulement
ainsi
qu’il
pourra
unifier
le
public
divers
qui
le
fréquente
aujourd’hui.
19
rien
ne
vous
empêche
d’y
croire;
un
film,
c’est
une
histoire
imaginaire
que
l’on
vous
fait
voir.
C’est
un
roman
en
images,
un
roman
illustré
;
un
film
est
donc
aussi
une
histoire
racontée,
visuellement,
bien
sûr,
cela
ne
change
rien
à
sa
nature,
on
peut
y
croire
;
la
musique,
c’est
une
combinaison
de
sons,
une
histoire
de
sons,
des
aventures
auditives
;
un
tableau,
c’est
une
organisation
ou
une
désorganisation
de
formes
de
couleurs,
de
plans,
il
n’y
a
pas
lieu
d’y
croire
ou
de
n’y
pas
croire
;
il
est
là,
il
est
évidence.
Il
suffit
que
ses
éléments
correspondent
aux
exigences
idéales
de
la
composition,
de
l’expression
picturales.
Roman,
musique,
peinture,
sont
des
constructions
pures,
ne
contenant
pas
d’éléments
qui
leur
soient
hétérogène
;
voila
pourquoi
elles
tiennent
et
sont
admissibles.
Le
cinéma
lui-‐même
peut
tenir,
puisqu’il
est
une
suite
d’images,
c’est
ce
qui
fait
que
lui
aussi
est
pur,
alors
que
le
théâtre
me
semblait
essentiellement
impur
:
la
fiction
y
était
mêlée
à
des
éléments
qui
lui
étaient
étrangers
;
elle
était
imparfaitement
fiction,
oui,
une
matière
brute
n’ayant
pas
subi
une
indispensable
transformation,
une
mutation.
En
somme
tout
m’exaspérait
au
théâtre.
Lorsque
je
voyais
les
comédiens
s’identifier
totalement
à
personnages
dramatiques
et
pleurer,
par
exemple,
sur
scène,
avec
de
vraies
larmes,
cela
m’était
insupportable,
je
trouvais
que
c’était
proprement
indécent.
[…]
Quand
n’ai-‐je
plus
aimé
le
théâtre
?
À
partir
du
moment
où
devenant
un
peu
lucide,
acquérant
de
l’esprit
critique,
j’ai
pris
conscience
des
ficelles,
des
grosses
ficelles
du
théâtre,
c’est-‐à-‐dire
à
partir
du
moment
où
j’ai
perdu
toute
naïveté.
Quels
sont
les
monstres
sacrés
du
théâtre
qui
pourraient
vous
la
restituer?
Et
au
nom
de
quelle
magie
valable
aurait-‐il
le
droit
de
prétendre
nous
envoûter
?
Il
n’y
a
plus
de
magie
;
il
n’y
a
plus
de
sacré
:
aucune
raison,
aucune
justification
n’est
suffisante
pour
le
faire
renaître
en
nous.
D’ailleurs,
rien
n’est
plus
difficile
que
d’écrire
pour
le
théâtre.
Les
romans,
les
poèmes
demeurent.
Leur
efficacité
n’est
pas
émoussée,
même
après
des
siècles.
On
prend
intérêt
à
la
lecture
de
beaucoup
e e e
d’œuvres
mineures
du
19
siècle,
du
18 ,
du
17 .
Combien
d’œuvres
plus
anciennes
encore
ne
nous
intéressent-‐elles
pas
?
Et
toute
la
peinture,
toute
la
musique
résistent.
Les
moindres
têtes
sculptées
de
tant
de
cathédrales
ont
conservé
vivantes
une
intacte
fraîcheur,
une
naïveté
émouvante,
et
nous
continuerons
d’être
sensibles
aux
rythmes
architecturaux
des
monuments,
des
civilisations
les
plus
reculées
qui,
par
ces
monuments,
se
révèlent
à
nous,
parlent
un
langage
direct
et
précis.
Mais
le
théâtre
?
Certains
reprochent
aujourd’hui
au
théâtre
de
ne
pas
être
de
son
temps.
À
mon
avis,
il
l’est
trop.
C’est
ce
qui
fait
sa
faiblesse
et
son
éphémérité.
Je
veux
dire
que
le
théâtre
est
de
son
temps
tout
en
ne
l’étant
pas
assez.
Chaque
temps
demande
l’introduction
d’un
«
hors
temps
»
incommunicable,
dans
le
temps,
dans
le
communicable.
Tout
est
moment
circonscrit
dans
l’histoire,
bien
sûr.
Mais
dans
chaque
moment
est
toute
l’histoire:
toute
l’histoire
est
valable
lorsqu’elle
est
transhistorique;
dans
l’individuel
on
lit
l’universel.
Les
thèmes
que
beaucoup
d’auteurs
choisissent
ne
relèvent
que
d’une
certaine
mode
idéologique,
ce
qui
est
moins
que
l’époque.
Ou
alors
ces
thèmes
expriment
telle
ou
telle
pensée
politique
très
particulière,
et
les
pièces
qui
les
illustrent
mourront
avec
cette
idéologie
dont
ils
sont
tributaires,
car
les
idéologies
périment.
N’importe
quel
tombeau
chrétien,
n’importe
quelle
stèle
grecque
ou
étrusque
touchent
davantage,
en
disent
plus
sur
le
destin
de
l’homme
que
tant
de
pièces
laborieusement
engagées,
qui
se
font
l’instrument
de
disciplines,
de
systèmes
d’expression,
de
langages,
autres
que
ceux
qui
leur
sont
propres.
Il
est
vrai
que
tous
les
auteurs
ont
voulu
faire
de
la
propagande.
Les
grands
sont
ceux
qui
ont
échoué,
qui,
consciemment
ou
non,
ont
accédé
à
des
réalités
plus
profondes,
plus
universelles.
Rien
de
plus
précaire
que
les
œuvres
théâtrales.
Elles
peuvent
se
soutenir
un
temps
très
court
et
vite
s’épuisent,
ne
révélant
plus
que
leurs
ficelles.
Corneille,
sincèrement,
m'ennuie.
Nous
ne
l'aimons
peut-‐être
(sans
y
croire)
que
par
habitude.
Nous
y
sommes
forcés.
Il
nous
a
été
imposé
en
classe.
Schiller
m’est
insupportable.
Les
pièces
de
Marivaux
m’ont
paru
longtemps
des
jeux
futiles.
Les
comédies
de
Musset
sont
minces,
celles
de
Vigny
injouables.
Les
drames
sanglants
de
Victor
Hugo
nous
font
rire
aux
éclats
[…].
Et
les
autres
?
Oscar
Wilde
?
facile
;
Ibsen
?
lourdaud
;
Strindberg
?
maladroit.
[…]
Pirandello
lui-‐même
est
dépassé,
son
théâtre
étant
fondé
sur
des
théories
de
la
personnalité
ou
de
la
vérité
aux
faces
multiples,
théories
qui,
depuis
la
psychanalyse
et
les
psychologies
des
profondeurs,
semblent
claires
comme
le
jour.
[…]
Seule
reste
chez
Pirandello
sa
mécanique
théâtrale,
son
jeu
:
preuve
encore
que
le
théâtre
qui
n’est
bâti
que
sur
une
idéologie,
une
philosophie,
et
qui
ne
doit
tout
20
qu’à
cette
idéologie
et
à
cette
philosophie,
est
bâti
sur
du
sable,
s’effondre.
C’est
son
langage
théâtral,
son
instinct
purement
théâtral
qui
fait
que
Pirandello
est
aujourd’hui
encore
vivant.
De
même,
ce
n’est
pas
la
vérité
psychologique
des
passions,
chez
Racine,
qui
maintient
son
théâtre,
mais
bien
ce
que
Racine
a
fait,
en
tant
que
poète
et
homme
de
théâtre,
de
ces
vérités.
[…]
Qu’y
a-‐t-‐il
donc
à
reprocher
aux
auteurs
dramatiques,
aux
pièces
de
théâtre
?
Leurs
ficelles,
disais-‐
je,
c’est-‐à-‐dire
leurs
procédés
trop
évidents.
Le
théâtre
peut
paraître
un
genre
littéraire
inférieur,
un
genre
mineur.
Il
fait
toujours
un
peu
gros.
C’est
un
art
à
effets
sans
doute.
Il
ne
peut
s’en
dispenser
et
c’est
ce
qu’on
lui
reproche.
Les
effets
n’y
peuvent
être
que
gros.
[…]
Ce
n’est
que
lorsque
j’ai
écrit
pour
le
théâtre,
tout
à
fait
par
hasard
et
dans
l’intention
de
le
tourner
en
dérision,
que
je
me
suis
mis
à
l’aimer,
à
le
redécouvrir
en
moi,
à
le
comprendre,
à
en
être
fasciné;
et
j’ai
compris
ce
que,
moi,
j’avais
à
faire.
Je
me
suis
dit
que
les
écrivains
de
théâtre
trop
intelligents
ne
l’étaient
pas
assez,
que
les
penseurs
ne
pouvaient,
au
théâtre,
trouver
le
langage
du
traité
philosophique
;
que,
lorsqu’ils
voulaient
apporter
au
théâtre
trop
de
subtilités
et
de
nuances,
c’était
à
la
fois
trop
et
pas
assez
;
que,
si
le
théâtre
n’était
qu’un
grossissement
déplorable
des
nuances,
qui
me
gênait,
c’est
qu’il
n’était
qu’un
grossissement
insuffisant.
Le
trop
gros
n’était
pas
assez
gros,
le
trop
peu
nuancé
était
trop
nuancé.
Si
donc
la
valeur
du
théâtre
était
dans
le
grossissement
des
effets,
il
fallait
les
grossir
davantage
encore,
les
souligner,
les
accentuer
au
maximum.
Pousser
le
théâtre
au-‐delà
de
cette
zone
intermédiaire
qui
n’est
ni
théâtre,
ni
littérature,
c’est
le
restituer
à
son
cadre
propre,
à
ses
limites
naturelles.
Il
fallait
non
pas
cacher
les
ficelles,
mais
les
rendre
plus
visibles
encore,
délibérément
évidentes,
aller
à
fond
dans
le
grotesque,
la
caricature,
au-‐delà
de
la
pâle
ironie
des
spirituelles
comédies
de
salon.
Pas
de
comédie
de
salon,
mais
la
farce,
la
charge
parodique
même.
Humour,
oui,
mais
avec
les
moyens
du
burlesque.
Un
comique
dur,
sans
finesse,
excessif.
Pas
de
comédies
dramatiques,
non
plus.
Mais
revenir
à
l’insoutenable.
Pousser
tout
au
paroxysme,
là
où
sont
les
sources
du
tragique.
Faire
un
théâtre
de
violence
:
violence
comique,
violemment
dramatique.
Éviter
la
psychologie
ou
plutôt
lui
donner
une
dimension
métaphysique.
Le
théâtre
est
dans
l’exagération
extrême
des
sentiments,
exagération
qui
disloque
la
plate
réalité
quotidienne.
Dislocation
aussi,
désarticulation
du
langage.
[…]
Si
l’on
pense
que
le
théâtre
n’est
que
théâtre
de
parole,
il
est
difficile
d’admettre
qu’il
puisse
avoir
un
langage
autonome.
Il
ne
peut
être
que
tributaire
des
autres
formes
de
pensée
qui
s’expriment
par
la
parole,
tributaire
de
la
philosophie,
de
la
morale.
Les
choses
sont
différentes
si
l’on
considère
que
la
parole
ne
constitue
qu’un
des
éléments
de
choc
du
théâtre.
D’abord
le
théâtre
a
une
façon
propre
d’utiliser
la
parole,
c’est
le
dialogue,
c’est
la
parole
de
combat,
de
conflit.
Si
elle
n’est
que
discussion
chez
certains
auteurs,
c’est
une
grande
faute
de
leur
part.
Il
existe
d’autres
moyens
de
théâtraliser
la
parole
:
en
la
portant
à
son
paroxysme,
pour
donner
au
théâtre
sa
vraie
mesure,
qui
est
dans
la
démesure
;
le
verbe
lui-‐même
doit
être
tendu
jusqu’à
ses
limites
ultimes,
le
langage
doit
presque
exploser,
ou
se
détruire,
dans
son
impossibilité
de
contenir
les
significations.
Mais
il
n’y
a
pas
que
la
parole
:
le
théâtre
est
une
histoire
qui
se
vit,
recommençant
à
chaque
représentation,
et
c’est
aussi
une
histoire
que
l’on
voit
vivre.
Le
théâtre
est
autant
visuel
qu’auditif.
Il
n’est
pas
une
suite
d’images,
comme
le
cinéma,
mais
une
construction,
une
architecture
mouvante
d’images
scéniques.
21
near
riots
among
a
good
many
highly
sophisticated
audiences
in
Western
Europe?
Herbert
Blau
decided
to
prepare
the
San
Quentin
audience
for
what
was
to
come.
He
stepped
on
to
the
stage
and
addressed
the
packed,
darkened
North
Dining
Hall
–
a
sea
of
flickering
matches
that
the
convicts
tossed
over
their
shoulders
after
lighting
their
cigarettes.
Blau
compared
the
play
to
a
piece
of
jazz
music
“to
which
one
must
listen
for
whatever
one
may
find
in
it”.
In
the
same
way,
he
hoped,
there
would
be
some
meaning,
some
personal
significance
for
each
member
of
the
audience
in
Waiting
for
Godot.
The
curtain
parted.
The
play
began.
And
what
had
bewildered
the
sophisticated
audiences
of
Paris,
London,
and
New
York
was
immediately
grasped
by
an
audience
of
convicts.
As
the
writer
of
“Memos
of
a
first-‐nighter”
put
it
in
the
columns
of
the
prison
paper,
the
San
Quentin
News:
The
trio
of
muscle-‐men,
biceps
overflowing
...
parked
all
642
lbs
on
the
aisle
and
waited
for
the
girls
and
funny
stuff.
When
this
didn’t
appear
they
audibly
fumed
and
audibly
decided
to
wait
until
the
house
lights
dimmed
before
escaping.
They
made
one
error.
They
listened
and
looked
two
minutes
too
long
–
and
stayed.
Left
at
the
end.
All
shook…
Or
as
the
writer
of
the
lead
story
of
the
same
paper
reported,
under
the
headline
“San
Francisco
Group
Leaves
S.
Q.
Audience
Waiting
for
Godot”:
From
the
moment
Robin
Wagner’s
thoughtful
and
limbo-‐like
set
was
dressed
with
light,
until
the
last
futile
and
expectant
handclasp
was
hesitantly
activated
between
the
two
searching
vagrants,
the
San
Francisco
company
had
its
audience
of
captives
in
its
collective
hand.
[…]
Those
that
had
felt
a
less
controversial
vehicle
should
be
attempted
as
a
first
play
here
had
their
fears
allayed
a
short
five
minutes
after
the
Samuel
Beckett
piece
began
to
unfold.
A
reporter
from
the
San
Francisco
Chronicle
who
was
present
noted
that
the
convicts
did
not
find
it
difficult
to
understand
the
play.
One
prisoner
told
him,
“Godot
is
society.”
Said
another:
“He’s
the
outside.”
A
teacher
at
the
prison
was
quoted
as
saying,
“They
know
what
is
meant
by
waiting…
and
they
knew
if
Godot
finally
came,
he
would
only
be
a
disappointment.”
The
leading
article
of
the
prison
paper
showed
how
clearly
the
writers
had
understood
the
meaning
of
the
play:
It
was
an
expression,
symbolic
in
order
to
avoid
all
personal
error,
by
an
author
who
expected
each
member
of
his
audience
to
draw
his
own
conclusion,
make
his
own
errors.
It
asked
nothing
in
point,
it
forced
no
dramatized
moral
on
the
viewer,
it
held
out
no
specific
hope.
[…]
We’re
still
waiting
for
Godot,
and
shall
continue
to
wait.
When
the
scenery
gets
too
drab
and
the
action
too
slow,
we’ll
call
each
other
names
and
swear
to
part
forever
–
but
then,
there’s
no
place
to
go!
It
is
said
that
Godot
himself,
as
well
as
turns
of
phrase
and
characters
from
the
play,
has
since
become
a
permanent
part
of
the
private
language,
the
institutional
mythology
of
San
Quentin.
Why
did
a
play
of
the
supposedly
esoteric
avant-‐garde
make
so
immediate
and
so
deep
an
impact
on
an
audience
of
convicts?
Because
it
confronted
them
with
a
situation
in
some
ways
analogous
to
their
own?
Perhaps.
Or
perhaps
because
they
were
unsophisticated
enough
to
come
to
the
theatre
without
any
preconceived
notions
and
ready-‐made
expectations,
so
that
they
avoided
the
mistake
that
trapped
so
many
established
critics
who
condemned
the
play
for
its
lack
of
plot,
development,
characterization,
suspense,
or
plain
common
sense.
Certainly
the
prisoners
of
San
Quentin
could
not
be
suspected
of
the
sin
of
intellectual
snobbery,
for
which
a
sizeable
proportion
of
the
audiences
of
Waiting
for
Godot
have
often
been
reproached;
of
pretending
to
like
a
play
they
did
not
even
begin
to
understand,
just
to
appear
in
the
know.
The
reception
of
Waiting
for
Godot
at
San
Quentin,
and
the
wide
acclaim
given
to
plays
by
Ionesco,
Adamov,
Pinter,
and
others,
testify
that
these
plays,
which
are
so
often
superciliously
dismissed
as
nonsense
or
mystification,
have
something
to
say
and
can
be
understood.
Most
of
the
incomprehension
with
which
plays
of
this
type
are
still
being
received
by
critics
and
theatrical
reviewers,
most
of
the
bewilderment
they
have
caused
and
to
which
they
still
give
rise,
come
from
the
fact
that
they
are
part
of
a
new
and
still
developing
stage
convention
that
has
not
yet
been
generally
understood
and
has
hardly
ever
been
defined.
Inevitably,
plays
written
in
this
new
convention
will,
when
judged
by
the
standards
and
criteria
of
another,
be
regarded
as
impertinent
and
outrageous
impostures.
If
a
good
play
must
have
a
cleverly
constructed
story,
these
have
no
story
or
plot
to
speak
of;
if
a
good
play
is
judged
by
subtlety
of
characterization
and
motivation,
these
are
often
without
recognizable
characters
and
present
the
audience
with
almost
mechanical
puppets;
if
a
good
play
has
to
have
a
fully
explained
theme,
which
is
neatly
exposed
and
finally
solved,
these
often
have
neither
a
beginning
nor
an
end;
if
a
good
play
is
to
hold
the
mirror
up
to
nature
and
portray
the
manners
and
mannerisms
of
the
age
in
finely
observed
sketches,
these
seem
often
to
be
reflections
of
dreams
and
nightmares;
if
a
good
play
relies
on
witty
repartee
and
pointed
dialogue,
these
often
consist
of
22
incoherent
babblings.
But
the
plays
we
are
concerned
with
here
pursue
ends
quite
different
from
those
of
the
conventional
play
and
therefore
use
quite
different
methods.
They
can
be
judged
only
by
the
standards
of
the
Theatre
of
the
Absurd,
which
it
is
the
purpose
of
this
book
to
define
and
clarify.
It
must
be
stressed,
however,
that
the
dramatists
whose
work
is
here
discussed
do
not
form
part
of
any
self-‐proclaimed
or
self-‐conscious
school
or
movement.
On
the
contrary,
each
of
the
writers
in
question
is
an
individual
who
regards
himself
as
a
lone
outsider,
cut
off
and
isolated
in
his
private
world.
Each
has
his
own
personal
approach
to
both
subject-‐matter
and
form;
his
own
roots,
sources,
and
background.
If
they
also,
very
clearly
and
in
spite
of
themselves,
have
a
good
deal
in
common,
it
is
because
their
work
most
sensitively
mirrors
and
reflects
the
preoccupations
and
anxieties,
the
emotions
and
thinking
of
many
of
their
contemporaries
in
the
Western
world.
This
is
not
to
say
that
their
works
are
representative
of
mass
attitudes.
It
is
an
oversimplification
to
assume
that
any
age
presents
a
homogeneous
pattern.
Ours
being,
more
than
most
others,
an
age
of
transition,
it
displays
a
bewilderingly
stratified
picture:
medieval
beliefs
still
held
and
overlaid
by
eighteenth-‐century
rationalism
and
mid-‐nineteenth-‐century
Marxism,
rocked
by
sudden
volcanic
eruptions
of
prehistoric
fanaticisms
and
primitive
tribal
cults.
Each
of
these
components
of
the
cultural
pattern
of
the
age
finds
its
own
artistic
expression.
The
Theatre
of
the
Absurd,
however,
can
be
seen
as
the
reflection
of
what
seems
to
be
the
attitude
most
genuinely
representative
of
our
own
time.
The
hallmark
of
this
attitude
is
its
sense
that
the
certitudes
and
unshakable
basic
assumptions
of
former
ages
have
been
swept
away,
that
they
have
been
tested
and
found
wanting,
that
they
have
been
discredited
as
cheap
and
somewhat
childish
illusions.
The
decline
of
religious
faith
was
masked
until
the
end
of
the
Second
World
War
by
the
substitute
religions
of
faith
in
progress,
nationalism,
and
various
totalitarian
fallacies.
All
this
was
shattered
by
the
war.
By
1942,
Albert
Camus
was
calmly
putting
the
question
why,
since
life
had
lost
all
meaning,
man
should
not
seek
escape
in
suicide.
In
one
of
the
great,
seminal
heart-‐searchings
of
our
time,
The
Myth
of
Sisyphus,
Camus
tried
to
diagnose
the
human
situation
in
a
world
of
shattered
beliefs:
A
world
that
can
be
explained
by
reasoning,
however
faulty,
is
a
familiar
world.
But
in
a
universe
that
is
suddenly
deprived
of
illusions
and
of
light,
man
feels
a
stranger.
His
is
an
irremediable
exile,
because
he
is
deprived
of
memories
of
a
lost
homeland
as
much
as
he
lacks
the
hope
of
a
promised
land
to
come.
This
divorce
between
man
and
his
life,
the
actor
and
his
setting,
truly
constitutes
the
feeling
of
Absurdity.
“Absurd”
originally
means
“out
of
harmony”,
in
a
musical
context.
Hence
its
dictionary
definition:
“out
of
harmony
with
reason
or
propriety;
incongruous,
unreasonable,
illogical”.
In
common
usage,
“absurd”
may
simply
mean
ridiculous,
but
this
is
not
the
sense
in
which
Camus
uses
the
word,
and
in
which
it
is
used
when
we
speak
of
the
Theatre
of
the
Absurd.
In
an
essay
on
Kafka,
Ionesco
defined
his
understanding
of
the
term
as
follows:
“Absurd
is
that
which
is
devoid
of
purpose
[…].
Cut
off
from
his
religious,
metaphysical,
and
transcendental
roots,
man
is
lost;
all
his
actions
become
senseless,
absurd,
useless.”
24
Activity
Working with Cinematic Techniques:
2.15
Part 1
SUGGESTED Learning Strategies: Marking the Text, Visualizing,
Word Map
Academic VocaBulary You have spent a good deal of time visualizing three short stories. In
Embedded Assessment 1, you will address film. One of the first steps
Cinematic techniques are in filmmaking is visualizing, in the form of storyboarding. To prepare to
the methods a director make a storyboard, examine these cinematic techniques.
uses to communicate
meaning and to evoke
particular emotional Shots and Framing
responses in viewers.
Shot: a single piece of film uninterrupted by cuts.
Establishing Shot: often a long shot or a series of shots that sets the
scene. It is used to establish setting and to show transitions between
locations.
Long Shot (LS): a shot from some distance. If filming a person, the
full body is shown. It may show the isolation or vulnerability of the
character (also called a Full Shot).
Medium Shot (MS): the most common shot. The camera seems to be
a medium distance from the object being filmed. A medium shot shows
the person from the waist up. The effect is to ground the story.
Close Up (CU): the image takes up at least 80 percent of the frame.
Extreme Close Up: the image being shot is a part of a whole, such as an
eye or a hand.
Two Shot: a scene between two people shot exclusively from an angle
that includes both characters more or less equally. It is used in love
scenes where interaction between the two characters is important.
Camera Movements
Pan: a stationary camera moves from side to side on a horizontal axis.
Tilt: a stationary camera moves up or down along a vertical axis
Zoom: a stationary camera where the lens moves to make an object
seem to move closer to or further away from the camera. With this
technique, moving into a character is often a personal or revealing
movement, while moving away distances or separates the audience
from the character.
Dolly/Tracking: the camera is on a track that allows it to move with the
action. The term also refers to any camera mounted on a car, truck, or
helicopter.
Boom/Crane: the camera is on a crane over the action. This is used to
create overhead shots.
Lighting
High Key: the scene is flooded with light, creating a bright and open-
looking scene.
Low Key: the scene is flooded with shadows and darkness, creating
suspense or suspicion.
Bottom or Side Lighting: direct lighting from below or the side, which
often makes the subject appear dangerous or evil.
Front or Back Lighting: soft lighting on the actor’s face or from behind
gives the appearance of innocence or goodness, or a halo effect.
© 2010 College Board. All rights reserved.
Editing Techniques
Cut: most common editing technique. Two pieces of film are spliced
together to “cut” to another image.
Fade: can be to or from black or white. A fade can begin in darkness
and gradually assume full brightness (fade-in) or the image may
gradually get darker (fade-out). A fade often implies that time has
passed or may signify the end of a scene.
Dissolve: a kind of fade in which one image is slowly replaced by
another. It can create a connection between images.
Wipe: a new image wipes off the previous image. A wipe is more fluid
than a cut and quicker than a dissolve.
Flashback: cut or dissolve to action that happened in the past.
Shot-Reverse-Shot: a shot of one subject, then another, then back to
the first. It is often used for conversation or reaction shots.
Sound
Diegetic: sound that could logically be heard by the characters in the
film.
Non-Diegetic: sound that cannot be heard by the characters but is
designed for audience reaction only. An example might be ominous
music for foreshadowing.
Index
1. Aerial Shot
2. Backlighting
3. Bridging Shot
4. Camera Angle
5. Cut
6. Cross-cutting
7. Jump Cut
8. Continuity cuts
9. Match cut
10. Deep Focus
11. Diegesis
12. Dissolve/Lap Dissolve
13. Dolly
14. Editing
15. ellipsis
16. Eyeline Matching
17. Extreme Long Shot
18. Fade In
19. Fill Light
20. Flashback
21. Flash-forward
22. Focus
23. Follow Shot
24. Framing
25. gaze/look
26. Iris in/iris out
27. Key Light
28. Master shot
29. Medium shot
30. Montage
31. Mise-en-scene
32. Pan
33. Point of view shot
34. Pull back shot
35. Rack focusing
36. Reverse angle
37. Scene
38. Shot
39. Subjective camera
40. Story board
41. Take
42. Tilt shot
43. Tracking shot/travelling shot/dollying shot
44. Steadicam
45. Swish pan
46. Wipe
47. Voice-over
48. Zoom
Aerial Shot
A shot taken from a crane, plane, or helicopter. Not necessarily a moving shot.
Backlighting
The main source of light is behind the subject, silhouetting it, and directed toward the camera.
Bridging Shot
A shot used to cover a jump in time or place or other discontinuity. Examples are
Camera Angle
The angle at which the camera is pointed at the subject:
Low
High
Tilt
Cut
The splicing of 2 shots together. this cut is made by the film editor at the editing stage of a film. Between
sequences the cut marks a rapid transition between one time and space and another, but depending on
the nature of the cut it will have different meanings.
Cross-cutting
Literally, cutting between different sets of action that can be occuring simultaneously or at different
times, (this term is used synonomously but somewhat incorrectly with parallel editing.) Cross-cutting is
used to build suspense, or to show the relationship between the different sets of action.
Jump cut
Cut where there is no match between the 2 spliced shots. Within a sequence, or more particularly a
scene, jump cuts give the effect of bad editing. The opposite of a match cut, the jump cut is an abrupt cut
between 2 shots that calls attention to itself because it does not match the shots seamlessly. It marks a
transition in time and space but is called a jump cut because it jars the sensibilities; it makes the spectator
jump and wonder where the narrative has got to. Jean-Luc Godard is undoubtedly one of the best
exponents of this use of the jump cut.
Continuity cuts
These are cuts that take us seamlessly and logically from one sequence or scene to another. This is an
unobtrusive cut that serves to move the narrative along.
Match cut
The exact opposite of a jump cut within a scene. These cuts make sure that there is a spatial-visual logic
between the differently positioned shots within a scene. thus, where the camera moves to, and the angle
of the camera, makes visual sense to the spectator. Eyeline matching is part of the same visual logic: the
first shot shows a character looking at something off-screen, the second shot shows what is being looked
at. Match cuts then are also part of the seamlessness, the reality effect, so much favoured by Hollywood.
Deep focus
A technique in which objects very near the camera as well as those far away are in focus at the same
time.
Diegesis
The denotative material of film narrative, it includes, according to Christian Metz, not only the narration
itself, but also the fictional space and time dimension implied by the narrative.
Dissolve/lap-dissolve
These terms are used inter-changably to refer to a transition between 2 sequences or scenes. generally
associated with earlier cinema but still used on occasion. In a dissolve a first image gradually dissolves
or fades out and is replaced by another which fades in over it. This type of transition, which is known
also as a soft transition (as opposed to the cut), suggests a longer passage of time than a cut.
Dolly
A set of wheels and a platform upon which the camera can be mounted to give it mobility. Dolly shot is
a shot taken from a moving dolly. Almost synonomous in general usage with tracking shot or follow
shot
Editing
Editing refers literally to how shots are put together to make up a film. Traditionally a film is made up of
sequences or in some cases, as with avant-garde or art cinema, or again, of successive shots that are
assembled in what is known as collision editing, or montage.
ellipsis
A term that refers to periods of time that have been left out of the narrative. The ellipsis is marked by an
editing transitions which, while it leaves out a section of the action, none the less signifies that
something has been elided. Thus, the fade or dissolve could indicate a passage of time, a wipe, a change
of scene and so on. A jump cut transports the spectator from one action and time to another, giving the
impression of rapid action or of disorientation if it is not matched.
eyeline matching
A term used to point to the continuity editing practice ensuring the logic of the look or gaze. In other
words, eyeline matching is based on the belief in mainstream cinema that when a character looks into
off-screen space the spectator expects to see what he or she is looking at. Thus there will be a cut to
show what is being looked at:
object
view
another character
Fade in
A punctuation device. The screen is black at the beginning; gradually the image appears, brightening to
full strength. The opposite happens in the fade out
Fill light
An auxiliary light, usually from the side of the subject that can soften shadows and illuminate areas not
covered by the key light
Flashback
A scene or sequence (sometime an entire film), that is inserted into a scene in "present" time and that
deals with the past. The flashback is the past tense of the film.
Flash-forward
On the model of the flashback, scenes or shots of future time; the future tense of the film.
Focus
The sharpness of th image. A range of distances from the camera will be acceptably sharp. Possible to
have deep focus, shallow focus.
Focus in, focus out: a punctuation device whereby the image gradually comes into focus or goes out of
focus.
Follow shot
A tracking shot or zoom which follows the subject as it moves.
Framing
The way in which subjects and objects are framed within a shot produces specific readings. Size and
volume within the frame speak as much as dialogue. So too do camera angles. Thus, for example, a
high-angle extreme long shot of two men walking away in the distance, (as in the end of Jean Renoir's
La Grande Illusion, 1937) points to their vulnerablility - they are about to dissapear, possibly die. Low
angle shots in medium close-up on a person can point to their power, but it can also point to ridicule
because of the distortion factor.
gaze/look
This term refers to the excahnge of looks that takes place in cinema but it was not until the 1970s that it
was written about and theorised. In the early 1970s, first French and then British and American film
theorists began applying psychoanalysis to film in an attempt to discuss the spectator/screen relationship
as well as the textual relationships within the film. Drawing in particular on Freud's theory of libido
drives and Lacan's theory of the mirror stage, they sought to explain how cinema works at the level of
the unconscious. Indeed, they maintained that the processes of the cinema mimics the workings of the
unconscious. The spectator sits in a darkened room, desiring to look at the screen and deriving visual
pleasure from what he or she sees. Part of that pleasure is also derived from the narcissistic identification
she or he feels with the person on the screen. But there is more; the spectator also has the illusion of
controlling that image. First, because the Renaissance perspective which the cinematic image provides
ensures that the spectator is subject of the gaze; and second, given that the projector is positioned behind
the spectator's head, this means that the it is as if those images are the spectator's own imaginings on
screen.
Feminists took up this concept of the gaze and submitted it to more rigorous analysis. Laura Mulvey's
vital and deliberately-polemical article, Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema (1975) started the debate
by demonstrating the domination of the male gaze, within and without the screen, at the expense of the
woman's; so much so that the female spectator had little to do, gaze upon or identify with. The exchange
or relay of looks, (as it is also known) within film reproduces the voyeuristic pleasure of the cinematic
apparatus but only for the male. In fact, given that woman is normally, both within the film and on
screen, the prime object that is being looked at, (and thus controlled) much feminist film theory has
argued that the gaze is male through and through. It has thus been held that by attempting to expose how
woman is constructed cinematically as an object of the male gaze, it is possible to deconstruct the
normalising or naturalising process of patriarchal (male) socialisation.
Key light
The main light on a subject. Usually placed at a 45 degree angle to the camera-subject axis. In high key
lighting, the key light provides all or most of the light in the scene. In low key lighting, the key light
provides much less of the total illumination.
Master shot
A long take of an entire scene, generally a relatively long shot that facilitates the assembly of component
closer shots and details. The editor can always fall back on the master shot: consequently, it is alo called
a cover shot.
Medium shot
A shot intermediate between a close-up and a full shot.
Montage
Simply, editing. More particularly: Eisenstein's idea that adjacent shots should relate to each other in
such a way that A and B combine to produce another meaning, C, which is not actually recorded on the
film.
Mise-en Scene
The term usually used to denote that part of the cinematic process that takes place on the set, as opposed
to editing, which takes place afterwards. Literally, the "putting-in-the-scene":
Pan
(abbreviation of panorma) Movement of the camera from left to right or right to left around the
imaginary vertical axis that runs through the camera. A panning shot is sometimes confused with a
tracking shot.
Point of view shot
(Often abbreviated as 'pov'). A shot which shows the scene from the specfic point of view of one of the
characters.
Rack focusing
A technique that uses shallow focus (shallow depth of field) to direct the attention of the viewer forcibly
from one subject to another. Focus is "pulled", or changed, to shift the focus plane, often rapidly,
sometimes several times within the shot.
Reverse angle
A shot from the opposite side of a subject. In a dialogue scene, a shot of the second participant.
Scene
A complete unit of film narration. A series of shots (or a single shot) that takes place in a single location
and that deals with a single action. Sometimes used interchangably with sequence.
shot
In terms of camera distance with respect to the object within the shot, there are basically 7 types of shots;
1. extreme close-up
2. close-up
3. medium close-up
4. medium shot
5. medium long shot
6. long shot
7. extreme long shot or distance shot
In addition, the terms one-, two-, and three-shots are used to describe shots framing one, two, or three
people - usually in
medium close-ups
or
medium shots
a coming together
an intimacy
a certain solidarity.
Conversely, if there is a series of two and one shots, these MCUs would suggest a complicity between
two people against a third who is visually separate in another shot.
Typically, characters will occupy half to two-thirds of the frame. This shot is very commonly used in
indoor sequences allowing for a visual signification of relationships between characters. Compare a two-
shot MS and a series of separate one-shots in MS of two people. The former suggests intimacy, the latter
distance. The former shot could change in meaning to one of distance, however, if the two characters
were separated by an object (a pillar, table or telephone, for example). Visually this shot is more
complex, more open in terms of its readability than the preceeding ones. The characters can be observed
in relation to different planes, background middle ground and foreground, and it is the inter-relatedness
of these planes which also serves to produce a meaning.
Shots, in and of themselves, can have a subjective or objective value: the closer the shot, the more
subjective its value, the more the meaning is inscribed from within the shot; conversely, the longer the
distance of the shot the more objective its value, the greater the participation of the spectator or reader in
the inscription of meaning. other factors influence the readability of a shot. A high or low camera angle
can de-naturalise a shot or reinforce its symbolic value. Take, for example, an ELS that is shot at a high
angle. This automatically suggests the presence of someone looking, thus the shot is implicitly a point of
view shot.In this way some of the objective value or openness of that shot, (which it would retain if
angled horizontally at 90 degrees) is taken away, the shot is no longer 'naturally' objective. The shot is
still open to a greater reading than a CUC, however; although the angle imposes a preferred reading
(someone is looking down from on high). In terms of illustrating what is meant by reinforcing symbolic
value, the contrastive examples of a low- and high-angle CU can serve here. The former type of shot
will distort the object within the frame, rendering it uglier, more menacing, more derisory; conversely,
when a high-angle CU is used, the object can appear more vulnerable, desirable.
Subjective camera
The camera is used in such a way as to suggest the point of view of a particular character.
Subjective shots like these also implicate the spectator into the narrative in that she or he identifies with
the point of view.
Story board
A series of drawings and captions (sometimes resembling a comic strip) that shows the planned shot
divisions and camera movements of the film.
Take
One version of a shot.A film-maker shoots one or more takes of each shot or set-up. Only one of each
group of takes appears in the final film.
Tilt shot
The camera tilts up or down, rotating around the axis that runs from left to right through the camera
head.
The movement is normally quite fluid (except perhaps in some of the wider car chases) and the tracking
can be either fast or slow. Depending on the speed, this shot has different connotations, eg:
backwards
left to right
right to left
The way in which a person is framed in that shot has a specific meaning, (for example, if the camera
holds a person in the frame but that person is at one extreme or other of the frame, this could suggest a
sense of imprisonment).
Steadicam
The invention of cameraman Garret Brown (developed in conjunction with Cinema Products, Inc.), this
is a system which permits hand-held filming with an image steadiness comparable to tracking shots. A
vest redistributes the weight of the camera to the hips of the cameraman; a spring-loaded arm minimises
the motion the camera; a video monitor frees the cameraman from the eyepiece.
Swish pan
Also called
flick pan
zip pan
whip pan.
A panning shot in which the intervening scene moves past too quickly to be observed. It approximates
psychologically the action of the human eye as it moves from one subject to another.
Wipe
An optical effect in which an image appears to "wipe-off" or push aside the preceeding image. Very
common in the 1930s; less so today.
Voice-over
The narrator's voice when the narrator is not seen. Common in television commercials, but also in film
noir.
Zoom
A shot using a lens whose focal length is adjusted during the shot. Zooms are sometimes used in place
of tracking shots, but the differences between the two are significant. A zoom normally ends in a close-
up, a zoom-back in a general shot. Both types of shot imply a rapid movement in time and space, and as
such create the illusion of displacement in time and space. A zoom-in picks out and isolates a person or
object, a zoom-out places that person or object in a wider context. A zoom shot can be seen, therefore,
as voyeurism at its most desirably perfect.
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