A10429W1

SECOND PUBLIC EXAMINATION

Honour School of Physics Part A: 3 and 4 Year Courses

Honour School of Physics and Philosophy Part A

A1: THERMAL PHYSICS

TRINITY TERM 2021

Monday, 14 June

Opening time: 9.30 am UK Time

You have 3 hours of writing time to complete the paper

and up to 30 minutes technical time to upload your answer file.

Answer all of Section A and three questions from Section B.

Write your candidate number, paper name, paper code and a list of the questions that
you have answered on the first page, and submit all of your answers as a single PDF file.

Start the answer to each question on a fresh page.

A list of physical constants and conversion factors will be available within Inspera during the examination

You are permitted to use calculators.

The numbers in the margin indicate the weight that the Examiners expect to
assign to each part of the question.

1
 Section A

1. The equation of state of a gas is given to reasonable approximation by

a
 
p+ (v − b) = RT
v(v + b)T 1/2

where a and b are constants and v is the molar volume. Write down the equation of
state of n moles of such a gas. Calculate the change in entropy when the gas is expanded
isothermally from volume V1 to V2 . Include in your answer a derivation of any Maxwell
relation you may require. [5]

2. For some paramagnetic systems, at low temperature, the functional form of the
temperature-dependence of the heat capacity associated with magnetism closely matches
that of the heat capacity associated with vibrations of a one-dimensional harmonic
oscillator. Explain how application of the concepts of statistical mechanics is able to
account for this observation, making clear what determines whether the match will hold.
[4]

3. In a simple model of a rubber band the entropy S as a function of internal energy

U and length L is given by

kB L2
S(U, L) = − + N kB ln U + constant
2N a2
where N is the number of links in the chain-like molecules, and a is the molecular
size. Find the internal energy as a function of temperature, and determine whether
the rubber band heats up or cools down in a small adiabatic expansion. Qualitatively
explain this adiabatic effect in terms of the behaviour of the molecules. [5]

4. Use kinetic theory to obtain the rate at which heat is transferred by conduction
through a gas, making clear what is being assumed regarding the relevant physical con-
siderations, and what is the physical reasoning supporting any mathematical statements
you may make. Include a discussion of whether or not the conditions are isotropic. Show
that the rate is independent of p at normal pressure, but dependent on p at very low
pressure, and obtain the dependence. [9]

5. You are given that in thermal equilibrium the mean energy of a harmonic oscillator
with energy levels (n + 1/2)h̄ω is

1 1
 
U = h̄ω +
2 eβh̄ω − 1
and
xn
Z ∞
dx = ζ(n + 1)Γ(n + 1)
0 ex − 1
where ζ(2) = π 2 /6, ζ(4) = π 4 /90 and for integer n, Γ(n) = (n − 1)!.

A10429W1 2
 A long cylindrical cavity with opaque walls is in thermal equilibrium. The cavity
has length L = 1 m and radius a = 1 mm. Treating it as one-dimensional, show that the
energy of the electromagnetic radiation in the cavity (not including zero point energy)
is, to good approximation, U = µLT ν where µ and ν are constants. Find the value
of ν and an expression for µ in terms of fundamental constants. Give a brief physical
explanation of why, in this model, U does not change when a is increased by a factor 2.
In what regime of temperature is your model accurate? [10]

6. A thermocouple is used to measure the temperature of air inside a long pipe with
black walls. The pipe walls are at 120◦ C and the air is at 25◦ C. Heat exchange is by a
combination of radiation and convection, the latter modelled by Newton’s law of cooling
with a coefficient 14 W/m2 K.
What temperature will the thermocouple register in the case:
(a) the thermocouple is black
(b) the thermocouple is painted with silver paint of emissivity 0.05.
[7]
[The calculation involves a 4th order equation for which a numerical solution can
be found by trial and error; an answer with precision of a few kelvin is sufficient.]

Section B

7. (a) For pressures up to several hundred atmospheres, the equation of state of 1

mole of a solid is approximately

V = V0 (1 + βT − κp) .

where β, κ and V0 are constants. Find a formula involving these constants for the
difference between the molar specific heat capacities (CP − CV ) and obtain the value
for nickel at STP. [7]
(b) State the equipartition theorem, and use it to obtain an expression for the
heat capacity of a crystalline substance at high temperature, making clear which heat
capacity is concerned. [3]
(c) Using this result, find, in terms of constants and the given pressures or tem-
peratures, expressions for the change of entropy of the solid described above when
(i) the pressure is increased from p1 to p2 at constant T
(ii) the temperature is increased from T1 to T2 at constant p.
[For natural nickel (atomic weight 58.7) at STP: the coefficient of linear expansion
is 13 × 10−6 K−1 ; the isothermal compressibility is 5.7 × 10−12 m2 N−1 ; the density is
8.9 × 103 kg m−3 .] [6]
(d) For each case, find out whether the size of the entropy changes would be of
the same order of magnitude for a gas as for this solid, if the given process were applied
to one mole of a monatomic ideal gas. Explain qualitatively, in terms of the microscopic
origins of entropy, what leads to any such difference between the two systems. [4]

A10429W1 3 [Turn over]

 8. Throughout this question, you may ignore the temperature dependence of the latent
heat of vaporisation. The specific latent heat of vaporisation of water is 2.26 × 106 J/kg.
(a) Taking as your starting point the fundamental relation

dU = T dS − pdV + µdN

or an equivalent expression, explain why, when two phases are in phase equilibrium,
their chemical potentials must agree. Obtain the Clausius Clapeyron equation for the
coexistence curve in a first-order phase transition,
dp L
=
dT T ∆V
where your proof should make clear what the symbols mean. In what circumstances is
it correct to give a total derivative, not a partial derivative, here? [6]
(b) By using a simple model of the properties of a liquid and vapour far from the
critical point, show that the coexistence curve can be approximated by

p ∝ e−L/RT .

Hence estimate the partial pressure of water vapour in saturated air at standard tem-
perature and pressure, and the boiling point of water at a pressure of 0.1 atm. [4]
(c) An ordinary household refrigerator acts on a cycle in which a working fluid
is condensed and evaporated. During evaporation heat Qe enters the working fluid;
during condensation heat Qc leaves. A student argues that since the latent heat is, to
good approximation, independent of temperature, we have Qe = Qc , and therefore, by
conservation of energy, the work required to run the whole process is zero in the limit
of negligible friction and turbulence. What is wrong with this argument?
In a simple model of a hurricane, the sun first evaporates water at the ocean surface
at a temperature around 27◦ C, then the water vapour rises and eventually condenses at
an altitude of order 16 km and temperature −53◦ C. This process releases energy into
the hurricane. Estimate the maximum efficiency with which the energy absorbed in the
evaporation stage can contribute to the energy of the hurricane winds. If the conditions
are sufficient to evaporate 90 million tons of water per hour, estimate the power of such
a hurricane.
Give two reasons why the vapour does not condense at some temperature close
to the evaporation temperature. [10]

A10429W1 4
 9. (a) Write down the formula for the partition function Z for a system in thermal
equilibrium in terms of the system’s microscopic properties. Show that the internal
energy U may be written
kB T 2 ∂Z
U= ,
Z ∂T
making clear in your answer what is held constant in the partial derivative for a general
system (not just a simple mechanical system). In the case of a system of N distinguish-
able particles, under what circumstances is Z equal to Z1N to good approximation?
Explain whether or not these relationships between U and Z and Z1 hold good in the
limit T → 0. [5]
(b) The partition function of any system can be considered as a function of the
energy levels and the parameter
x ≡ e−βa
where a is a constant. Show that the heat capacity is given by
!
2 x ∂2Z
2
C = kB (ln x) x f − xf +
Z ∂x2

where f is a function related to Z, which your answer should specify. [4]

(c) Write down the partition function for a rotator whose moment of inertia is I,
expressed as a power series in x, with a related to I and other constants. We would
like to find the leading order terms in the expression for the heat capacity C as a power
series in x. To this end, consider Z(x) up to order x6 and hence obtain C in the form

C = kB (ln x)2 (Axp + Bxp+2 + . . .)

where you must determine the values of the constants A, B and p.

Explain why one may expect this expression to be accurate to better than 1
percent when x < 0.1. [6]
(d) Between temperatures of a few kelvin and 100 kelvin the molar heat capacity of
a gas of HD molecules rises from 12.5 J/K mol to 20.8 J/K mol. Explain this observation.
(e) The measured value is C = 16.6 J/K mol at T = 26.6 K. Use this information
to determine the internuclear separation in the HD molecule to a few percent accuracy.
[5]

A10429W1 5 [Turn over]

 10. (a) A composite system C is composed of sub-systems A and B which in the first
instance do not interact with one another. Show that the partition functions are related
by ZC = ZA ZB . Starting from the statistical definition of entropy,
X
S = −kB pi ln pi
i

show also that SC = SA + SB . [4]

(b) A system consists of N independent pairs of spin-1/2 particles. The members
of each pair interact with one another such that their energy levels are given by

Ei,j = Ei + Ej − σδi,j

where i ∈ {1, 2} and j ∈ {1, 2}, E1 = −/2, E2 = /2, δi,j is the Kronecker delta, and
σ and  are positive constants. Find an expression for the mean energy U (, σ) of the
system, in terms of N , kB , β = 1/kB T ,  and σ. Obtain the heat capacity C(, σ) first
in the case σ = 0,  6= 0 and then in the case  = 0, σ 6= 0 (the general case is not
required). Hence show that for this system

C(x, 0) = 2C(0, x).

[7]
(c) In the case σ = 0,  6= 0, use the heat capacity to find the increase in entropy
of the system when it is heated from absolute zero to high temperature. Hence deduce
the entropy at absolute zero for the case  = 0, σ 6= 0, and comment on your result. [5]
(d) Without detailed calculation, explain whether you would expect C(, ) to
be larger or smaller than C(, 0), where  > 0. When σ =  it is found that at low
temperatures the thermal behaviour of this system is similar to that of a set of rotators.
Explain why this is so. What is the moment of inertia of the equivalent rotator? [4]

x
Z 
dx = x tanh(x/2) − 2 ln(cosh(x/2)) + constant
1 + cosh(x)

A10429W1 6 [LAST PAGE]