Rock mechanic lecture 4 Dr- Hiba Tarq

Principal stresses in two dimensions

For special orientations of the coordinate system, the stress tensor has a
particularly simple form.

Consider the normal (σ) and shear (τ) stresses at a surface oriented normal to a
general direction θ in the xy-plane,

By proper choice of θ, it is possible to obtain τ = 0. we see that this happens when:

tan 2ϴ = 𝟐𝝉x y \ (σ x – σ y)
We needed to calculate the component of shear stress using normal
stress components and the angle we have Sfrom this equation
𝝉x y = [tan 2ϴ * (σ x – σ y)]\2

The corresponding normal stresses, σ1 and σ2, are called the principal
stresses, and are found by these Equations.

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Rock mechanic lecture 4 Dr- Hiba Tarq

σ1 = 1\2 * (σ x + σ y) + √( 𝝉𝐱 𝐲)2 + 𝟏\𝟒 (𝛔 𝐱 − 𝛔 𝐲)𝟐

σ2 = 1\2 * (σ x + σ y) _ √( 𝝉𝐱 𝐲)𝟐 + 𝟏\𝟒 (𝛔 𝐱 − 𝛔 𝐲)𝟐

It is convenient to choose the notation such that σ1 ⩾ σ2. Thus, in the direction
θ1, which identifies a principal axis, the normal stress is σ1 and the shear stress is
zero. In the direction θ2, which identifies the other principal axis, the normal
stress is σ2 and the shear stress is zero. The principal axes are orthogonal.

Example
Calculate normal principle stresses from example 1 in lecture 1

Class work
Calculate normal and shear stress from example 2 in lecture 3

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Rock mechanic lecture 4 Dr- Hiba Tarq

Mean normal stress

The stress tensor is a second order tensor. When changing to a rotated set of
coordinate axes, the components of the stress tensor change, some properties of the
stress tensor remain unchanged. The simplest of these is the mean normal stress.

which equals 1/3 of the trace of the matrix , multiplication is associative, i.e. a(bc)
= (ab)c = abc.
The mean normal stress is thus an invariant of stress. There also exist other stress
combinations that are independent of the coordinate axes. Any combination of
stress invariants will of course be a stress invariant as well. The commonly used
stress invariants are:

There are various variants of the stress invariants, in particular the para meters (q
and r), which are related to the basic invariants as For a stress state in which two of
the principal stresses are equal (σ2=σ3)the expressions simplify to

q= σ1−σ3
r = σ1−σ3

Deviatoric stresses
The mean normal stress ¯ σ, essentially causes uniform compression or extension.
Distortions are essentially caused by the so-called deviatoric stresses. The
deviatoric stress is obtained by subtracting the mean normal stress from the normal
stress components
σx − σ
̅
σy − σ
̅
σz − σ
̅

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Rock mechanic lecture 4 Dr- Hiba Tarq

Mohr’s stress circle

Mohr Circle: Graphical representation of shear and normal stresses on inclined
planes
It is often convenient to reorient the coordinate system. Then the stresses σ and τ in
a general direction θ relative to the x-axis become,
σ = 1\ 2 (σ1 +σ2) + 1\ 2 (σ1 −σ2) cos2θ
τ =−1\ 2 (σ1 −σ2) sin2θ
From Eqs Plotting corresponding values of σ and τ in a diagram

, we obtain a circle called the Mohr’s circle. The radius of the circle is (σ1 − σ2)/2
and the centre is at the point (σ1 +σ2)/2 on the σ-axis. The stresses σ and τ in any
direction θ. Mohr’s circle is a very useful tool in the analysis of conditions for rock
failure.

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Rock mechanic lecture 4 Dr- Hiba Tarq

Example
Vertical and horizontal principle stresses are 144 kN \m2 and 36 kN \m2,
respectively, Determine the normal and shear stresses on a plane inclined 45
degree to the principle plane?

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Rock mechanic lecture 4 Dr- Hiba Tarq

Compressive Strength
Relationship between shear and normal stresses during a strength test (at failure) is
critical to understanding deformation behavior of the material
Way to test shear strength - Direct shear test (Variable shear and normal stresses
can be applied).
For unconsolidated materials (e.g. dry sand) the relationship between normal stress
(σn) and shear strength (S) is linear, passes through the origin:
S = σn tan φ

For consolidated materials or cohesive soils, relationship also linear, but there is
inherent shear strength due to inter particle bonding (cohesion - C):
S = C + σn tan φ

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Rock mechanic lecture 4 Dr- Hiba Tarq

Confining Pressure • Weight of overlying rock applies pressure in all directions to

given body of rock
Triaxial test • Confining pressure can be applied to better mimic depth conditions

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Rock mechanic lecture 4 Dr- Hiba Tarq

Effect of increasing confining pressure

 Rocks change from brittle to ductile behavior
 Ductile response dominant beyond 700 kg/cm2
 Strength of rock increases with increasing confining pressure

Effect of increasing temperature

 Strength decreases with increasing temperature
 Ductile response occurs at lower pressures (stress) under higher
temperatures
Effect of time
 Stress applied in geologic systems occurs over millions of years
 Rock strength decreases with increase the time of Appling stress with same
amount.

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Rock mechanic lecture 4 Dr- Hiba Tarq

Tensile strength = resistance to failure under tensile stress,Typically much lower

than compressive strength ,10% of compressive strength typical

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Rock mechanic lecture 4 Dr- Hiba Tarq

Properties are determined in hand samples and in the field – Rocks are almost
always weaker in the field than in lab tests – some reasons why are
• Heterogeneity of the bulk samples
• Fractures
• Bedding planes
• Zones of weakness
Strength classification is based on strength of the rock (compressive strength &
modulus of elasticity.
Strength classes: A-E based on the overall rock strength;
A = very strong, E = very weak

Stiffness classes based on modulus of elasticity

From ; ‘very stiff’ to ‘highly yielding’

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Rock mechanic lecture 4 Dr- Hiba Tarq

Determining the modulus of elasticity Et50

Slope of the line tangent at 50% of the unconfined compressive strength = Et50

Plotting Et50 value of a rock vs the unconfined compressive strength gives a visual
comparison of the strength and modulus values of different rocks.
Modulus Ratio – Deere and Miller Classification
MR= Et50 with σa (unconfined compressive strength) –

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Rock mechanic lecture 4 Dr- Hiba Tarq

Intact Rock Classification for Igneous rocks

• Intrusive:
Upper zone of medium modulus ratio see blue cycle
• Extrusive:
Greater variability between low limit and high limit see red cycle

Extremely variable strength and modulus properties

Clastic rocks Depends upon
 grain size,
 grain size distribution
 sorting
 packing
 cement type
 lithification processes
Non clastic rocks Depends upon
 composition
 Limestones/dolomites matrix
generally medium to high strength and modulus ratios
• Evaporites tend to be much weaker

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Rock mechanic lecture 4 Dr- Hiba Tarq

Metamorphic rocks • Tend to increase strength due to recrystallization and

compaction • Marbles may be weaker than limestone due to bigger grain size.

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Rock mechanic lecture 4 Dr- Hiba Tarq

Assessment of the quality of rock mass

Rock strength and modulus properties determined on small intact hand samples -
does not necessarily match field conditions
Rock discontinuities
• Depositional discontinuities
• Fractures
• Bedding planes
• Foliation
• Cleavage
• Faults
• Contacts
• Dikes, sills, veins
• Faults
When rock mass undergoes stress, it will preferentially fail along existing planes of
weakness rather than develop new fractures.
Must know the spacing, orientation, roughness of these weak links in order to
accurately assess strength of the rock mass.
Many variations and its impossible to know them all for any rock mass.
RQD - Rock Quality Designation
Total recovery of drill core and length of intact pieces
High recovery and long pieces indicate solid unfractured rock
Low recovery and crumbled pieces indicate highly fractured rock
Example: 10 m long core: 9.2 m recovered in pieces that were 10 cm in length or
longer, thus RQD = 92%

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