Research Methodology

Chapter 1

Definition of Research Methodology:

Research methodology is a systematic plan that describes the techniques and
procedures used to identify, select, process, and analyze information about a topic. It's
a way for researchers to design their study to achieve their objectives and ensure
reliable and valid results. Research methodology is important because it ensures that
the research is robust and contributes effectively to the knowledge base. In a research
paper, the methodology section explains how and why the research was carried
out. This section allows the reader to critically evaluate the study's overall validity and
reliability.
Motivation in Research:
Motivation research is defined as the study of understanding why individuals engage in specific
activities at work, the level of effort they put in, and how long they persist in those activities. It
focuses on how individuals prioritize tasks at work and the reasons behind their action.
Desire for a research degree: Researchers may be motivated to conduct research to earn a
research degree and the benefits that come with it.
Desire to solve problems: Researchers may be motivated to solve practical problems and face
challenges.
Desire for intellectual joy: Researchers may be motivated by the intellectual joy of creative
work.
Desire to serve society: Researchers may be motivated to find solutions that benefit society.
Desire for respectability: Researchers may be motivated by the desire to be respected.

Objectives of Research:
A research objective is defined as a clear and concise statement of the specific goals and aims of
a research study. It outline what the researcher intend to accomplish and what they hope to learn
and discover through their research.

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it.

2. To portray accurately the characteristicsof a particular individual, situation or a group.
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else.
4. To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between variables.
Research methods vs. Methodology:

Methods Methodology
The objective of methodology is to determine
The objective of methods is to find
appropriateness of the methods applied with a
solution to the research problem.
view to ascertain solution.
Methods are just behavior or tools used Methodology is analysis of all the methods
to select a research technique. and procedures of the investigation.
Methods are applied during the later Methodologies are applied during the initial
stage of the research study. stage of the research process.
It comprises different investigation It is a systematic strategy to find solution to
techniques of the study. the research problem.
Methods encompasses of carrying out Methodology encompasses several techniques
experiments, conducting surveys, tests, used while conducting these experiments,
etc. surveys, tests, etc.
End of any scientific or non-scientific Beginning of any scientific or non- scientific
research. research.

Types of research:

(1) Descriptive Research:

Descriptive research is a type of research that describes a population,
situation,or phenomenon that is being studied. It focuses on answering the how,what, when,and
where questions If a research problem, rather than the why. This is mainly because it is important
to have a proper understanding of what a research problem is about before investigating why it
exists in the first place. Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe a
population situation or phenomenon. It can answer what, where, when and how questions, but not
why questions. A descriptive research design can use a wide variety of research methods to
investigate one or more variables. Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries
of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as
it exists at present.

(2)Analytical Research:
Analytical research is a specific type of research that involves critical thinking
skills and the evaluation of facts and information relative to the research being conducted. A
variety of people including students, doctors and psychologists use analytical research during
studies to find the most relevant information. This particular kind of research calls for using critical
thinking abilities and assessing data and information pertinent to the project at hand.Determines
the causal connections between two or more variables. The analytical study aims to identify the
causes and mechanisms underlying the trade deficit’s movement throughout a given period.It is
used by various professionals, including psychologists, doctors, and students, to identify the most
pertinent material during investigations. One learns crucial information from analytical research
that helps them contribute fresh concepts to the work they are producing.Some researchers
perform it to uncover information that supports ongoing research to strengthen the validity of their
findings.
(3) Applied Research:
Applied research is a type of research aimed at solving specific, practical problems or answering
real-world questions. Unlike basic research, which focuses on developing general knowledge or
theories, applied research seeks to apply findings directly to practical situations.Applied research
refers to scientific study and research that seeks to solve practical problems. Applied research is
used to find solutions to everyday problems, cure illness, and develop innovative technologies,
rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. Applied research is a non-systematic way
of finding solutions to specific research problem or issues. These problems or issues can be on an
individual, group, or societal level. It is called “non-systematic” because it goes straight to finding
solutions.It is often called a “scientific process” because it uses the available scientific tools and
puts them to use to find answers. Applied research is an important way to research because it
helps organizations find real-world solutions to specific problems while also increasing their output
and productivity. In contrast to basic research, which focuses on making theories that explain
things, applied research focuses on describing evidence to find solutions.

(4) Fundamental Research:

Fundamental research is a type of research that involves a systematic

and rigorous approach to scientific investigation. Fundamental research is typically conducted in
science, engineering, or mathematics. The results of fundamental research are usually published
and shared widely within the research community.Fundamental research,also known as basic
research or pure research does not usually generate findings that have immediate applications in
a practical level. Fundamental research is driven by curiosity and the desire to expand knowledge
in specific research area. This type of research makes a specific contribution to the academic
body of knowledge in the research area.Fundamental studies tend to make generalizations about
the phenomenon, and the philosophy of this type of studies can be explained as ‘gathering
knowledge for the sake of knowledge’. Fundamental researches mainly aim to answer the
questions of why, what or how and they tend to contribute the pool of fundamental knowledge in
the research area.Opposite to fundamental research is applied research that aims to solve specific
problems, thus findings of applied research do have immediate practical implications.

(5) Qualitative research:

Qualitative research is research dealing with phenomena that are difficult

or impossible to quantify mathematically, such as beliefs, meanings, attributes, and symbols.
Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human behaviour and the
reasons that govern such behaviour. The qualitative method investigates the why and how of
decision making, not just what, where, when. Qualitative research is a research methodology that
involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data to gain a deeper understanding of a
problem. It's often used in the social sciences and humanities, such as anthropology,
sociology,education, and health sciences. Qualitative research is different from quantitative
research, which involves collecting and analyzing numerical data for statistical analysis.
Qualitative research gathers participants' experiences, perceptions, and behavior. It answers the
hows and whys instead of how many or how much. It could be structured as a standalone study,
purely relying on qualitative data, or part of mixed-methods research that combines qualitative and
quantitative data.
(6) Quantitative research:
Quantitative research involves analyzing and gathering numerical data
to uncover trends, calculate averages, evaluate relationships, and derive overarching insights. It’s
used in various fields, including the natural and social sciences. Quantitative data analysis
employs statistical techniques for processing and interpreting numeric data.Research designs in
the quantitative realm outline how data will be collected and analyzed with methods like
experiments and surveys. Qualitative methods complement quantitative research by focusing on
non-numerical data, adding depth to understanding. Data collection methods can be qualitative or
quantitative, depending on research goals. Researchers often use a combination of both
approaches to gain a comprehensive understanding of phenomena. Quantitative research
methods are used to observe events that affect a particular group of individuals, which is the
sample population. In this type of research, diverse numerical data are collected through various
methods and then statistically analyzed to aggregate the data, compare them, or show
relationships among the data. Quantitative research methods broadly include questionnaires,
structured observations, and experiments.

(7) Conceptual Research:

Conceptual research is defined as a methodology wherein research is

conducted by observing and analyzing already present information on a given topic. Conceptual
research doesn’t involve conducting any practical experiments. It is related to abstract concepts or
ideas. Philosophers have long used conceptual research to develop new theories or interpret
existing theories in a different light. Conceptual research is a type of research focused on
developing new theories, concepts, or ideas. It involves abstract thinking and the synthesis of
existing knowledge to explore principles, frameworks, or models without necessarily testing them
empirically. Conceptual research is essential for advancing theoretical understanding and
providing the intellectual foundations for empirical studies. It is particularly valuable in fields
requiring the development of new paradigms, frameworks, or ways of thinking. While it lacks direct
application, its contributions to the body of knowledge are critical for progress in both academia
and practice.

(8) Empirical Research:

Empirical research is a type of research methodology that makes use of

verifiable evidence in order to arrive at research outcomes. In other words, this type of research
relies solely on evidence obtained through observation or scientific data collection methods.
Empirical research can be carried out using qualitative or quantitative observation methods,
depending on the data sample, that is, quantifiable data or non-numerical data. Unlike theoretical
research that depends on preconceived notions about the research variables, empirical research
carries a scientific investigation to measure the experimental probability of the research variables.
Empirical research is a research methodology that involves observing, measuring, recording, and
analyzing data to generate knowledge. It is based on actual experience rather than theory or
belief. Empirical research can be used to explore, describe, or explain behaviors or phenomena in
humans, animals, or the natural world. Empirical research is the foundation of knowledge in many
fields, including the natural sciences, social sciences, medical and health sciences, engineering,
and technology. It can contribute to human advancement by leading to medical breakthroughs,
improved therapies, and enhanced psychological interventions.
Criteria of good research:

1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has
already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as
objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate
their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods
of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked
carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to
those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research as

1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be
taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules. Systematic
characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use
of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.

2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning
and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research.
Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process of
reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical
reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making.

3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects
of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to
research results.

4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by

replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

Defining and formulating the research problem:

A research problem is a statement about an
area of concern, a condition to be improved, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question
that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or in practice that points to the need for meaningful
understanding and deliberate investigation. A research problem is the situation that causes the
researcher to feel apprehensive, confused and ill at ease. It is the demarcation of a problem area
within a certain context involving the WHO or WHAT, the WHERE, the WHEN and the WHY of the
problem situation. There are many problem situations that may give rise to research. Three
sources usually contribute to problem identification. Own experience or the experience of others
may be a source of problem supply. A second source could be scientific literature. You may read
about certain findings and notice that a certain field was not covered. This could lead to a research
problem.
FORMULATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM:
In this section we will focus on how to formulate the
terms of enquiry for your research. These primarily constitute research questions, objectives and
hypotheses. It is not necessary that all three be included in every research study. For instance,
when conducting exploratory research you may just have some research questions and
objectives. You may have research objectives and hypotheses in more structured studies that
address issues of association, correlation and causality. A study does not necessarily become
weaker in the absence of hypotheses. The importance of formulating the terms of enquiry lies in
the fact that it narrows down the research problem to a manageable specificity, lays down the
extent and limits, identifies the relationships proposed to be significant – in short all that you hope
to achieve through your study. The important thing to be kept in mind is that there is coordination
in the formulation of the terms of enquiry. For instance, if your research question is ‘whether
demographic variables impact on internet usage’, then the corresponding objective should be to
collect data pertaining to the demographics of the Internet user as well as his/her Internet usage
patterns. It is only when you have this data that you will be in a position to answer your research
question. How the question is answered will prove or disprove your research hypothesis that
perhaps could be that ‘socio economic status and frequency of Internet use is positively corelated’.

Selecting the problem:

In this section we will focus on the difference between a social problem
and a research problem. We will also explain the importance of review of what has already been
studied so that you do not end up ‘rediscovering the wheel’ unless you are interested in replicating
previous studies in order to test or strengthen existing theories. We will finish this section by
outlining various factors that go towards making the final decision regarding the selection of
research problem.

Difference between a Social Problem and a Research Problem:

A social problem involves society
at large and therefore has a broader framework than a research problem. A research problem has
a limited context that primarily involves either academia or industry. Social problems also deal with
a range of issues from politics, culture and religion, while research problems are often limited in
scope and are well defined. A social problem has the element of public concern while a research
problem can exist at the level of curiosity alone i.e. when a scientist does research just because
s/he wants an answer to a question. It can also exist at the level of profit, for example, when a
manufacturer wants to identify the optimum market for a new product. A social problem (riots,
global warming, female foeticide etc.) exists irrespective of the researcher. The researcher, on the
other hand, formulates a research problem, for instance, s/he could be interested in the role of
media in covering communal riots or awareness of female foeticide. A social problem deals with
mandatory (e.g. the legal age of marriage is 18 years) or normative propositions (e.g. Literacy
should serve as the foundation of a nation). A research problem deals with propositions that can
be proved or disproved through empirical determination. For example, early marriage leads to
health problems or literacy leads to social awareness. The validity of both these statements can be
tested through research.

Necessity of defining the problem:

Necessity of defining a research problem is important to
formulate a research problem properly . Quite often we all hear that a problem clearly stated is a
problem half solved. The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will
help to discriminate relevant data from the irrelevant ones.The necessity to define a research
problem areIt is very necessary to define a research problem as it requires a lot of specifications
and effort for doing a research on any topic.It would also help to differentiate between the
irrelevant theories with the most appropriate ones.It would help the researcher to focus on the
topic more precisely and make the research more effective.
Importance of literature review in defining a problem:
Literature reviews prevent you from
duplicating the same information as others writing in your field, allowing you to find your own,
unique approach to your topic. Literature reviews give you familiarity with the knowledge in your
field, giving you the chance to analyze the significance of your additional research.

The following are the main importance of literature review:

(a) Improve your Research Methodology:

Literature review helps you to acquire methodologies

used by other researchers to find and solve research questions similar to the ones you are
investigating. It will explain the procedures other researchers used and methods similar to the
ones you are proposing. It will give you an idea whether the methods other researchers used
worked for them and what are the problems they faced. By doing a review of literature, you will
become aware of pitfalls and problems and could strategise well to select a methodology that you
feel will suit your research work better.

(b) Focus on Research Problem:

Review of literature could help you shape your research problem
because the process of reviewing the literature helps you to understand the subject area better
and thus helps you to conceptualise your research problem clearly and precisely. In addition, it
also helps to understand the relationship between your research problem and body of knowledge
in your research area.

(c) Cater to Knowledge Base for Research Area:

One of the most important objectives of literature
review is to ensure that you read widely around the subject area in which you intend to conduct
research study. It is fundamental that you know what others are doing in your field of interest or
the similar topic you have been working on as well as understanding theories that have been put
forward and gaps that exist in the particular field. M.Sc and PhD candidates are expected to be
experts in their area of study, therefore a thorough review of literature helps to fulfil this
expectation.

(d) Contextualising Research Findings:

Obtaining answers for your research questions is easy. The
difficulties lies in how you examine your research findings in the existing body of knowledge.
How do you answer your research questions compared to what other researchers
concluded? What is the new knowledge contribution from your research work? How are your
findings distinguished from those of other researchers? To answer these questions, you need
to go back to the review of literature. It is important to put your findings in the context of what
is already known and understood in your field of research.

(e) Ensure Novelty in your Work:

By doing a review of literature, you do not run the risk of „reinventing
the wheel,‰ meaning that wasting efforts on trying to rediscover something that is already known
or published in the research arena. Therefore, through literature review, you could ensure novelty
and new contribution in your research work.
Literature review-primary and secondary sources:
Primary resources contain first-hand
information, meaning that you are reading the author’s own account on a specific topic or event
that s/he participated in. Examples of primary resources include scholarly research articles, books,
and diaries. Primary sources such as research articles often do not explain terminology and
theoretical principles in detail. Thus, readers of primary scholarly research should have
foundational knowledge of the subject area. Use primary resources to obtain a first-hand account
to an actual event and identify original research done in a field. For many of your papers, use of
primary resources will be a requirement.
Examples of a primary source are:

 Original documents such as diaries, speeches, manuscripts, letters, interviews, records,

eyewitness accounts, autobiographies
 Empirical scholarly works such as research articles, clinical reports, case studies,
dissertations
 Creative works such as poetry, music, video, photography

Secondary sources describe, summarize, or discuss information or details originally presented in

another source; meaning the author, in most cases, did not participate in the event. This type of
source is written for a broad audience and will include definitions of discipline specific terms,
history relating to the topic, significant theories and principles, and summaries of major
studies/events as related to the topic. Use secondary sources to obtain an overview of a topic
and/or identify primary resources. Refrain from including such resources in an annotated
bibliography for doctoral level work unless there is a good reason.
Examples of a secondary source are:

 Publications such as textbooks, magazine articles, book reviews, commentaries,

encyclopedias, almanacs
 Annual Reviews (scholarly article reviews)
 Credo Reference (encyclopedias, dictionaries, handbooks & more)
 Ebook Central (ebooks)
 ProQuest (book reviews, bibliographies, literature reviews & more )
 SAGE Reference Methods, SAGE Knowledge & SAGE Navigator (handbooks,
encyclopedias, major works, debates & more)
 Most other Library databases include secondary sources.

Reviews:
Reviews are short articles that give brief information regarding the work done in a
particular area over a period of time. Reviews are commonly published in journals, yearbooks,
handbooks and encyclopedias. Reviewers select research articles of their interest, organise them
contentwise, criticise their findings and offer their own suggestions and conclusions. Review
articles are a good source for those investigators who wish to have all the relevant researches at
one place without taking pains to look for them. Since the reviewers organise all the possible
research papers of the relevant area in their review articles, review articles also provide the
advantage of prior reviews.

• A literature review is NOT like a book review where you just produce a summary of each article.
• You are looking at these articles as a body of work and seeing how they are the same, how they
are different, and what conclusions you can draw from this.
• Identify themes and concepts.
• You must use your critical thinking skills to produce a review that demonstrates you understand
the scholarly work as a whole.
Monograph:
A research monograph is a detailed, in-depth publication that delves into a particular
topic or subject matter. It is a type of academic writing that is designed to present original research
findings, analyses, and interpretations. Research monographs are often published by academic
publishers or university presses, and they are typically intended for a specialized audience of
scholars, researchers, and graduate students.Research monographs can take various forms,
depending on the discipline or field of study. They can be theoretical, empirical, or a combination
of both. They can focus on a single topic or cover a broad range of related topics. They can also
vary in length, from relatively short publications to massive tomes that span hundreds of
pages.The primary purpose of a research monograph is to advance knowledge and understanding
in a particular field or discipline. To achieve this objective, the author must undertake extensive
research, analyze data, and develop arguments based on evidence. The author must also
demonstrate mastery of the relevant literature and critically review existing research on the topic.

Patents:
A patent is protection granted by a national government for an invention. This protection
excludes others from making, using or selling an invention for a period of up to 20 years. Many
drug companies and university researchers seek patent protection to recover research and
development costs for patents related to specific genes and proteins, laboratory techniques and
drugs. In order for patents to be issued by a granting agency such as a Patent Office they need to
be new, useful and not obvious to others working in the same field. A patent is an exclusive right
granted for an innovation that generally provides a new way of doing something or offers a new
technical solution to a problem. The exclusive right legally protects the invention from being copied
or reproduced by others. In return, the invention must be disclosed in an application in a manner
sufficiently clear and complete to enable it to be replicated by a person with an ordinary level of
skill in the relevant field.

There are three types of patents:

1. Utility patents - issued for any process, machine, article of manufacture, or compositions of
matters, or any new useful improvement. In general, this type of patent protects the way an
item is used or works.
2. Design patents - issued for a new, original, and ornamental design for an article of
manufacture. In general, this type of patent protects the appearance of an item.
3. Plant patents - issued for asexually reproduced, distinct, and new varieties of plants.

Research Databases:
Research databases are organized collections of computerized
information or data such as periodical articles, books, graphics and multimedia that can be
searched to retrieve information. Databases can be general or subject oriented with bibliographic
citations, abstracts, and or full text. The sources indexed may be written by scholars, professionals
or generalists.Research databases that are retrieved on the World Wide Web are generally non-
fee based, lack in-depth indexing, and do not index proprietary resources. Subscription or
commercial databases are more refined with various types of indexing features, searching
capabilities, and help guides. Research databases are online platforms or repositories that provide
access to a wide range of academic resources, such as journal articles, books, conference
papers, theses, and reports. These databases are essential tools in research methodology for
conducting literature reviews, exploring existing studies, and gathering credible and reliable
sources.
Critical literature review:

A critical literature review is an in-depth evaluation and synthesis of

existing research on a specific topic. It involves summarizing the current state of knowledge and
critically assessing the strengths, weaknesses, and research gaps to challenge underlying
assumptions. This type of review provides a comprehensive understanding of the topic by
integrating findings from multiple studies. It highlights inconsistencies and identifies areas that
require further investigation by foregrounding the limiting implications of implicit assumptions in
current research.A critical review integrates findings from multiple studies, highlights
inconsistencies, and identifies areas that require further investigation.The primary purpose of a
critical is to inform research by helping researchers understand what is already known about a
topic and what gaps exist in the current literature. A critical literature review ensures that future
research builds on a solid foundation by evaluating the quality of previous studies. It helps to
developed by synthesizing existing theories and findings, which can lead to the proposal of new
theoretical frameworks or the refinement of existing ones.A critical literature review plays a crucial
role in identifying gaps in knowledge, which directs future research efforts toward unexplored or
under-researched areas. A literature review helps improve the rigour and quality of future research
by evaluating existing studies. This critical approach also facilitates theoretical development by
contributing to the refinement and advancement of theories within a particular field. A
comprehensive synthesis of the literature enhances understanding of the topic, benefiting both
researchers and practitioners. For practitioners, the insights gained from a critical literature review
can guide the application of research findings to real-world situations, thereby improving practice
and outcomes.

Identifying gap areas from literature and research database: