The concept of Entropy: For a perfect gas, S' or the specific entropy s can be given explicitly as a

Entropy: function of V and T or P and T like ‘E’ and ‘H’, ‘S’ is determined only up to
The internal energy E has the character of a potential energy. 𝑑𝑄
an additive constant. 𝑆′ = ∫ 𝑇
For a reversible change of state of an adiabatically enclosed system, we have 𝑑𝐸+𝑝𝑑𝑉
𝜕𝐸 =∫ [from first law of thermodynamics]
, P = -𝜕𝑉 𝑇
𝑑𝑒+𝑝𝑑𝑣
i.e.The pressure is equal to the derivative of E with 𝑆 ′ = 𝑀 ∫ 𝑇 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
respect to volume V: 𝑆 𝑑𝑒+𝑝𝑑𝑣
∴ 𝑀 =s= ∫ 𝑇 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
The internal energy E is a function of two volumes S and V. This S is called 𝑑𝑒 𝑝𝑑𝑣
the entropy. i.e. E= E (S, V) = ∫ 𝑇 + ∫ 𝑇 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝐸 𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑇 𝑅
and - p = (𝜕𝑉)s and T= (𝜕𝑆 )v = ∫ 𝑑𝑇 ∙ 𝑇 + ∫ 𝑉 𝑑𝑉 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 [since PV=MRT, for unit
𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝐸 𝑑𝑇
And hence, dE= dv + ds = ∫ 𝑐𝑣 + 𝑅 𝑙𝑛𝑣 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. mass PV=RT]
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑠 𝑇
∴ dE= - PdV + Tds …. … … ….(1)
𝑆 𝑑𝑇
The first law of thermodynamics is ∴ =s=∫ 𝑐𝑣 + 𝑅 𝑙𝑛𝑣 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. … … … … (3)
𝑀 𝑇
dE = dQ – PdV ……. ……….. ………..(2) 𝑑𝑄
Using (1) and (2), We obtain Again, 𝑠 = ∫
𝑇
𝑑𝐻−𝑉𝑑𝑝
dQ = Tds ……. ……….. …………… ………..(3) =∫ 𝑇 [from enthalpy]
Hence Tds is equal to the element of heat added is a reversible process. 𝑑ℎ−𝑣𝑑𝑝
B dQ =M∫ + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Integrating (3) yields SB − SA = ∫A … … … … (4) 𝑆 𝑑ℎ
𝑇
𝑣𝑑𝑝
T
∴ 𝑀 =s= ∫ 𝑇 − ∫ 𝑇 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Where the integral is to be evaluated for a reversible process leading from a
𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑇 𝑣
state ‘A’ to a state ‘B’. = ∫ ∙ − ∫ 𝑑𝑝 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
## The second law of thermodynamics: 𝑑𝑇 𝑅
= ∫ 𝑐𝑝 − ∫ 𝑑𝑝 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
a. In a reversible process, there exists an extensive variable of state S the 𝑇 𝑃
𝑑𝑇
entropy and an intensive variable T, the absolute value temperature. = ∫ 𝑐𝑝 𝑇 − 𝑅 ln(𝑝) + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
The entropy difference between two states A and B is given by 𝑆 𝑑𝑇
𝐵 𝑑𝑄 ∴ 𝑀 =s= ∫ 𝑐𝑝 𝑇 − 𝑅 𝑙𝑛(𝑝) + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ………………..(4)
𝑆𝐵 − 𝑆𝐴 = ∫𝐴 𝑇
The above relations are for a thermally perfect gas.
Where the integral refers to any reversible process leading from A to B. And If it is also calorically perfect (constant 𝑐𝑝 and 𝑐𝑣 ) the equations may be
‘T’ is identical with temperature defined by the perfect gas law. 𝑇 𝑃
b. For a closed system i.e. one that exchange neither heat nor work with the written as: 𝑠 − 𝑠1 = 𝑐𝑝 ln ( ) − 𝑅 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑇1 𝑃1
surroundings S increases in any process. 𝑇 𝑉
𝑠 − 𝑠1 = 𝑐𝑣 𝑙𝑛 ( ) + 𝑅 𝑙𝑛 ( )
The system has reached equilibrium if S has reached a maximum. 𝑇1 𝑉1
For any natural or irreversible process, Where (𝑃1 , 𝑉1 , 𝑇1 ) are the condition at some reference state.
𝑑𝑄
𝑑𝑆 > 𝑇
## The canonical equation of state:
Indeed, in the irreversible change of a closed system For a small reversible change of state, we’ve
𝑑𝑄 = 0 but 𝑑𝑆 > 0 Tds = dQ
Thus, if we allow an arbitrary process, we can rewrite equation (1) as And thus from 𝑑𝐸 = 𝑑𝑄 − 𝑝𝑑𝑣 . We’ve
𝐵 𝑑𝑄
𝑆𝐵 − 𝑆𝐴 = ∫𝐴 … … … … (2) 𝑑𝐻 = 𝑇𝑑𝑠 − 𝑝𝑑𝑣 …. … … ... (1)
𝑇
Again from 𝑑𝐻 = 𝑑𝑄 + 𝑣𝑑𝑝 . We’ve,
𝑑𝐻 = 𝑇𝑑𝑠 + 𝑣𝑑𝑝 …. … … … (2)
Equations (1) and (2) involve now only variables of state.
Since dQ has been replaced by Tds. From these equations it is clear that the
natural choice of variables for E are S and V and for H, are S and P.
Now from (1) and (2), we can write One dimensional motion
𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝐸
( 𝜕𝑠 ) = 𝑇 ; (𝜕𝑣 ) = −𝑃 … … … …(3)
𝑣 𝑠 ➢ Equation of continuity:
𝜕𝐻 𝜕𝐻
( 𝜕𝑠 ) =𝑇 ; ( 𝜕𝑝 ) =𝑉 … … … …(4) Let us consider the motion of compressible fluids in the case of one
𝑝 𝑠 dimensional flow. This definition applies of flow in channel or tube
If E(s,v) is known for a simple system. Equation (3) and (4) yield both the
as given in the figure
caloric and thermal equations of state.
The same is true if H is known as a function H(s,p). The variables S and T ,
V and P are called conjugate variables.
The relations
𝐸 = 𝐸(𝑆, 𝑉)
𝐻 = 𝐻(𝑆, 𝑃) This may be described by specifying the variation of cross-sectional area
Are sometimes called “canonical equations of state” each are suflices to along its axis A=A(x) and in which the flow properties are uniform over each
describes a simple system completely. cross section that p=p(x),𝜌 = 𝜌(𝑥)𝑒𝑡𝑐
Similarly the velocity u which is normal to the cross section should be
## Free energy and free enthalpy: uniform over each section u=u(x)
It is not always practical to use S and V or S and P a independent variables. It All of these quantities may also be function of time t if the flow non-
is natural to ask whether one can construct functions related to E 5 and H stationary or non-steady
which have V, T, and P, T as natural variables. A similar consideration led us If the flow along a tube or channel is steady the ma of the fluid which passes
already to introduce state variable H(enthalpy). a given section must eventually pass all other section further downstream.
We introduce F the so called free energy (sometimes called Gibbs free This is simply a statement of the law of conversation of mass.
energy and also thermodynamic potential defined by At any two section where condition are uniform, the flow are equal.
𝐹 = 𝐸 − 𝑇𝑆 … … … … (5) That is 𝜌1 𝑢1 𝐴1 = 𝜌2 𝑢2 𝐴2 ……………………………………………..(1)
𝐺 = 𝐻 − 𝑇𝑆 … … … … (6) This form of the continuity equation is very general
Introducing (5) and (6) into equation (1) and (2), we find Since it holds even if conditions between section are not uniform. If the flow
𝑑𝐹 = 𝑑𝐸 − 𝑆𝑑𝑇 − 𝑇𝑑𝑆 is uniform at every section the equation may be written as
= 𝑇𝑑𝑆 − 𝑃𝑑𝑉 − 𝑆𝑑𝑇 − 𝑇𝑑𝑆 𝜌𝑢𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑚
………………………………
∴ 𝑑𝑓 = −𝑠𝑑𝑡 − 𝜌𝑑𝑣 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (7) …….(2)
𝑑𝐺 = 𝑑𝐻 − 𝑇𝑑𝐽 And applied continuously along the tube or channel.
= 𝑇𝑑𝑠 + 𝑣𝑑𝜌 − 𝑇𝑑𝑠 − 𝑠𝑑𝑡 The difference form of the steady continuity equation is
𝑑
∴ 𝑑𝐺 = −𝑠𝑑𝑇 + 𝑣𝑑 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (8) (𝜌𝑢𝐴) = 0……………………………………………………………(3)
𝑑𝑥
Here the natural variables are V, T for F and 𝜌, 𝑇 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐺 Now if the flow is non-steady, the continuity equation is obtained in the
Thus we have analogues equations (3) and (4). [from (7) &(8) ] following way
𝑑𝐹 𝑑𝐹
( )𝑣 = −𝑠 ; ( )𝑡 = −𝜌 If the mass contained between section ‘1’ and ‘2’ in figure is 𝜌𝐴∆𝑥 and
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑣 𝑑
……………………………………..(9) increases at the rate (𝜌𝐴∆𝑥).
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝐺 𝑑𝐺
(𝑑𝑇 )𝜌 = −𝑠 ; (𝑑𝜌 ) 𝑇 = −𝑣
…………………………………….(10)
 Finally we have to compute the change in the energy of the system. The
1
flowing fluid possess not only internal energy e but also kinetic energy 2 𝑢2
1
Thus its local energy is 𝑒1 + 𝑢1 2 (per unit mass)
2
Comparing the energy of the system after the displacement with that before it
1
will be seen that there has been as increase of energy 𝑒2 + 2 𝑢2 .
1
This must be equal to the flow through ‘1’ means the flow through ‘2’ that is corresponding to the displacement from 2 to 2´ and a decrease 𝑒2 + 2 𝑢2 at 1
the net flow is ∴ the net result is
𝑑 𝑑 1 1
𝜌𝑢𝐴 − (𝜌𝑢𝐴 + (𝜌𝑢𝐴)∆𝑥)= (𝜌𝐴∆𝑥) Increase of energy = (𝑒2 + 2 𝑢2 ) – (𝑒1 + 2 𝑢1 2)……………….(3)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
Or − 𝑑𝑥 (𝜌𝑢𝐴)∆𝑥)=𝑑𝑡 (𝜌𝐴∆𝑥) Then the energy equation for steady flow is thei r
∆𝑥 doesn’t depend in time and may be divided through to give q+p1v1-p2v2=(c2+0.5u2) (c1+0.5u2)………..(4)
𝑑 𝑑 Integrating the enthalpy h=e+pv in (4) we get
(𝜌𝑢𝐴)+ (𝜌𝐴)=0 ……………………………………………………..(4)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 q+h1-e1-h2+c2=e2+0.5u2-e1-0.5u1
This is the equation of continuity for non-steady flow As shown in the figure. q is "external Leal!", which is added from outside the
➢ The energy equation: walls.
To drive the equation, we select for the system of definite portion of fluid If the flow is adiabatic. q=0. The energy equation for the adiabatic flow is
shown in the figure below between section “1” and “2”. h 2+.5u2=h1+.5u1………..(5)
If equilibrium exists all along the flow, its equilibrium equation is valid
continuously, and may be written as.
H+ ½u = constant……..(7)
which applies to every section.
It is then possible to write the differential form
dh+ udu = 0…….(8)
If the gas is thermally perfect. h depends only on T. and the equation may be
In the lower part of the figure this system is shown bounded by pistons at written as
“1” and “2” instead of fluid (there are equivalent to the fluid they replace Cp dT + udu = 0 ... (9)
and they help to clarify the work done on the system which consists of .It is also calorically perfect, Cp is constant and so
definite mass of fluid. CpT +0.5u2= constant……..(10)
During the small time interval in which the fluid is displaced to a region
bounded by section “1” and section “2” a quantity of head q is add. # Euler's equation:
According to energy law In order to drive Euler's equation. We shall apply Newton's law to flowing
q + work done = increase of energy……………………………(1) fluid. It state that.
To compute the work, assume that the volume displaced at 1 is the Force= mass x acceleration…...(1)
specific volume 𝑣1 , corresponding to a unit mass. Then for steady
conditions the displacement at 2 is also unit mass that is volume 𝑣2 * The Eulerian view - point is that the acceleration of the fluid particle as it
The work done on the system by the piston during this displacement is is encounters. the varying conditions. in the tube through which it flows.
𝜌1 𝑣1 − 𝜌2 𝑣2 , we have then The acceleration of the fluid is the relocate of change of velocity with respect
work done = 𝜌1 𝑣1 − 𝜌2 𝑣2 to time and is due to two effects.
……………………………………………………(2) First Since conditions vary along the tube there is velocity gradients Ju/ax. in
where 𝑣1 = the specific volume displace at1 the direction of How. The rate of change of velocity is proportional to this
gradient Int. and to the speed with which the particles mores through it.
Thus the acceleration due to convection through the velocity gradient is The momentum equation:
U(du/dt) The momentum equation may the Euler's equation as follows: be clothrined
Second, condition at a given section may be given section may be changing by comb and the continuity equation with a control space
if the flow is non stationary. The Euler equation is given by
The acceleration of the particle is, then, in general 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝐴
𝜕𝑥
(𝑃 𝑢 𝐴) + (𝑃 𝑢2 A) = (𝑃𝐴) +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
………… (5)
Ax=(du/dt)+u(du/dx)………..(2)
This is the one dimensional momentum equation in general

Fig: Pressure on a fluid particle.

2
Momentum enclosed= ∫1 𝑃𝑢𝐴𝑑𝑥
Now we have to compute the force on the particle. Consider the particle Fig: Forces and flux of momentum at a content space
shown in figure (a). For this single shape the force in the x direction is easily Integrating (5) w.r.to between any two sections as given in figure. We’ve
computed to be (dp/dx)(xA) 𝜕 2 2
Dividing this by AX, the volume of the particle we obtain the force per unit ∫ (𝑃𝑢𝐴)𝑑𝑥 + (𝑃2𝑢22 A2A - P1𝑢12 A1) = (P1A1 – P2A2) + ∫1 𝐸𝐷𝐴
𝜕𝑙 2
volume. – (dp/dx). … ………………….(6)
Finally dividing through by the density gives the force per unit mass.
this valid for the other shapes given in fig (6) and Singles. The limit integral in (6) is the momentum of the fluid enclosed between
section 1 and 2and the least integral may be evaluated by defining a mean
*(This computation of the force does not include any viscous terms, either pressure Pm thus.
𝜕 2
shearing stresses on the sides normal viscous stresses on the end sections and ∫ (𝑃𝑢𝐴)𝑑𝑥 +(P2𝑢22 A2A - P1𝑢12 A1)= (P1A1 – P2A2) + Pm(A2-
𝜕𝑙 2
.. .
(3) applies only if these are negligible , that is the flow is non viscous.) A1)………...(7)
Thus using Newton's law. We’ve... The left hand size of this equation is the rate of change of momentum in the
A=fx space between (1) and (2) it consists of two ferms, the contribution from non-
(Du/dt)+u(du/dx)=(-1/p)(dp/dx)………(4) stationary changes inside the space and the contribution from transport or
This is called Euler's equation of motion. flux of momentum into the space through the end sections.
For steady flow the velocity gradients does not depend on time. then from The right hand sight is the force in the x direction due to pressure on the end
(4). we find. sections and the wall.
u(du/dx)=(-1/p)(dp/dx ) For steady case: If the flow is steady. The first learn of (7) is zero.
udu + dp/p=0…………………………... (5) 𝜕 2
The integral form of eqn (5) is i.e. 𝜕𝑙 ∫2 (𝑃𝑢𝐴)𝑑𝑥 = 0 so, from (7) we’ve
2 2
(u2/2)+integration(dp/p)=constant ……….(6) (𝑃2𝑢2 𝐴2𝐴 − 𝑃1𝑢1 𝐴1) = (𝑃1𝐴1 – 𝑃2𝐴2) + 𝑃𝑚(𝐴2 − 𝐴1)…(8)
which is Bernoulli's equation compressible flow. Now if the area is constant then 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 = 𝐴
If the flow is incompressible, p is constant and may be written p=p0 and So, for steady flow in a duel of constant area, the momentum equation is
Bernoulli's equations has the well. known forum i simple and is (𝑃2𝑢22 − 𝑃1𝑢12 ) = 𝑃1 − 𝑃2
(u2/2)p0+p=constant………(7) .·. 𝑃1 + 𝑃1𝑢12 = 𝑃2 + 𝑃2𝑢22
which is the required momentum equation.
05. What is mean by isentropic now? Slow that the entropy is constant This disturbance produced in a fluid by a sound wave more precisely, the
along the flow of it is isentropic. temperature and the velocity gradients produced are so small that each fluid
particle undergoes a nearly isentropic process.
Ans: Isentropic flow: A flow which is adiabatic and equilibrium is called For purpose of computing the wave speed like process is assumed to be
isentropic. This may be verified from the energy and mass turn equation. strictly isentropic.
For adiabatic non conducting flow the energy equation is 𝑑ℎ + 𝑢𝑑𝑢 = Accordingly the derivative in equation (1) is evaluated with the isentropic
0………(1) applies all along the flow and similarly in the absence of relation.
friction forces. Eulers equation. In a perfect gas this is
𝑑𝑝 𝐶
𝑢𝑑𝑢 + 𝜌 = 0 …………….(2) is applicable. P = constant 𝑃𝛾 where 𝛾 = 𝐶𝑝
𝑣
If we eliminate u from this equation (2) and we’ve the relation between the Now using this relation in (1) we find,
𝑑𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝𝛾 𝑝𝛾
thermodynamics variable 𝑑ℎ + 𝜌 = 0….. …. …. …. ….(3) a2 = ( )s = constant. ( )s= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. 𝛾𝑝𝛾−1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. 𝛾
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝑝
Now from the different form of the 2nd law the entropy of the flow is related 𝛾 𝛾 𝑝
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. 𝑝𝛾 = 𝑝 = 𝛾 = 𝛾𝑅𝑇
to the variable in (3) 𝜌 𝜌 𝜌
We’ve
𝑇𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑ℎ – 𝑣𝑑𝑝 𝑎2 = 𝛾𝑅𝑇……………………….(2)
1
or, 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑇 (𝑑ℎ – 𝑣𝑑𝑝) Mach Number:
1 𝑑𝑝 In a flowing fluid, the speed of sound is a significant measure of the effect of
or, 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑇
(𝑑ℎ − 𝜌
) compressibility only when it is compared to the speed of flow. This
1 introduces as dimensionless parameter which is called the mach number.
so, 𝑉 = 𝑢
𝜌
𝑀 = 𝑎 ……………………….(3)
𝐷𝑠 = 0 [by using (3)]
∴ S = constant ……………(4) Where U is the speed of flow and ‘a’ is the speed of sound.
along the flow It is the most important parameter in the theory of compressible flow.
Therefore, the entropy is constant along the flow if it is isentropic. Supersonic, sonic and subsonic flow:
𝑝 𝜌 𝑇
𝛾 The mach number is defined by the ratio of the speed of flow to the speed of
= ( )𝛾 =( )𝛾−1 𝑢
sound and is 𝑀 = 𝑎 …………………….(4)
𝑝° 𝜌° 𝑇°
𝐶𝑝
[p = constant 𝑃𝛾 where 𝛾 = ; 𝛾 will depend upon T except if it is assumed Where ‘a’ is the speed of sound and given by 𝑎2 = 𝛾𝑅𝑇 …..(5)
𝐶𝑣
that the gas is also calorically perfect.] It is evident that M will vary from point to point in a given flow not only
−1 because u changes but also because ‘a’ depends on the local conditions
∴ 𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. 𝑇 (𝛾−1) according to equation(5).
𝛾
Again the local value of ‘a’ retakes to the local value of u according to
P = constant. 𝑇 𝛾−1
equation(4)Again in adiabatic flow on increase fo u always corresponds to an
P = constant. 𝑣 −𝛾
increase of M.
05.Q: Define speed of sound ‘a’ and show that for a perfect gas a2 = 𝜸𝑹𝑻
If the flow speed exceeds the local speed of sound, these much number is
and hence define math number, subsonic, sonic and supersonic flows.
greater then 1
Ans: speed of sound: A parameter that is fundamental in compressible flow
(M>1 i.e u>a) and the flow is called supersonic.
theory is the speed of sound ‘a’. The parameter ‘a’ is the speed at which
For much number below 1(M<1 i.e u<a) the flow is called subsonic
small disturbances (waves) are propagated through a compressible fluid.
When M=1 the flow is called sonic
It’s relation to the compressibility of the fluid is given by
𝜕𝑝
M>1 → supersonic
𝑎2 = (𝜕𝜌)𝑠 ….. ….. …. ….. …. …. …. (1) M<1 → subsonic
M=1 → sonic
 𝒅𝒖 −𝒅𝑨⁄ i. At M=0, a decrease in area gives a proportional increase in velocity.
Establish the areo-velocity relation of the form 𝒖
= (𝟏−𝑴𝟐𝑨) , where A is ii. Fore values of M between 0 and 1, that is at subsonic speeds, the relation
the area, u is the velocity and M is the mach number. Hence explain the is qualitatively the same as for incompressible flow a decrease of area giving
mach number effects when i. M = 0 , ii. αM < 𝟏 , iii. M > 𝟏 and iv. M=10. an increase in velocity but the effect on the velocity is relatively greater since
the denominator is less than 1.
Consider the steady adiabatic flow in a stream tube of varying area given in iii. At supersonic speeds (M > 1), the denominator is negative and an
the figure increase of speed is produced by an increased of area. This may also be seen
from equation (3) that fore M > 1, the decrease in density is greater than the
increase in the velocity.
Just at M = 1 there must be a throat as in the figure.
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝐴
From equation (4) it is clear that at M=1, 𝑢 can be finite only if 𝐴 = 0.
The same argument applies to the case where the velocity decrease
continuously from supersonic to subsonic.
From the continuity equation, we've The important conclusion in that M=1 can be attained only at a throat of the
𝜌uA = constant tube. The inverse is not true i.e. M is not necessarily I at a throat.
Taking log on both sides, we get Near M=1 the flow is very sensitive to change in the same area. Since, the
log𝜌 + logu + logA = log(constant) denominator of (4) is then small.
𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝐴
𝜌
+ 𝑢 + 𝐴 = 0 …….. (1)
Q. Define shock wave. Write the general equation for normal shock
For incompressible flow, d𝜌 = 0 wave and hence derive Prandtl or Meyer relation u1u2 = a*2. Using this
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝐴
+ = 0 ………. (2) relation show that the velocity changes across a normal shock must be
𝑢 𝐴
From (2) it is clear that increase of velocity is proportional to the decrease of from supersonic to subsonic or vice-versa.
area.
Again from Euler's equation, we've Shock wave: Consider adiabatic constant-area flow (fig-a) through
𝑑𝜌
udu + 𝜌 = 0 a non-equilibrium region (shown shaded). If sections ‘1’ and ‘2’ are outside
𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜌
this region, then the equations of continuity, momentum and energy are
udu = - 𝜌
=- 𝜌
.𝜌 = - a2 𝜌
[a2 = 𝜌
] 𝜌1 u1 = 𝜌2 u2 ………(1) (continuity)
𝑑𝜌 𝜌1 + 𝜌1 u12 = 𝜌2 + 𝜌2 u22 ………(2) (Momentum)
udu = - a2 𝜌 1 1
h1 + 2 u12 = h2 + 2 u22 ………(3) (Energy)
𝑢𝑑𝑢 𝑎 2 𝑑𝜌
or, 𝑢2
= - 𝑢2 𝜌 The solution of these equations gives the relations that must exist beta the
𝑑𝑢 𝑎 2 𝑑𝜌 flow parameters at the two sections.
or, 𝑢
= - (𝑢
) 𝜌
Introducing the Mach number, we get
𝑑𝑢 1 𝑑𝜌
𝑢
= − 𝑀2 𝜌 ………(3)
Now substituting of (3) in (2) gives the area velocity relation,
𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝐴
𝜌
+ 𝑢 + 𝐴 =0
𝑑𝑢 −𝑑𝐴⁄
𝐴
𝑢
= (1−𝑀 2 )
………(4)
which is the required area velocity relation. Fig: Illustrating a change of equilibrium conditions in Constant area flow.
which shows that the following Mach number effects.
 2 2
(a) Uniform conditions on either side of a region of non-uniformity ore 𝑢12 (𝛾+1)𝑎∗ 𝑎∗
dissipation. Or, 2
= 2(𝛾−1)
− 𝛾−1 [As 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 = 𝑎∗ ]
2
(b) Normal shock waves. 𝑢2 𝑎∗ 1
So, 21 = { (𝛾 + 1) − 1}
(c) Shock wave normal to flow on streamline a-b. 𝛾−1 2
2 2 2
𝑎∗ 𝛾+1−2 𝑎∗ 𝑎∗
= 𝛾−1 [ 2
] = 𝛾−1 = 2
There is no restriction on the size or details of the dissipation region so long 2 2
as the reference sections are outside it. So, 𝑢1∗ = 𝑎∗
2
In particular, it may be indealized by the vanishingly their region shown in Similarly, 𝑢12 = 𝑎∗
fig-b, across which the flow parameters are said to ‘Jump’. The control Thus, We obtain 𝑢12 𝑢22 = 𝑎∗
4

section ‘1’ and ‘2’ may then be brought arbitrarily close to it, such a 2
𝑢1 𝑢2 = 𝑎∗ ………………………….(4)
discontinuity is called a shock wave. Since the reference sections may be
This is know as the prandtl or meyer relation.
brought arbitrary near to the shock, the device of a constant area duct is no
Third Part: In terms of the speed ratio
longer needed, that is the results always apply locally to conditions on either 𝑢
side of a shock, provided it is normal to the stream line fig-c. 𝑀∗ = 𝑎∗
Equation (4) will take form
1
Second Part: The normal shock relations for a perfect gas: The equations 𝑀2∗ = 𝑀∗ ………………………….(5)
Continuity: 𝜌1 𝑢1 = 𝜌2 𝑢2 ……………………………….(1) 1
Now 𝑀∗ ≥1 coresponds to M≥ 1, and thus prandtl relation shows that
Momentum: 𝑝1 + 𝜌1 𝑢12 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌2 𝑢22 ……………(2)
1 1 velocity changes across a normal shock must be from supersonic to subsonic
Energy: ℎ1 + 2 𝑢12 = ℎ2 + 2 𝑢22 ………………………(3) or vice-versa.
Are called the general eqution for a normal shock wave. The correspondence between 𝑀∗ and M is
Using continuity eqation and dividing the left side and right side of (2) by 2 (𝛾+1)𝑀2
𝑀∗ = (𝛾−1)𝑀2 ………………………….(5)
𝑝1 +𝜌1 𝑢12 𝑝2 +𝜌2 𝑢22 +2
𝑝1 𝑢1 and 𝑝2 𝑢2 . We obtain 𝜌1 𝑢1
= 𝜌2 𝑢2 When used to replaced 𝑀1∗ and 𝑀2∗ in the Prandtl equation it gives the
𝑝1 𝑝2 relation between the Mack numbers 𝑀1 and 𝑀2 and is given by
+ 𝑢1 = + 𝑢2 𝛾−1 2
𝜌1 𝑢1 𝜌2 𝑢2 1+𝑀1
𝑝2 𝑝1 𝑀22 = 2
2
𝛾−1 ………………………….(6)
𝑢1 − 𝑢2 = − 𝛾𝑀1 −
2
𝜌2 𝑢2 𝜌1 𝑢1 The ratio of the velocities may also be written as
𝑎22 𝑎12 𝑢1 𝑢12 𝑢12 ∗2
𝑢1 − 𝑢2 = − =𝑢 = 2 = 𝑀1
𝛾𝑢2 𝛾𝑢1 𝑢2 1 𝑢2 𝑎∗
𝛾𝑝 𝑝 𝑎2 𝑢1 2 (𝛾+1)𝑀2
[As 𝑎2 = ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = ] = 𝑀1∗ = (𝛾−1)𝑀2 +2
………………………….(7)
𝜌 𝜌 𝛾 𝑢2
Now 𝑎12 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎22 may be replaced by using the iner equation (3) for perfect From equation of continuity, we have
𝑢2 𝑎2 𝑎02 𝜌1 𝑢1 = 𝜌2 𝑢2
gas, + = 𝜌1 𝜌 2 (𝛾+1)𝑀 2
2 𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝑢12 𝑎12 𝑢22 𝑎22 𝑢1
= 𝑢2 = 𝑀1∗ = (𝛾−1)𝑀2 +2………………………….(8)
2
So, + 𝛾−1 = + 𝛾−1
2 2 The pressure relation may be obtained by using the momentum equation
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
𝑢2∗ 2 𝑎∗ 𝑎2∗ 𝑎∗
2 (𝛾−1)𝑎2∗ +2𝑎2∗ (𝛾+1)𝑎 ∗ 𝑝1 + 𝜌1 𝑢12 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌2 𝑢22
= + 𝛾−1 = + 𝛾−1 = =
2 2
2
2(𝛾−1) 2(𝛾−1) So 𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝜌1 𝑢12 − 𝜌2 𝑢2 𝑢2
𝑢12 𝑎12 𝑢22 𝑎22 (𝛾+1)𝑎∗ = 𝜌1 𝑢12 − 𝜌1 𝑢1 𝑢2 [As, 𝜌1 𝑢1 = 𝜌2 𝑢2]
So, 2
+ 𝛾−1
= 2
+ 𝛾−1
= 2(𝛾−1)
………………………(A)
2 = 𝜌1 𝑢1 (𝑢1 − 𝑢2 )
𝑢12 1 𝑎2 (𝛾+1)𝑎 ∗
In dimensionless form, we’ve
Now 2
+ 𝛾−1 = 2(𝛾−1) 𝜌2 −𝜌1 𝜌 𝑢
𝜌
= 𝑝1 1(𝑢1 − 𝑢2 )
1 1
 =
𝜌1 𝑢12
(1 −
𝑢2
) =
𝜌1 𝑢12 1
(1 − 𝑢1 ) =
𝜌1 𝑢12
(1 −
1
) 𝜕 2 𝑠̅ 2
𝜕 2 𝑠̅ 𝜕2𝑢 2
𝜕2𝑢
𝑝1 𝑢1 𝑝1 𝑝1 𝑀12 − 𝑎1 = 0, − 𝑎1 =0
𝑢2 𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥 2
𝜌1 𝑢12 1 𝜌1 𝑢12 (𝛾−1)𝑀12 +2 Where 𝑠̅ is the condensation or the fundamental disturbance and u is
= 𝑝1
(1 − (𝛾+1)𝑀2 ) = 𝑝1
{1 − (𝛾+1)𝑀 2 }
1 1 the velocity of the flow.
(𝛾−1)𝑀21 +2
𝜌1 𝑢12 (𝛾+1)𝑀12 −(𝛾−1)𝑀12 −2 𝜌1 (𝑟+1)𝑀12 −𝛾 𝑀12 +𝑀12 −2
Ans: Second part
= { (𝛾+1)𝑀12
} = 𝑢12 { (𝛾+1)𝑀12
}
𝜌1 𝑝1
𝜌1 2 2(𝑀12 −1) 𝜌 𝑢12 2 The particle velocity u and the condensation 𝑠̅ is given by,
= 𝑢 { } = 𝑃1 (𝑀12 − 1)
𝑝1 1 (𝑟+1)𝑀12 1 𝑀 2 (𝛾+1)
1
𝛾 2 𝛾𝑝 𝜌 𝛾 𝜕𝑠̅ 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑠̅
= 𝑎12
(𝑀12 − 1) [∴ 𝑎12 = 𝜌 1 ⇒ 𝐸`1 = 𝑎2 ] 𝜌1 𝜕𝑡 + 𝜌1 (𝜕𝑥 + 𝑠̅ 𝜕𝑥 ) + 𝜌1 𝑢 𝜕𝑥 = 0 … … … … … … … … … … … .1
𝑎12
𝛾+1 1 1 1
2𝛾
= (𝑀12 − 1)
𝛾+1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝑎2 𝜕𝑠̅
∴
𝑝2−𝑝1
=
2𝛾
(𝑀12 − 1) +𝑢 +
𝑝1 𝛾+1 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 1 + 𝑠̅ 𝜕𝑥
𝑝 −𝑝 ∆𝑝 2𝛾 = 0……………………………………………………………2
∴ 2𝑝 1 = 𝑝 1 = 𝛾+1 (𝑀12 − 1) … … … … … … … … … … . .9 Equation 1 and 2 are non- linear and net integrable to the non- linear
1 1
∆𝑝 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
The ratio 𝑝 1 is often used to define the shock strength. Alternatively, one terms 𝑢 (𝜕𝑥 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠̅ 𝜕𝑥 are of the same order and may also be
1
may define the shock strength as neglected.
𝑝2 2𝛾 To make the above equation linear we introduce the assumption of
𝑝
= 1 + 𝛾+1 (𝑀12 − 1) … … … … … … … … … . .10
1 small disturbance such as 𝑠̅ ≪ 1.
The temperature ratio may be obtained from using 8 and 10 by ̅ 𝜕𝑢)
𝑇2 𝑝 𝜌 With this assumption it is possible to neglect 𝑠(
𝑇
= (𝑝2 ) (𝑝1 ) 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑥
1 1 2
compared to compared to . The terms 𝑢 and 𝑢 are of the
Finally, the change of entropy is given by 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
1
−
𝛾 same order and may also be neglected.
𝑆2 −𝑆1 𝑝 𝛾−1 𝜌 𝛾−1
𝑅
= ln [(𝑝2 ) (𝜌2 ) ] The 𝑎2 appearing in the equation 2 may be expanded in
1 1
Using 8 and 10 we get, taylor series about the 𝑎12 in the undisturbed fluid that is,
𝜕𝑝
𝑆2 −𝑆1 2𝛾
1
(𝛾+1)𝑀2
−
𝛾
𝛾−1
𝑎2 = 𝜕𝜌
= ln {[1 + (𝑀12 − 1)]𝛾−1 [(𝛾−1)𝑀2 1 ] } 𝑑𝑝 𝑑2 𝑝
𝑅 𝛾+1 +2 1
= (𝑑𝜌) + (𝑑𝜌2 ) (𝜌 − 𝜌1 )
1 1
❖ Wave motion and wave speeds: For small disturbances , then the exact equation of motion may be
approximated by a set of equation that contains non- linear terms.
Disturbance created in a fluid by a moving body are propagated or 𝜕𝑠̅ 𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑡
+ 𝜕𝑥 = 0 … … … … … … … … 3
communicated to other parts of the fluid.
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑠̅
+ 𝑎12 = 0 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . .4
The motion of the disturbances relative to the fluid is called 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
These are called the acoustic equation by virtue the fact that the
wave motion and the speed of propagation is called wave speed.
disturbances due to a sound wave are by definition very small.
Either of the dependent variable may be eliminated from equ 3 and 4
This is the mechanism by which the various parts of the body 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢
interact with the fluid and with each and by which the forces on the Since 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑡 = 𝜕𝑡𝜕𝑥 ,cross differentiation gives
body are established. 𝜕2 𝑠̅ 𝜕2 𝑠
− 𝑎12 = 0……………………5
▪ Define wave motion and wave speed? Find the acoustic equation 𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥 2
and hence derive the wave motion in the form: And similarly ,
 Again, from the thermodynamics ratio of density for oblique shack wave, we
𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜌2 (ϒ+1)𝑀12 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
𝜕𝑡 2
−𝑎12 𝜕𝑥 2 = 0 … … … … … … … . .6 know =
𝜌1 (ϒ−1)𝑀12 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝛽+2
This equation which governs both 𝑠̅ and u is called the wave 𝜌1 ϒ−1)𝑀12 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
= ----------(5)
equation. 𝜌2 ϒ+1)𝑀12 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
It is typical for phenomena in which a disturbance is Using (4) and (5) in (3) we obtain,
propagated with a definite signal velocity or wave velocity. The tan(β−θ) (ϒ−1)𝑀12 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝛽+2
tanβ
= (ϒ+1)𝑀12 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
---------(6)
solution of the wave equation may be written in general form as
𝑠̅ = 𝐹(𝑥 − 𝑎1 𝑡) + 𝐺(𝑥 + 𝑎1 𝑡) … … … … … … … … .7 For given M1 this is an implicit relation between ‘θ’ and ‘β’
Where F and G are arbitrary functions of their arguments. After some manipulation the dependence of θ and β may be written explicitly
𝑀12 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
Similarly, as tanθ = 2cotβ 𝑀12 (ϒ+𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝛽)+2 ----------(7)
𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑎1 𝑡) + 𝑔(𝑥 + 𝑎1 𝑡) … … … … … … … … . .8 1
The expression in (7) becomes zero at β=π/2 and at β=𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) which is
Of course f and g are related to F and G for u must be related to 𝑠̅ 𝑀1
−1 1
𝑓 = 𝑎1 𝐹 … … … … … … … … .9 the range of wave angle β, (𝑠𝑖𝑛 ≤β≤ π/2)
( )
𝑀1
𝑔 = −𝑎1 𝐺 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 10 Within this range ‘θ’ is positive and must therefore have a maximum value.
If θ<𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 , then for each value of θ and M1 particular value of M1 , there are
*** Establish the relation between the wave angle 𝜷 and the angle of two possible solutions with different values of ‘β’
deflection 𝜽 and explain low flow became subsonic /supersonic The larger value of ‘β’ gives the “Stronger shock”
depending on 𝜽 .Show that for small reflection angle 𝜽. In the solution of strong shock the flow becomes subsonic:
𝛄+𝟏
𝜷 = 𝟐 .𝛉 In the solution with weak shock the flow remains supersonics expect for a
Answer: small range of values of θ slightly smaller than 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥
Another from ‘θ’ and ‘β’ :( for small deflection angle θ):
Divide the number for and denominator of the right hand side of (6) by
(ϒ−1)𝑀12 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝛽+2
1
1 tan(β−θ) 𝑀12 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝛽

2
𝑀12 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 , we have , tanβ
= 2
(ϒ+1)𝑀12 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
1
𝑀12 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
2
4
2(ϒ−1)+
𝑀12 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
= 2(ϒ+1)
tan(β−θ) 2
Figure: Flow through an oblique shock wave ∴ (ϒ + 1) tanβ
= 2(ϒ − 1) + 𝑀12 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
a) Resolution of velocity components 2 tan(β−θ)
Or, 𝑀12 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
= (ϒ + 1) tanβ − (ϒ − 1)
b) Conventional nomenclature
1 (ϒ+1) tan(β−θ) (ϒ−1)
From the figure of flow through on oblique wave the two relations may be ∴ 𝑀12 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 = 2
. tanβ
− 2
obtained tanβ = u1/v -------(1) After some manipulations we have,
and tan(β-θ ) = u2/v ---------(2) (ϒ+1) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Dividing (2) by (1), we get 𝑀1 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛽 − 1 = 2 + 𝑀12 . cos (𝛽−𝜃) -------(8)
2 2

tan(β−θ) 𝑢2 For small deflection angle ‘θ’, (8) may be written as

tanβ
= 𝑢1 ------------(3)
(ϒ+1)
Now from the continuity equation we know, 𝑀12 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 − 1 = ( 2 . 𝑀12 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽) . 𝜃 ----------(9)
ρ1u1 = ρ2u2 If ‘M1’ is very large, then β<<1 but M1>>1, and equation (9) reduce to
𝑢2 𝜌1 (ϒ+1)
∴ 𝑢1 = 𝜌2 --------(4) β= 2 .θ
#Describe weak oblique shocks. Derive the wave angle 𝜷 from the Mack ∴ Sin 𝛽= = Sin𝜇 +cos 𝜇 sin 𝜖
angle 𝝁. Again, from the definition of Mack argle.
Weak oblique shocks: μ = Sin-1 (1/M1)
1
For small deflection angles 𝜃: the oblique shock equation reduce to very ∴ Sin 𝜇=𝑀 and hence Cos𝜇 = √1 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜇
simple expressions (the approximate relation from which others may be 1

desired) let given by. 1 𝑀1 2 −1 √𝑀1 2 −1

𝛾+1 =√1 − 2 =√ =
M12 Sin²𝛽 -1 = ( 2 M12 tan²𝛽). 𝜃.............(1) 𝑀 1 𝑀1 2 𝑀1

For small 𝜃 the value of 𝛽 is close to either 𝜋/2 or . depending on whether √𝑀1 2 −1

'M₂<1' on M₂>1 ∴ Cos𝜇 = 𝑀1

..............(2)
Considering the case M₂>1 and using the approximation Sin 𝛽 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜇 + 𝜖. 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜇
1
tan 𝛽 ≅ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜇 = √𝑀1 2 −1
√𝑀1 2 −1 1
= +E.
𝑀1 𝑀1
Equation (1) reduces to the form.
M12 Sin²𝛽 -1 ≅
𝛾+1
.
𝑀1 2
.𝜃 ............(2) ∴ M2Sin 𝛽=1+𝜖√𝑀1 2 − 1 .............(3)
𝑒
√𝑀1 2 −1

This is the basic relation for obtaining all-other approximate expressions. ∴M12Sin2 𝛽 = 1 + 2 𝜖√𝑀1 2 − 1 + 𝜖 2 (𝑀1 2 − 1)
(since all the oblique shock relations depend on the normal component M₂
sin𝛽.) ∴ M12Sin2 𝛽 = 1 + 2 𝜖√𝑀1 2 − 1 ............ . . . .(4)
Using the above approximation, the pressure charge may easily be obtained Comparing equation (4)with
as. 𝛾+1 𝑀1 2
𝑃2 −𝑃1 ∆𝑝 𝛾𝑀1 2 M12Sin2 𝛽 − 1= 2
. .𝜃
𝑃1
=𝑃 ≅ . 𝜃 … … … … … (3) √𝑀1 2 −1
1 √𝑀1 2 −1
we find taht
this shows that the strength of the wave is proportional to the deflection 𝛾+1 𝑀1 2
angle. 2 𝜖√𝑀1 2 − 1 = . .𝜃
2
The charge The other flow quantities, except the entropy are also √𝑀1 2 −1

proportional to ghis shows that the strength of the wave is proportional to 𝜃 𝛾+1 𝑀1 2
𝜖= 2
.𝑀 2 .𝜃 . .. . . . . . . .(5)
The change of entropy is proportional to the third power of the shock 1 −1
strength. 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 of the wave differs from the Mach direction by an
𝑠2 −𝑠1 2𝛾 (𝑀1 −1)3 amount 𝜖 which if of the same order as 𝜃.
=
𝑅 (𝛾+1)2 3
and hence to the third power of the deflection angle 𝜃 #Derive prandtl Meyer function of the form
∆𝑠~𝜃 3 .................(4) √𝜸+𝟏 𝜸−𝟏
V(M)= tan-1{√𝜸+𝟏 (𝑴𝟐 − 𝟏)} − 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 {√(𝑴𝟐 − 𝟏)}
√𝜸−𝟏
# Derivation of the wave angle 𝜷 from the Mack angle 𝝁: To find Hence show that for compression and expansion turns'
explicitly the derivation of the wave angle 𝛽 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝜇. we v = v₁-|𝜽 − 𝜽𝟏 | (Compression) V = V1+|𝜽 − 𝜽𝟏 | (expansion)
may put Answer: The differential relation between the deflection angle '𝜃' and Mach
𝛽 =𝜇+𝜖 where 𝜖 << 𝜇 ..............(1) numbers 'M' is an isentropic compression of expansion n by turning may be
Now Sin 𝛽 = sin (μ+ 𝜖) written as
=Sin𝜇 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜖 +cos 𝜇 sin 𝜖 𝑑𝑤
= Sin𝜇 .1 +cos 𝜇 sin 𝜖 -d𝜃 =√𝑀1 2 − 1
𝑤
 Integrating to obtain 𝛾+1 𝛾−1(𝑀 2−1)
𝑑𝑤 v(M) = √ tan−1 √ - tan−1 ( √𝑀2 − 1 ) + c …………(8)
−𝜃+constant=∫ √𝑀2 − 1 . 𝑤 =V(M) (say) . . . . . .(1) 𝛾−1 𝛾+1

To evaluate the integral and thus find the explicit form of the function v(M) v=0 , when M=1, c=0
we may rewrite 'W' interms of 'M' by using the relations Now,equation (8) becomes ,
W = 𝛼M . . . . . . . . . .(2) 𝛾+1 𝛾−1(𝑀 2 −1)
v(M)= √𝛾−1 tan−1 √ 𝛾+1
- tan−1 ( √𝑀2 − 1 )
where ,M = Mack number; a = speed of sound; w = wave speed.
0 𝑎 2 𝛾−1 Which is called “Prandtl Meyer function”.
And 𝑎2
= 1 + 2 M2 . . . . . . . .(3)
The constant of integration has been arbitrary chosen so that v=0
From(2): we can write corresponds to M=1 corresponding values pressure ratio are obtained from
𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑀 𝑑𝑎
= + .. . . . . . . . .(4) thr isentropic equations.
𝑤 𝑀 𝑎
𝑎02 𝛾−1 Thus, a supersonic “ Mach number” ‘M’ is always associated with a definite
Now from (3). we get =1+ 𝑀2 value of the functon ‘v’.
𝑎2 2
𝛾−1
Or, 𝑎02 . 𝑎−2 = 1 + 𝑀2 As ‘M’ varies from 1 to ∞, ‘v’ increase mopnotonically from 0 vmax , where,
2
𝛾−1 𝜋 𝛾+1
Or, 𝑎02 . (−2)𝑎−3 𝑑𝑎 = 0 + 2
2𝑀𝑑𝑀 (differentiate) vmax = (√
2 𝛾−1
− 1)
𝛾−1 𝑎02
Or, −2 𝑑𝑎 =
2𝑀𝑑𝑀 𝛾+1
2 𝑎3 [ v = v(∞) = √𝛾−1 tan−1 (∞) − tan−1(∞)
𝛾−1 𝑎02 𝑑𝑎
Or, − = 𝑀𝑑𝑀
2 𝑎2 𝑎 𝛾+1 𝑅 𝑅 𝛾+1 𝑅
𝛾−1 𝑑𝑎 𝛾−1 = √𝛾−1 . 2 − = (√𝛾−1 − 1) . 2 ]
Or, − (1 + 2 𝑀2 ) 𝑎 = 2 𝑀𝑑𝑀 2
𝛾−1
𝑀𝑑𝑀
The rotation of the Prandtl Meyer function v and thus Mach number M to the
𝑑𝑎
Or, = 2
𝛾−1 2 ………….(5) flow inclination 𝜃 is illustrated in the following figures for both compression
𝑎 1+ 𝑀
2 and expansion turns.
Using (4) and (5) , we have, For compression and expansion turns , v is given by,
𝛾−1 𝛾−1 2 𝑑𝑀
𝑀𝑑𝑀 𝑀
𝑑𝑤
=
𝑑𝑀
− 2
=
𝑑𝑀
− 2 𝑀 v = v1 - | 𝜃 − 𝜃1 | (Compression ) ………….(9)
𝛾−1 2 𝛾−1 2
𝑤 𝑀 1+ 𝑀 𝑀 1+ 𝑀 v = v1 + | 𝜃 − 𝜃1 | (Expansion) ……………………..(10)
2 2
𝛾−1 2
𝑑𝑀 𝑀
2
= 𝑀
[ 1− 𝛾−1 2 ]
1+ 𝑀
2
𝛾−1 2 𝛾−1 2
𝑑𝑀 1+ 2
𝑀 −
2
𝑀
= [ 𝛾−1 2 ]
𝑀 1+ 𝑀
2
𝑑𝑀 1
= 2
𝑀 1+ 𝛾−1 𝑀2
2
𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑀 1
So, = ………….(6)
𝑤 𝑀 1+ 𝛾−1 𝑀2
2
Now, using (6) in (1) ,the function v(M) ,then given by, Figure: Relation of v and 𝜃 in simple isotropic turns
𝑑𝑤
v(M) = ∫ √𝑀2 − 1 . 𝑤
In specific cases, a sign convention for 𝜃 can easily be adopted if needed.
√𝑀 2 −1 𝑑𝑀
Or, v(M) = ∫ 𝛾−1 2 . 𝑀
…………..(7) In compression turns, v decreases, whereas, in an expansion turns, it
1+ 𝑀 increases, in each case by an amount equal to the flow deflection.
2
The initial value v1 = v(M1) may be found in the table, the calculated value of
Integrating (7), we have, v for any value of 𝜃 then gives the corresponding value of M.
Usually, it is convenient to set 𝜃1 = 0 , since only the deflection matters.
 Small Perturbation Theory
Question: Discuss perturbation velocity and derive the equation of Let us suppose that in the presence of the solid body in the Uniform flow, the
perturbation. Discuss subsonic, transonic, supersonic, hypersonic, and velocity field has been perturbed and changed to
frictionless flow. 𝑈1 = 𝑈 + 𝑢 , 𝑈2 = 𝑣 , 𝑈3 = 𝑤
writing (3) in full and substituting the velocity field. we obtain the equation
Answer: Induced or Perturbation velocity:Consider a uniform steady flow of motion. in terms of Perturbation velocities.
with uniform velocity U. and choose a coordinate system in which U is 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑢
𝑎2 (𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 ) = (𝑈 + 𝑢)2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑤 2 𝑑𝑥 + (𝑈 + 𝑢) 𝑣(𝑑𝑥 +
parallel to the x1-axis. 1 2 3 1 2 3 2
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥1
) + 𝑣𝑤 (𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 ) +(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 ) ⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂(4)
3 2 2 3
2
𝑎 may be obtained in terms of the perturbation velocities, from the energy
equation for a perfect gas. We get.
(𝑈 + 𝑢)2 + 𝑣 2 + 𝑤 2 𝑎2 𝑢2 𝑎𝛼2
+ = +
2 𝛾−1 2 𝛾−1
𝛾−1
2 2
Or, 𝑎 = 𝑎𝛼 − (2𝑢𝑈 + 𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑤 ) ⠂ ⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂(5)
2 2 2
2
Now substituting (5) in (4) dividing by 𝑎𝛼2 and rearranging the terms we
Fig: Perturbation of a uniform flow by a thin airfoil obtain
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑤
In this basic motion, density, pressure, and temperature are also uniform and (1 − 𝑀𝛼2 ) + +
will be denoted by 𝜌𝛼, 𝑃𝛼, , 𝑇𝛼, respectively.The corresponding velocity of 𝑑𝑥1 𝑑𝑥2 𝑑𝑥3
𝑈 𝑢 𝛾 + 1 𝑢2 𝛾 − 1 𝑣 2 + 𝑤 2 𝑑𝑢
sound is 𝑎𝛼, and the Mach number is 𝑎 = 𝑀𝛼, = 𝑀𝛼2 [(𝛾 + 1) + + ]
𝛼, 𝑈 2 𝑈2 2 𝑈2 𝑑𝑥1
The velocity field of this basic flow is given by 𝑢𝛾+1 𝑣 2 𝛾−1 𝑤 2 +𝑢2 𝑑𝑣 𝑢 𝛾+1 𝑤 2
+𝑀𝛼2 [(𝛾 − 1) + + ] +𝑀𝛼2 [(𝛾 − 1) + +
𝑈1 = 𝑈 , 𝑈2 = 0 ………(1) 𝑈 2 𝑈 2 2 𝑈 2 𝑑𝑥2 𝑈 2 𝑈2
𝑈3 = 0 𝛾−1 𝑢2 +𝑣 2 𝑑𝑤 𝑣 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑤 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑤
2 𝑈2
] 𝑑𝑥3
+𝑀𝛼2 [ 𝑈 (1 + 𝑈)(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 ) + 𝑈 (1 + 𝑈)(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 )
Assume now that a solid body, for example, an airfoil, is placed in this 2
𝑣𝑤 𝑑𝑤
1
𝑑𝑣
3 1

uniform stream flow. As a result, the basic motion will be disturbed and the + 𝑈2 (𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 ) ⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂ ⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂(6)
2 3
velocity field will change to 𝑈1 = 𝑈 + 𝑢, 𝑈2 = 𝑣, 𝑈3 = 𝑤 This is the full equation in terms of the perturbation velocities.
The velocity components 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 are called "induced" or "Perturbation" It is still exact. On the left-hand side, they are linear, but on the right-hand
velocity components. side, they are non-linear because they involve products of the perturbation
We will assume that these perturbations are small compared with the mean velocities with their derivatives.
𝑢 𝑣 𝑤
velocity 𝑈. That is, . . << 1 ⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂(2) 𝑢 𝑣 𝑤
Now if the perturbation velocities are small ( . . << 1 ) then one can
𝑈 𝑈 𝑈 𝑈 𝑈 𝑈
and shall simplify the equations of motion by neglecting small terms in the neglect. Many of the terms from (6) simplify this equation.
perturbation velocities. As a first step, we may neglect the terms containing squares of the
As a recall, we will arrive at equations which is simpler than full equations. perturbation. Velocities in comparison to those containing linear terms.
This equation will be the basis for airfoil theory, wing theory, flow past Thus we obtain the simple equation.
slender bodies wind tunnel interferon problems, transonic flow, etc. 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑤
➤ Derivation of the perturbation equations: (1 − 𝑀𝛼2 ) + +
𝑑𝑥1 𝑑𝑥2 𝑑𝑥3
𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑤
Ans: The equations of motion for steady frictionless flow have been given by = 𝑀𝛼2 (𝛾 + 1) +𝑀𝛼2 (𝛾 − 1) ( + )
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑈 𝑑𝑥1 𝑈 𝑑𝑥2 𝑑𝑥3
𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑗 𝑑𝑥 𝑖 = 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 𝑘 ⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂(3) +𝑀𝛼2 (
𝑣 𝑑𝑢
+
𝑑𝑣 𝑤 𝑑𝑢
)+𝑀𝛼2 ( +
𝑑𝑤
) ⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂ ⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂(7)
𝑗 𝑤 𝑈 𝑑𝑥2 𝑑𝑥1 𝑈 𝑑𝑥3 𝑑𝑥1
 In transonic case , on the other hand , there are only a few special solutions
Even further simplification is possible. for we may neglect all the term on the which can not be generalized because of non-linearity)
right hand side in comparison to those on the left hand side which contains
no perturbation terms. ► Find the pressure coefficient and boundary condition for the perturbation
This gives the linear equation equation.
2 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 Pressure coefficient:
(1-𝑀∞ ) + + = 0 …………………(8)
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥3 The pressure coefficient is given by
𝑃−𝑃
𝑐𝑝 = 1 ∞
► Condition for subsonic, transonic and supersonic flow : 𝜌
2 ∞𝑈2
One must, however, compare the terms a little more critically. 2 𝑃−𝑃∞
𝜕𝑢
= 𝛾𝑀2 𝜌
For instance, in transonic flow, where → 1 the coefficient of 𝜕𝑥 , on the left- 2
∞
𝑃
∞
1 = 𝛾𝑀2 (𝜌 -1) ……. (1)
hand side becomes very small and it is then not possible to neglect. The first ∞ ∞
term of right-hand side of equation (7) The relation connecting pressure and mach number given by the isentropic
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 relation.
However, the condition 𝑀∞ → 1 does not affect the terms 𝜕𝑥 and 𝜕𝑥 so the 𝛾 𝛾
2 3 𝑃0 (𝛾+1) 2+(𝛾−1)𝑀2 𝛾−1
other terms on the right-hand side may still be neglected in comparison. 𝑃
= (1 + 2
𝑀2 )𝛾−1 = { 2
}
𝛾 2 𝛾
From equation (7) we thus obtain 𝑃0 (𝛾+1) 2+(𝛾−1)𝑀1 𝛾−1
= (1 + 𝑀12 )𝛾−1 = { }
2 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 2 𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝑃 2 2
(1-𝑀∞ ) + + = 𝑀∞ (𝛾 + 1) ……………….. (9) 𝑃0 𝑃0 /𝑃1 2+(𝛾−1)𝑀2
𝛾
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥3 𝒱 𝜕𝑥1
𝑃
= 𝑃0 /𝑃
= {2+(𝛾−1)𝑀12 }𝛾−1
As a result, we arrive at a small perturbation equation (9) which is valid for
subsonic, transonic, and supersonic flow. Equation (1) gives
2 𝑃
𝑐𝑝 = 𝛾𝑀2 (𝜌 -1)
1 1
► Condition for hypersonic and frictionless flow: 2 2+(𝛾−1)𝑀2
𝛾
Another term in which certain terms on the right hand side must be retained 𝑐𝑝 = 𝛾𝑀2 [{2+(𝛾−1)𝑀12 }𝛾−1 − 1]
1
arises if 𝑀∞ is very large for even though the perturbation velocities may be 𝑈2 𝑈2
small, their product with 𝑀∞ 2
may not be negligible This is the case of Again 𝑀12 = 2 and 𝑀2 = 2
𝑎1 𝑎
hypersonic flow. And using energy equation.
The equation which have been derived from equation (3) are all frictionless 𝑈2 𝑎2 𝑈2 𝑎21
2
+ 𝛾−1 = 2
+ 𝛾−1
flow. Now in addition that if the flow is irrotational. So that a perturbation
velocity potential 𝜑 exists given To eliminate 𝑎2 .we find
𝛾
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 2 (𝛾−1) 𝑢2
u = 𝜕𝑥 , v = 𝜕𝑥 , w = 𝜕𝑥 𝑐𝑝 = 𝛾𝑀2 [{1 + 2
𝑀12 (1 − 𝑈2 )} 𝛾−1 − 1]
1 2 3 1
Thus in terms of velocity potential 𝜑 equation (8) and (9) may be For isentropic flow the pressure coefficient has been given by the form
𝛾
represented by 2 (𝛾−1) 𝑢2 𝛾−1
2
2 𝜕2 𝜑 𝜕2 𝜑 𝜕2 𝜑 𝑐𝑝 = [{1 + 𝑀∞ (1 − 2 )} − 1] ………… (2)
(1-𝑀∞ ) 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑥 2 = 0 ……………….. (10) 𝛾𝑀∞2 2 𝑈
1 2 3
𝜕2 𝜑 𝜕2 𝜑 𝜕2 𝜑 2 (𝛾+1) 𝜕𝜑 𝜕2 𝜑
𝑀∞
If we introduce the perturbation velocity in (2) then we find
2 𝛾
and (1-𝑀∞ ) + + = (𝑈+𝑢)2 +𝑣 2 +𝑤 2 𝛾−1
𝜕𝑥1 2 𝜕𝑥2 2 𝜕𝑥3 2 𝑈 𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥1 2 2 (𝛾−1) 2
𝑐𝑝 = 2 [{1 + 𝑀∞ (1 − 𝑈2
)} − 1]
For subsonic and supersonic flow (10) is applicable and for transonic flow 𝛾𝑀∞ 2
𝛾
(11) is [applicable] used 2 (𝛾−1) 2 2𝑢 𝑢2 +𝑣 2 +𝑤 2 𝛾−1
(Since (10) is linear .it is much simpler to treat and may be sloved in great 𝑐𝑝 = 𝛾𝑀2 [{1 − 2
𝑀∞ (𝑈 + 𝑈2
)} − 1] …………….(3)
∞
generality. Now using biological theorem we find
In principle , any problem can be solved .For example,a wing of any shape.
 2 (𝛾−1) 2 𝛾 2𝑢 𝑢2 +𝑣 2 +𝑤 2 𝑑𝑥2
𝑐𝑝 = 𝛾𝑀2 [{1 − 2
𝑀∞ ( +
𝛾−1 𝑈 𝑈2
)+higher terms ……-1}] Where
𝑑𝑥1
is the slope of the body
∞
𝑣
2 2 𝛾 2𝑢 𝑢2 +𝑣 2 +𝑤 2 And is approximately the slope of the stream line.
= 𝛾𝑀2 [- 2 𝑀∞ (𝑈 + 𝑈2
)- … …. ….] 𝑢
∞
2𝑢 𝑢2 𝑣 2 +𝑤 2
According to our assumption the body has to be there in order to satisfy
2
∴ 𝑐𝑝 = - [ 𝑈 + (1- 𝑀∞ ) 𝑈2 + 𝑈2 ]……
…… ……….. (4) small perturbation theory.
In which cubes and higher powers of the perturbation velocities are Therefore, the ordinate x2 on the surface of the body differs little form zero
neglected. and we can simplify (6) developing v( 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) in power of 𝑥2.
For two dimensional and planar flows , it is consistent with the first order That is
𝑑𝑣
perturbation equations and retain only the first term in (4) and use the v( 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) = v( 𝑥1 , 0) +(𝑑𝑥 )𝑥2 =0
2
expression.
2𝑢 Again, using small perturbation theory. We can neglect all forms after the
𝑐𝑝 = − 𝑈 first and third from (7) that
For flow over axially symmetric or elongated bodies, it is necessary to retain v( 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) = v( 𝑥1 , 0) where 𝑥2 = 0 on the body
the third term, then we have, On the body
2𝑢 𝑣 2 +𝑤 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑝 = − - 2 -------(5) v( 𝑥1 , 0) = u( 𝑑𝑥2 )𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 -----------(8)
𝑈 𝑈 1
Boundary Conditions: The above steps (6) – (8) is always possible for two-dimensional flow.
At the surface of body, the direction of the flow be tangential to the solid The corresponding step in three dimensional is possible so called “planer”
surface and the velocity vector has to be at right angles to the normal on the systems. That is configurations that are essentially flat. Like three
solid surface. dimensional wings.
Let the body of the surface be described by on equation of the form 𝑑𝑓
For planner case, 𝑑𝑥 =0 and the boundary conditions becomes,
𝑓(𝑥1 ,𝑥2 ,𝑥3 ) =0 3
𝑑𝑥2
And the velocity vector be u v( 𝑥1 , 0, ( 𝑥3 ) = u( ) ------------(9)
𝑑𝑥1 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
The boundary condition can then b written in the form One says “The boundary condition is applied in the plane of the wing”
u. grad f=0 ---------------(2) On the other hand, for axially symmetric slender bodies the step from (6) to
Since gradl is always normal to the surface 𝑓(𝑥1,𝑥2 ,𝑥3 ) =0 and the (9). The perturbation velocity normal to the mean flow cannot be developed
vanishing of the scalar product express the condition. in a power.
Now in cartesian tensor notation (2) can be written as Finally, it is necessary a boundary condition at infinity, for instance that the
𝑑𝑓
ui 𝑑𝑥 =0 ----------(3) perturbation velocities be zero or at least finite.
1
Introducing perturbation velocity in (3) to find The condition depends on the nature of the perturbation.
𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓 Discuss two-dimensional flow past a wave shaped wall for subsonic flow.
(u+v) 𝑑𝑥 + v𝑑𝑥 +w 𝑑𝑥 =0 --------------(4) Find the velocity components u, v and pressure coefficient 𝒄𝒑 for the
1 2 3
Since u is small compared to u. We can neglect u form (4) and here flow.
𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓
u𝑑𝑥 + v𝑑𝑥 +w 𝑑𝑥 =0 ---------------(5) Ans:
1 2 3
𝑑𝑓 Let us consider the flow past a boundary of sinusoidal shape the so called
Let us now consider the two-dimensional case where w =0 and w 𝑑𝑥 =0 “wavy wall”.
3
From (5) we have, The mathematical formulation for this type of boundary is given by
𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓
u𝑑𝑥 + v𝑑𝑥 =0 𝑥2 -€ sinα 𝑥1 = 0 -------------(1)
1 2 Where denoted the “amplitude” of the wave of the wall.
𝑑𝑓 2𝜋
𝑣 𝑑𝑥1 𝑑𝑥2 And l= α is the wave length.
𝑢
=- 𝑑𝑓 = − 𝑑𝑥1
----------(6)
𝑑𝑥2
 𝑀2 F” G+FG”=0
1 ̈ 1
𝐹
𝐹̈ + 𝑚2 𝐺 = 0. . . . . . . . . . . . (5)
Here the fast term is a function of 𝑥2 and the second is afunctin of 𝑥2 only
Since the equition must hold for abitrary and the sum can be zero only if
1
𝐹= ̈ Constant=-𝑘 2…….(6)
𝐹
1
̈ 2
2 𝐺 =Constant =+𝑘 . . . . . . .(7)
𝑚
Fig: wave shaped wall The sign of 𝑘 2 is chossen four convenience in laten steps the square of a real
constant kit used to make the sine define
For subsonic or supersonic flow, the perturbation equation for two- As we want hammonic variation in the direction. hence the Solutions) is
dimensional flow is chosen such that equation (6) has harmonic solution
2 𝜕2 𝜑 𝜕2 𝜑 From (6) we find.
(1-𝑀∞ ) + =0
𝜕𝑥1 2 𝜕𝑥2 2 F(𝑥1 ) = A₂ Sin(k𝑥1 ) + A₂ Cos k𝑥1 . . . . . . . . . . . . (8)
Where 𝜑 is velocity potential given by and from (7) we've
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
U= and v =
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2
G(𝑥2 )=𝐵1 𝑒 −𝑚𝑘 𝑥2+𝐵2 𝑒 −𝑚𝑘 𝑥2. . . . . . . . .(9)
Subject to the boundary conditions The second term in eqn(9) is exponentially growing team To satisfy the
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 boundary condition For 𝑥2 → ∞ and for finit velocity component we must set
, finite at infinity
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝛽2 =0.
𝜕𝜑 𝑑𝑥
And V(𝑥2 , 0) ≡( 𝜕𝑥 )𝑥2 = 𝑈 = 𝑈(𝑑𝑥2 )wall=∪ ∞ cos ∞𝑥1 :. The boundary condition on the wall is
2 1 𝜕𝜑 𝑑𝐺
𝑉(𝑥1, , 0)=U𝑈 ∈ 𝛼 cos 𝛼 𝑥1 . …. . .. . . . . . . . . . .(3) ( 𝜕𝑥 )𝑥2=0 =F(𝑥1 )(𝑑𝑥 )𝛼2 =0
2 2
For sobubsonic flow, we’hve Now 𝜑= F(𝑥1 ). G(𝑥2 1)
1 − 𝑀𝛼2 ≡ 𝑚2 > 0 𝜕𝜑 −𝑘𝑥 2
(, 𝜕𝑥 )= F(𝑥1 ). 𝐵1 (-mk) 𝑒
From (2) we have now 2
𝜕𝜑
. Subject to the boundary conditions (𝜕𝑥 ) = F(𝑥1 ). 𝐵1 (−mk) .1
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 2
, finite at infinity Or,U∈ cos 𝛼 𝑥1 == A₂ Sin(k𝑥1 ) + A₂ Cos k𝑥1 .(- 𝐵1 𝑚𝑘)
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2
𝜕𝜑 𝑑𝑥2 𝑑𝐺
And V(𝑥2 , 0) ≡( )𝑥 = 𝑈 = 𝑈( )wall=∪ ∞ cos ∞𝑥1 F(𝑥1 )( )𝑥2=0=U𝛼 cos 𝛼𝑥1
𝜕𝑥2 2 𝑑𝑥1 𝑑𝑥2
𝑉(𝑥1, , 0)=U𝑈 ∈ 𝛼 cos 𝛼 𝑥1 . …. . .. . . . . . . . . . .(3) The condition is satisfied if 𝐴1 =0 ,K=∞
For subsonic flow, we have Hence the solution of the problem is
1 − 𝑀𝛼2 ≡ 𝑚2 > 0 F(𝑥1 ) = 𝐴1 Sink𝑥1 + A₂ Cos k𝑥1
From (2) we have now ∴ F(𝑥1 ) =A₂ Cos k𝑥1
𝜕2𝜑 𝜕2𝜑 And , G(𝑥2 ) = 𝐵1 𝑒 −𝑚𝑘𝑥2 +𝐵2 𝑒 𝑚𝑘𝑥2
𝑚2 2 + 2 = 0 ∴ G(𝑥2 ) = 𝐵1 𝑒 −𝑚𝑘𝑥2
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2
∴ 𝜑(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) = F(𝑥1 ) . G(𝑥2 )
𝜕2 𝜑 𝜕2 𝜑 = 𝐴2 Cos k𝑥1 . 𝐵1 𝑒 −𝑚𝑘𝑥2
𝜕𝑥12
+ 𝑚12 𝜕𝑥 2 = 0 . . . . . . . . . . . (4) =𝐴2 𝐵1 Cos k𝑥1 . 𝑒 −𝑚𝑘𝑥2
2
U𝜖𝛼
Equition (4) is of elliptic type and maybe solve by using separation of =- . Cos k𝑥1 . 𝑒 −𝑚𝑘𝑥2
𝑚𝑘
variables U𝜖 −𝑚𝑘𝑥
= .𝑒 2 . Cos α𝑥1
Let 𝜑(𝑥1, 𝑥2) = 𝐹(𝑥1, ), 𝐺(𝑥2, ) . . . . . . . . . . (A) 𝑚
Usins (A) in(4) we have
 ∪∈ B. in using the linearized equation.
∴ 𝜑(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) = 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥2 √1 − 𝑀𝛼2 . Cos α𝑥1 ……….(10)
2
√1−𝑀𝛼 𝜕𝜑2 𝜕𝜑2
(1-𝑀𝛼2 ) 𝜕𝑥 2 .+ 𝜕𝑥 2 = 0
1 2
Now the component of the velocities and the pressure cofficient are given by
𝜕𝜑 ∪∈𝛼
it was assumed that
U=𝜕𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥2 √1 − 𝑀𝛼2 . sin α𝑥1 ………………………….(11) (1-𝑀𝛼2 ) >> 𝑀𝛼2 (𝛾 + 1)
𝑣
1 √1−𝑀𝛼2 𝑢
𝜕𝜑 ∪∈𝛼 which is equivalent that
V= = (-𝛼) 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥2 √1 − 𝑀𝛼2 . √1 − 𝑀𝛼2 Cos α𝑥1 𝑀𝛼2 (𝛾+1)∈𝛼
𝜕𝑥2
√1−𝑀𝛼2 (1-𝑀𝛼2 )>>
2
√1−𝑀𝛼
−𝛼𝑥2 √1
∴ 𝑉 = U𝜖𝛼𝑒 − 𝑀𝛼2 . Cos α𝑥1 … … … … (12) 𝑀𝛼2 (𝛾+1)∈𝛼
Or, 3 << 1……………………….(16)
(1−𝑀𝛼2 )2
𝑐𝑝=−2.𝑢 Equation (12) stakes that the linearized equation is adequate as as
𝑈
U𝜖𝛼 Mit love enough so that the Local velocity of sound is not reached
𝑐𝑝=−2. 1 . . 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥2 √1 − 𝑀𝛼2 . sin α𝑥1
𝑈 2
√1−𝑀𝛼 anywhere in the field.
Another characteristic appearing in the beansons's range is the
𝑐𝑝=−. 2∈𝛼 . 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥2 √1 − 𝑀𝛼2 . sin α𝑥1……………………...(13) 3
occurrence of the exponent on the parameter (1 − 𝑀𝛼2 )
√1−𝑀2 2
𝛼
c. Finally, we ane new able to this explicitly the meaning of the
simplified boundary condition
Discussion of the subsorie Solution: 𝑑𝑥
* (From the exponential term in (13) it is evident that the langeal V(𝑥1 ,a)=( 𝑑𝑥 2 )body
1
prichinbation onart at the boundary as should be expected.) From (12) We've
The pressure coefficient in the boundary is 𝑢 −𝛼𝑥2 √1−𝑀 2
2𝜖𝛼 𝛼
(𝑐𝑝 )boundary=(𝑐𝑝) =U = .sin 𝛼𝑥1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (14) =∈ 𝛼𝑒 .cos 𝛼 𝑥1
𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑣
√1−𝑀𝛼2 we introduce for 'we' the co-ordinates of the boundary
From (14), it follows immediately that. we have
1. There is no dark force. 𝑢 −𝜖𝛼√1−𝑀 2
𝛼
Since the pressure is "in phase" with the wall. and heree symmetrical ( ) boundary =𝜖𝛼𝑒 .sin 𝛼𝑥1 cos 𝛼 𝑥1
𝑣
about the creest of the waves. Developing the exponential we've..
2. The pressure coefficient increases with Mark number Proportionally 𝑢
( ) boundary =𝜖𝛼 cos 𝛼 𝑥1 [1−∈ 𝛼√1 − 𝑀𝛼2 . sin 𝛼𝑥1 + … … …]
1 𝑣
to The record form is always smaller than one of most qual to en- it
√1−𝑀𝛼2
should be negligible, compare to be the first. fore the small
Furthermore, it is evident from eqation(10) -equation (13) that the perturbation theory torvalid.
attenuation of the perturbation away from the becomes weaker as the The amplitude of the permissible, penturbation for Linearized theory
Mach because of the factor √1 − 𝑀𝛼2 in the exponent. to be accurate, is given by ∈ 𝛼√1 − 𝑀𝛼2 <<1
we may now recturn to the important question of the applicability of or, in terms of the maximum inclination. o. of the wall.
the approximations, 𝜃√1 − 𝑀𝛼2 <<1
A it was assumed to begin with that This, together with eqn(15), deteremines the permissible limits on
𝑢 𝑉
𝑈 𝑈
. <<1 𝜖𝛼(or 𝜃) and √1 − 𝑀𝛼2
it is evident from the solutions that this means. in the case of the upper and lower surface are
∈𝛼 Coefficients on supersonic the upper thin airfoil prove that the
≪ 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . … … . . . . (15)
√1 − 𝑀𝛼2 pressure and lower surfaces are
 2 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑝𝑢 = )𝑢 . 𝑐𝑝𝑙 =( 2 )𝑙
( respectively.
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥 1 On the upper surface, the boundary condition is
√1−𝑀2 𝛼

Proof: For subsonic ore supersonic flow. the perturbation equation fore two- 𝑑𝑥2 𝑑𝜑
𝑢( )𝑢 = 𝑉𝑈 (𝑥1 , 0) = ( ) = 0+ = −𝜆𝑓 ′ (𝑥1 )
dimensional flow is given by 𝑑𝑥1 𝑑𝑥2 𝑥2
𝜕𝜑2 𝜕𝜑2 And hence,
(1-𝑀𝛼2 ) .+ 2 = 0 ………………………………………..(1) 𝑈 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥12 𝜕𝑥2 𝑓 ′ (𝑥1 ) = − ( 2 )𝑈 ⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂ ⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂(7)
𝜆 𝑑𝑥1
where 𝜑 is the velocity potential given by
𝜕𝜑2 𝜕𝜑2 And On the lower surface
U = 𝜕𝑥 2 and V = 𝜕𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥2 𝑑𝜑
1 2 𝑢( )𝑢 = 𝑉𝑈 (𝑥1 , 0) = ( ) = 0− = −𝜆𝑔′ (𝑥1 )
subject to the boundary conditions 𝑑𝑥1 𝑑𝑥2 𝑥2
𝜕𝜑2 𝜕𝜑2 And hence,
, finite at infinity.
𝜕𝑥12 𝜕𝑥22 𝑈 𝑑𝑥
𝑔′ (𝑥1 ) = − ( 2 )𝑈 ⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂ ⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂(8)
And 𝜆 𝑑𝑥1
𝑑𝜑 𝑑𝑥
V(𝑥1 ,0)=( 𝑑𝑥 )𝑥2=0 =U( 𝑑𝑥 2 )𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = U𝜖𝛼 cos 𝛼 𝑥1 …………..(2) The pressure coefficient on the surface is then obtained as
2 1 𝑢 −2 𝑑𝜑
For Supersonic flow , 1-𝑀𝛼2 ≡ 𝜆2 >0 𝐶𝑃 = −2( )𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = ( ) − 2( )
𝑈 𝑈 𝑑𝑥1 𝑥2 =0
Thus from equation(1) ,we get. −2
𝜕𝜑2 𝜕𝜑2 ( ) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥1 ) upper surface
𝑈
-𝜆2 𝜕𝑥 2 .+ 𝜕𝑥 2 = 0 =
1 2
𝜕𝜑2 1 𝜕𝜑2 −2
- = 0…………………………………………..(3) ( 𝑈 ) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥1 ) lower surface
𝜕𝑥12 𝜆2 𝜕𝑥22
𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 Thus the pressure coefficients on the upper surface and lower surface are.
2 𝑑𝑥
𝜑(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 )=f(𝑥1 − 𝜆𝑥2 ) + g(𝑥1 + 𝜆𝑥2 ) ……………………..(4) 𝐶𝑃𝑈 = ( ) ( 2 )𝑈 ⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂ ⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂(9)
𝑑𝑥1
𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 √𝑀𝛼2 −1
2 𝑑𝑥
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = ( ) (− 𝑑𝑥2 )𝐿 ⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂ ⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂(10)
Supersonic airfoil is given in the figure: √𝑀𝛼2 −1 1

It should be noted that in this case as well as the supersonic wavy wall, the
pressure coefficient on the surface is related to the local surface slope ′𝜃(𝑥)′
by the relation
2𝜃 𝑑𝑥
𝐶𝑃 = ( ) (𝑑𝑥2 )𝑈 ⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂ ⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂(11)
√|𝑀𝛼2 −1| 1

This is the basic relation for linearized two-dimensional supersonic flow.

Bodies of Revolution (Slander Body Theory)

Figure: Supersonic thin airfoil. ➢ Define axially symmetric flow. write the potential equation for
axially symmetric flow. Show that the potential function for
Since the disturbances are propagated only along downstream running Mach- axially symmetric flow is
𝒍
Lines. We need only the function ‘f’ for the upper surface and ‘g’ for the Φ(x, r) = -∫𝟎 𝒇(𝝃)𝒅𝝃 / √(𝒙 − 𝝃)𝟐 + 𝒓𝟐
lower surface. Thus gives the potential of x. r due to a source distribution on the x-axis from
𝜑(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) = 𝑓(𝑥1 − 𝜆𝑥2 , 𝑥2 > 0 ⠂⠂⠂⠂(5) x=0 to x=l.
𝜑(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) = 𝑔(𝑥1 + 𝜆𝑥2 , 𝑥2 < 0 ⠂ ⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂⠂(6)
Axially symmetric flow: 𝑙
Φ(x, r) = -∫0 𝑓(𝜉)𝑑𝜉 / √(𝑥 − 𝜉)2 + 𝑟 2
The flow over a body of revolution aligned parallel to the free stream velocity
Which gives the potential at x ‘r’ due to a source distribution on the x-axis
is called axially symmetric flow. from x=0 to x=l
For axially symmetric flow conditions are the same in every meridian plan. Differentiation of ‘φ’ gives correseponding expressions for the velocity
components.
▪ Define axially symmetric flow. Find the potential equation for
axially symmetric flow in compressible subsonic case. Hence show
that the potential function in the case is
𝒍
Φ(x, r) = -∫𝟎 𝒇(𝝃)𝒅𝝃 / √(𝒙 − 𝝃)𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 r
Which gives the potential at x. r due to a source distribution on the x axis
Figure: cylindrical co - ordinates from x = 0 to x = l.
The potential equation in cylindrical co – ordinates is given by,
1 𝑑𝜑
The potential equation in cylindrical co-ordinates is (1 – M2∞) d2φ / dx2 + d2φ / dr2 + + 1/r2 (d2φ / dϴ2) = 0 ------- (1)
𝑟 𝑑𝑟
1 𝑑𝜑
(1-M2∞) d2φ / dx2 + d2φ / dr2 + 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 + 1 / r2 (d2φ / dϴ2) = 0 ---------------(1)
For axially symmetric flow, there is no variation with ϴ and so the potential For axially symmetric flow, there is no variation with ϴ and so the potential
equation takes the form as equation takes the form as,
𝜕2 𝛷 1 𝜕𝛷 2) 𝜕2 𝛷
1 𝑑𝜑
d2φ / dr2 + 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 + ( 1 – M2∞) d2φ / dx2 = 0 -------------------(2) 𝜕𝑟 2
+ 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 + (1 − 𝑀∞ 𝜕𝑥 2
=0 …. ….. …… …. (2)
for incompressible flow , M∞ = 0. The eqn (2) becomes laplace’s equation. Now, for compressible and subsonic flow
1 𝑑𝜑 𝑚2 ≡ 1 − 𝑀∞ 2
>0 . ….. ….. ….. (3)
d2φ / dr2 + 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 + d2φ / dx2 = 0 -------------- (3)
Using (3) in (2) we find the potential equation as follows.
the basic solution for this equation is given by, 𝜕2 𝛷 1 𝜕𝛷 𝜕2 𝛷
+ + 𝑚2 2 = 0
φ(x, r) = constant / √𝑥 2 + 𝑟 2 -----------------------(4) 𝜕𝑟 2 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑥
1 𝜕2 𝛷 1 𝜕𝛷 𝜕2 𝛷
This solution represents a source or sink depending on the sign of the constant
𝑚2 𝜕𝑟 2
= 0 .. …..
+ 𝑚2 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 + 𝜕𝑥 2 ….. …… (4)
situated at the origin of co-ordinates. Now introduce a new co-ordinate system by the relation.
For a source the sign is negative and we may represent a source of arbitrary ⃗⃗ = 𝑚
strength by the relation. 𝑟′ ⃗⃗ 𝑟 ……. ….. ……. ……… (5)
𝑟′
Φ(x, r) = - A / √𝑥 2 + 𝑟 2 -------- (5) 𝑟=𝑚
If the source is at the position x = ξ on the x-axis . the potential is We find from equation (4) and that becomes.
𝜕𝛷 1 𝜕𝛷 𝜕2 𝛷
Φ(x, r) = - A / √(𝑥 − 𝜉)2 + 𝑟 2 ---------- (6) + + 2 = 0 …. ….. ….. ….. ….. (6)
𝜕𝑟′2 𝑟′ 𝜕𝑟′ 𝜕𝑥
Owing to the linearity of the potential equation , it is possible to super impose Which is Laplace equation in cylindrical cords. The basic solution for this
solutions.Thus, equation is given by,
Φ(x, r) = - A0 / √𝑥 2 + 𝑟 2 - A1 / √(𝑥 − 𝜉1)2 + 𝑟 2 - A2 / √(𝑥 − 𝜉2)2 + 𝑟 2 - 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝛷(𝑥, 𝑟′) = 2 2 ….. …… …. ….. ….. (7)
√𝑥 +𝑟′
- ------ (7)
The solution represents a source or sink depending on the sign of constant
represents the flow due to ‘a series of sources’ placed along the x axis. situated at the origin of the co-ordinates. For a source the sign is negative, and
Finally instead of sources of finite strength. We may introduce source we represent a source of arbitrary strength by the relation,
distributions. −𝐴
If ‘f(ξ)’ is the source strength per unit length , then f(ξ) dξ represents the 𝛷(𝑥, 𝑟′) = 2 2
√𝑥 +𝑟
(infinitesimal) source strength at x = ξ. If the source is at the position 𝑥 = 𝜉 on the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 the potential is,
−𝐴
Finally we obtain the g.s. as follows 𝛷(𝑥, 𝑟 ′ ) = 2 2
√(𝑥−𝜉) +𝑟′
Transforming back to the original co-ordinates the basic solution becomes, 𝑟 ′ = −𝜆𝑟
−𝐴 The basic solution by analogy with subsonic solution. We say the basic
𝛷(𝑥, 𝑟) = 2 2 2
……. ……. (8)
√(𝑥−𝜉) +𝑚 𝑟 solution that,
Owing to the linearity of the potential equation it is possible to superimposed 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝛷(𝑥, 𝑟) = 2 ′2 Where 𝑟 ′2 = −𝜆2 𝑟 2 …... ….. …… (5)
solutions.Thus, √𝑥 +𝑟
−𝐴 𝐴1 𝐴2 The solution represents a source or sink depending on the sign of constant
𝛷(𝑥, 𝑟) = 2 2 2 − 2 2 2
− 2 2 2
….. …. (9)
√𝑥 +𝑚 𝑟 √(𝑥−𝜉1 ) +𝑚 𝑟 √(𝑥−𝜉2 ) +𝑚 𝑟 situated at the origin of the co-ordinates. For a source the sign is negative, and
represents the flow due to a series of source placed along the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠. we represent a source of arbitrary strength by the relation,
Finally, instead of sources of finite strength we may introduce source −𝐴
𝛷(𝑥, 𝑟) = 2 ′2 …… ……. (6)
distributions. If "𝑓(𝜉)" is the source strength per unit length, then 𝑓(𝜉)𝑑𝜉 √𝑥 +𝑟
represents the (infinitesimal) source strength at 𝑥 = 𝜉 .
The effect of such sources distributed along the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 may be added up as If the source is at the position ‘x = ζ’ on the x-axis, the potential is ,
−𝐴
before but instead of the sum in (9) we now have the integral. 𝜑 (x,r) = 2 2 2
…. …. …. ….(7)
√(𝑥−𝜁) −𝜆 𝑟
𝑙 𝑓(𝜉)𝑑𝜉
𝛷(𝑥, 𝑟) = − ∫0 2 2 2
…… ….. (10) The relation (7) satisfies the wave equation (4) but to use this equation for
√(𝑥−𝜉) +𝑚 𝑟
representing flows is now more problematic.
Which gives the potential at 𝑥, 𝑟 due to a source distribution on the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
In some part of the field ,the denominator in (7) is zero or negative , giving
from 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 𝑙 .
values of 𝜑 ,these are infinite or imaginary.
The mathematical of the ave equation is well developed. Sice it describes a
⁂ Define axially symmetric flow. Find the potential equation for
large number of physical phenomena that involve wave propagation.
supersonic flow. Show that the potential function in case of supersonic
The theory was first adapted to the present problem by Von-Karman and
flow is,
𝒙−𝝀𝒓 𝒇(𝝃)𝒅𝝃 Moore, who showed that the potential may again be represented as an
𝜱(𝒙, 𝒓) = − ∫𝟎 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 integral over a distribution of “sources”.
√(𝒙−𝝃) −𝝀 𝒓
𝑥−𝜆𝑟 𝑓(𝜁)𝑑𝜁
Where 𝝀 = 𝑴𝟐∞ − 𝟏 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑟) = ∫0 2 2 2
…. …. …. ….. (8)
√(𝑥−𝜁) −𝜆 𝑟
Hence explain the physical meaning of the upper limit.
We observe that an imaginary value for the denominator does not appear in
Solution: - (8).
Since the integral is evaluated only for values of ‘ζ’ given by 𝜁 ≤ 𝑥 − 𝜆𝑟
The potential equation in cylindrical co-ordinates is given by,
𝜕2 𝛷 𝜕2 𝛷 1 𝜕𝛷 1 𝜕2 𝛷
For suitable source distributions, this integral gives solution that have no
2)
(1 − 𝑀∞ + 2+ + 2 2 = 0 …. …. …. (1) singularities off the axis
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
For axially symmetric flow there is no variation with ′𝜃′ and so the potential The meaning of the upper limit of integration is given in the above figure .
equation takes the form as, The sources are distributed along the x-axis from o to l.
𝜕2 𝛷 1 𝜕𝛷 2) 𝜕2 𝛷 However, to obtain the value of 𝜑 at (x,r) it is necessary to include only the
+ 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 + (1 − 𝑀∞ =…… …. (2)
𝜕𝑟 2 𝜕𝑥 2 sources upto ζ = x – λr.
For supersonic flow we shall use the notation. The sources downstream of this point having no effect on the conditions at
2
𝜆 ≡ 𝑀∞ −1>0 …… ……. ….. (3) (x,r).
Using (3) in (2) we find the wave equation. The physical meaning of the limit may be appreciated by noting that the
𝜕2 𝛷 1 𝜕𝛷 𝜕2 𝛷
𝜕𝑟 2
+𝑟 𝜕𝑟
+ (−𝜆2 ) 𝜕𝑥 2 = 0 angle
1 1
𝜕2 𝛷 1 𝜕𝛷 𝜕2 𝛷 tan−1(𝜆) = tan−1 = 𝜇 …. …. … …. (9)
𝜕𝑟 2
+ 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 − 𝜆2 𝜕𝑥 2 = 0 2 −1
√𝑀∞
Now, is the mach angle .
1 𝜕2 𝛷 1 𝜕𝛷 𝜕2 𝛷
+
𝜆2 𝜕𝑟 2
−
𝜆2 𝑟 𝜕𝑟
=0 𝜕𝑥 2
……. …… (4) Thus the upper limit of the integration means the source has no influence
Now introduce a new co-ordinates system by the relation, ahead of its mach cone.
 𝑥
cosh−1( )
𝜑(𝑥, 𝑟) = − ∫0 𝜆𝑟 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝜆𝑟 cosh 𝜃) 𝑑𝜃 … … … (2)

Application of the Leibnitz rule no gives the velocity components ,

r 𝜕𝜑
u = 𝜕𝑥 = − ∫0
𝑥
cosh−1( )
𝜆𝑟 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 − 𝜆𝑟 cosh 𝜃) 𝑑𝜃 − 𝑓(0)(
1
) … …. (3)
√𝑥 2 −𝜆2 𝑟 2
Mach cone from Mach cone from ζ and
𝑥
origin 𝜕𝜑 cosh−1( )
v= 𝜕𝑟
= − ∫0 𝜆𝑟 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 − 𝜆𝑟 cosh 𝜃)(−𝜆 cosh 𝜃) 𝑑𝜃 −
(x,r) 𝑥
𝑓(0)( 2 2 2 ) …(4)
𝑟√𝑥 −𝜆 𝑟
where ‘𝑓 ′ ’ denotes differentiation of f with respect to its argument.
X In the case we have considered only the bodies for which 𝑓(0) = 0 (for
o example pointed bodies
In the orginal variable of integration , we have ,
𝑥−𝜆𝑟
Fig: Region of dependence of a point (x,r) 𝑓′(𝜉)
𝑢=∫ 𝑑𝜉
0 √(𝑥 − 𝜉)2 − 𝜆2 𝑟 2
and,
Question: The potential function for axially symmetric flow in supersonic
case is 1 𝑥−𝜆𝑟 𝑓′(𝜉)(𝑥 − 𝜉)
𝑣= ∫ 𝑑𝜉
𝑥−𝜆𝑟 𝑓(𝜁)𝑑𝜁 𝑟 0 √(𝑥 − 𝜉)2 − 𝜆2 𝑟 2
𝜑(𝑥, 𝑟) = − ∫0 2 2 2
√(𝑥−𝜁) −𝜆 𝑟
Show that the velocity distribution u and v are Question : Define axial flow and cross flow. Show that the basic cross flow
𝑥−𝜆𝑟 𝑓(𝜁)𝑑𝜁
𝑢 = − ∫0 2 2 2
and solution may be obtained from the basic axially symmetric. Solution by
√(𝑥−𝜁) −𝜆 𝑟
1 𝑥−𝜆𝑟 𝑓(𝜁)(𝑥−𝜁)𝑑𝜁 putting
𝑣= ∫ 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑𝑎
𝑟 0 √(𝑥−𝜁)2 −𝜆2 𝑟 2 𝜑𝑐 (𝑥, 𝑟, 𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑎 =
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑧
Solution: To find the velocity distribution u and v ,it is necessary to obtain Where 𝜑𝑎 is the axial and 𝜑𝑏 is the cross flow respectively.
the derivatives of the potential function 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑟) given by, Solution :
𝑥−𝜆𝑟 𝑓(𝜁)𝑑𝜁
𝜑(𝑥, 𝑟) = − ∫0 2 2 2
Axial flow and cross flow : To study the flow over a body revolution ‘angle
√(𝑥−𝜁) −𝜆 𝑟
of attack’ or ‘yaw’ it is convenient to align the body along the x-axis given in
Since the variable of differentiation ‘x’ or ‘r’ appears not only on the
the figure and allow the flow to be inclined.
integrated but also in the upper limit. We’ve to use the Leibnitz rules of
Evidently the flow is not axially symmetric and so the full equation
differentiation .
𝑑 𝑔(𝑠) 𝑔(𝑠) 𝜕𝐹 𝑑𝑔 2)
𝜕 2 𝜑 1 𝜕𝜑 1 𝜕2𝜑
Leibnitz rule: 𝑑𝑠 ∫0 𝐹(𝜁; 𝑠)𝑑𝜁 = ∫0 𝜕𝑠 𝑑𝜁 + 𝐹{𝑔(𝑠); 𝑠}. 𝑑𝑠 (1 − 𝑀∞ + + = 0 ___________(1)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 𝜕𝜃 2
To use Leibnitz rule, let us first suppose that, for the potential function ‘𝜑’ must be used.
ζ = x – λrcosh𝜃 … …. …. (1)
Then, dζ = -λr sinh𝜃 d𝜃
∴ dζ = -√(𝑥 − 𝜁) 2 − 𝜆2 𝑟 2 d𝜃
The correspondence change in the limits of integration are limits:
𝑥
ζ= 0 , 𝜃 = cosh−1(𝜆𝑟)
ζ= x-λr , 𝜃 = cosh−1(1) = 0
Using the above substitution, we have Figure : Alignment of axes for axial flow and cross flow
 𝜕𝜑 1 𝜕𝜑 Question : Define cross flow boundary conditions and hence show that
‘𝑈𝑐 ’ is the free stream cross flow velocity 𝑣 = 𝜕𝑟 and 𝑤 = 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 are radial
𝜕𝜑
and tangential perturbation valocities. ( 𝑐 )𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 + 𝑈𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 0 , where ‘𝜑𝑐 ’ and ‘𝑈𝑐 ’ are the cross flow and the
𝜕𝑟
However, owing to the linearity of the equation it is possible to write the free stream cross flow velocity respectively .
solution as the sum of two potentials.
𝜑(𝑥, 𝑟, 𝜃) = 𝜑𝛼 (𝑥, 𝑟) = 𝜑𝑐 (𝑥, 𝑟, 𝜃) ____________(2) Answer : Defination of cross flow boundary conditions :
In (2) ‘𝜑𝑎 ’ is independent of 𝜃 and is called an axial flow . On the other For a body of revolution aligned in cylindrical co-ordinates. The component
hand, ‘𝜑𝑐 ’ dependent on ‘𝜃’ and is caleed a cross flow . of velocity ‘𝑤’ is automatically longer to the surface.
This is superposition of two flows in one of which the velocity far from the
body is parallel to the axis It is necessary only to consider the boundary condition in the meridian plane
𝑈𝑎 = 𝑈 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 in which the body contour is given by,
and the other is normal to the axis 𝑟 = 𝑅(𝑥)
𝑈𝑐 = 𝑈 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 The exact boundary condition is
The axial problem is the same as in the case of symmetric flow with a little 𝑑𝑅 𝑣
= ( ) _________(1)
modification the the reference velocity is 𝑈𝑎 . 𝑑𝑥 𝑈+𝑢 𝑅
The cross flow problem, on the other hand, must satisfy the full potential The superposition of axial flow and cross flow satisfies the differential
equation. equation and the boundary condition far from the body. It is still necessary to
𝜕 2 𝜑𝑐 1 𝜕𝜑𝑐 1 𝜕 2 𝜑𝑐 2
𝜕 2 𝜑𝑐 satisfy the boundary condition at the body.
+ + − 𝜆 = 0 ___________(3) This may also be “split” into two parts, corresponding to axial and cross flow
𝜕𝑟 2 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 𝜕𝜃 2 𝜕𝑥 2
2 2 respectively. The axial and cross flow velocity perturbations are obtained
in which 𝜆 = 𝑀 − 1 > 0 for supersonic flow .
The Mack number ‘M’ refers to the full velocity U. from the respective potentials by differentiation. The radical velocity in any
A solution of equation(3) may be obtained by compairing will the equation cross section (as shown in figure) is given by,
for axial flow.
𝜕 2 𝜑𝑎 1 𝜕𝜑𝑎 2
𝜕 2 𝜑𝑎
+ − 𝜆 = 0 ______________(4)
𝜕𝑟 2 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑥 2
If ‘𝜑𝑎 ’ is a solution of the equation it is also a solution of the equation that is
obtained by differentiating with respect to r,
𝜕 2 𝜕𝜑𝑎 1 𝜕 𝜕𝜑𝑎 1 𝜕𝜑𝑎 2
𝜕 2 𝜕𝜑𝑎
( ) + ( ) − ( ) − 𝜆 ( ) = 0 ____(5)
𝜕𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑟 𝑑𝜑
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
This is still true if ( 𝜕𝑟𝑎) is replaced by (cos 𝜃 𝜕𝑟𝑎) . In that case the third 𝑈𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 +
𝑑𝑟
term of the equation must be rewritten, And the axial velocity is,
cos 𝜃 𝜕𝜑𝑎 1 𝜕2 𝜕𝜑𝑎 𝑑𝜑
− 2 ( )= 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ) 𝑈𝑎 +
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 2 𝜕𝑟 𝑑𝑥
with this substitution (5) is the same as (4). Where these are placed in the exact fluid boundary condition in (1) we have
Thus the basic cross flow solution may be obtained from the basic axially 𝑑𝜑 𝑑𝑅 𝑑𝜑
[ + 𝑈𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃]𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = [𝑈𝑎 + ]𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 … … … … … … . (1)
symmetric solution by putting 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝜑𝑎 𝜕𝜑𝑎 That is
𝜑𝑐 (𝑥, 𝑟, 𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ( ) ≡ ( ) 𝑑𝜑𝑎 𝑑𝜑𝑐 𝑑𝑅 𝑑𝜑𝑎 𝑑𝜑𝑐
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑧 [ + +𝑈𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃]𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = [𝑈𝑎 + + ] … … … … … . (2)
This is infact the rule for deriving a doublet from a source . The doublet axis 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
being in the z-direction. This may be split into two parts
𝑑𝜑𝑎 𝑑𝑅 𝑑𝜑𝑎
[ ]𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = [𝑈𝑎 + ] … … … … … (3)
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
 𝑑𝜑𝑐 𝑑𝑅 𝑑𝜑𝑐 Transonic Flow
[ +𝑈𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃]𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = [ ] … … … … (4)
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 # Define transonic flow and the transonic range.
Eqn(3) is the exact boundary condition for axial flow with velocity 𝑈𝑎 Definition of transonic flow and the transonic range:
And eqn (4) is the exact boundary condition for axial flow with velocity 𝑈𝑐 The property of frictionless flow is that, when it past solid boundaries, then it
Finally, if the product on the r.h.s. of the eqn(4) id of lower order than the can slip. This type of flow is called transonic if both subsonic and supersonic
terms on the left, then the r.h.s. may be neglected and gives regions are present in the flow field.
𝑑𝜑𝑐 If the free-stream Mach number is increased continuously from zero, the
[ ] +𝑈 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 ≅ 0 … … … … . (5) transonic range begins when the highest local Mach number reaches ‘Unity’,
𝑑𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑐
5) Show that the two forms of the cross flow solution are given by, and ends when the lowest local Mach number reaches unity.
𝑑𝜑𝑎 This condition can be made more specific if we consider only to this or
𝜑𝑐 (𝑥, 𝑟, 𝜃) = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 … … … … . (6) slender bodies in the sense of small perturbation theory.
𝑑𝑟
Now using Leibnitz rule of differentiations we know that If the characteristic body thickness ratio is called τ, the flow past such a body
is ‘transonic’, if the transonic parameter falls within the range,
𝑑𝜑𝑐 1 𝑥−𝜆𝑟 𝑓 ′ (𝜉)(𝑥 − 𝜉) -1 ≤
2 −1
𝑀∞
≤1
= ∫ 𝑑𝜉 … … … … . . (7) 2 }3/2
{(𝛾+1)τ 𝑀∞
𝑑𝑟 𝑟 0 √(𝑥 − 𝜉)2 − 𝜆2 𝑟 2 # Discuss transonic flow past wedge sections. Show that the pressure
Integrating by parts we have 𝒅𝒄 𝟒
𝑥−𝜆𝑟 coefficient and drag coefficient at sonic velocities are (𝒅𝑴𝑷 )𝑴∞=𝟏 = 𝜸+𝟏
𝑑𝜑𝑐 𝑓 ′ (𝜉)𝑑𝜉 1 𝑓 ′ (𝜉)(𝑥 − 𝜉) 𝑥−𝜆𝑟 ∞
= −𝜆2 𝑟 ∫ + [ ] 𝒅𝒄𝑫 𝟒𝜽
𝑑𝑟 3 𝑟 √(𝑥 − 𝜉)2 − 𝜆2 𝑟 2 0 and ( )
𝒅𝑴∞ 𝑴∞=𝟏
=
0 {(𝑥 − 𝜉)2 − 𝜆2 𝑟 2 }2 𝜸+𝟏
In the last bracket the lower limits gives a term f(0), which will again be zero Solution: Transonic flow past wedge sections:
for pointed bodies but upper limit gives a term that is infinite. Let us consider the flow past a simple wedge of opening angle ‘2θ’ and
The rules for handling this singularity are gives Hadamard’s method. length ‘c’ followed by a straight section.
The above results may be written formality The following figures show that essentials of the flow pattern at various free
stream Mach numbers.
𝑥−𝜆𝑟
𝑑𝜑𝑐 2
𝑓 ′ (𝜉)𝑑𝜉
= −𝜆 𝑟√∫ 3 … … … … . . (8)
𝑑𝑟 0 {(𝑥 − 𝜉)2 − 𝜆2 𝑟 2 }2
Where the bar around the integral denotes the finite part of the integral and
prescribes Hadarmard method for operations on the integral. Both forms (7)
and (8) appear in the literature, the undetermined functions 𝑓 ′ (𝜉) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝜉)
which appear in these integrals are so far arbitrary to be determined by the
cross flow boundary condition.
To avoid confusion with the axial flow solution it convenient to use a
different notation. Thus the two forms for the solution may be written,
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑥−𝜆𝑟 𝑓 ′ (𝜉)(𝑥 − 𝜉)
𝜑𝑐 (𝑥, 𝑟, 𝜃) = ∫ 𝑑𝜉
𝑟 0 √(𝑥 − 𝜉)2 − 𝜆2 𝑟 2
𝑥−𝜆𝑟
𝑓 ′ (𝜉)𝑑𝜉
𝜑𝑐 (𝑥, 𝑟, 𝜃) = 𝜆2 𝑟𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃√∫ 3
0 {(𝑥 − 𝜉)2 − 𝜆2 𝑟 2 }2
Figure: Development of flow over a wedge through the transonic range θ =
These result and their and application were first give Tsien and Ferrari. 10°
 The pressure 𝐶𝑝 expressed in terms of ‘M’ and ‘𝑀∞ ’ is given by
As ‘M∞’ increases from subsonic values a shock wave system appear near the 2 2+(𝛾−1)𝑀 2
𝛾

shoulder. The main shock grows and moves downstream as M∞ increases 𝐶𝑝 = 𝛾𝑀2 [(2+(𝛾−1)𝑀∞
2)
𝛾−1 − 1] ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (3)
∞ ∞
toward unity. Taking on both sides of equation (2) we get
At ‘M=1’ if has moved to “downstream infinity” and a second shock wave
has been appeared at “minus infinity”, with further increase of ‘M∞’ this bow 2
𝐿𝑜𝑔 ( 𝑀∞
𝛾
𝐶𝑝 + 1) =
𝛾
{𝐿𝑜𝑔[2 + 2]
(𝛾 − 1)𝑀∞ − 𝐿𝑜𝑔(2 + (𝛾 −
wave approaches the wedge vortex finally attaches and become straight. 2 𝛾−1

The supersonic range has now been reached. Thus for ‘M∞ < 1’ there is a 1)𝑀2 } ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (3)
local supersonic region behind the detached bow wave.
It may be seen that no discontinuous changes occur in the whole range. The Differentiating (3) with respect to ‘𝑀∞ ’ and letting ‘𝑀∞ → 1’ yields
change over from subsonic to supersonic flow is smooth and continuous. 𝛾 𝑑 𝐶𝑝
❖ The general features of transonic flow: 𝛾𝐶𝑝 + (
2 𝑑𝑀∞ 𝑀
)
∞=1 2𝛾
a. Sonic velocity that is ‘M = 1’ occurs at the shoulder throughout 𝛾 ∗ = 𝛾+1
1+ 𝐶𝑝
2
the whole transonic range. From this fact one can say
compressible flow will reach at least sonic velocity at the corner. Where 𝐶𝑝∗ is written for 𝐶𝑝 at ‘𝑀∞ = 1’
Hence in the range where M∞ < 1, we expect sonic velocity exist
along a line starting at the corner and terminating in a shockwave 1 𝑑 𝐶𝑝
𝐶𝑝∗ + ( )
downstream of the shoulder. 2 𝑑𝑀∞ 𝑀 2
∞=1
Thus we have, 𝛾 ∗ = 𝛾+1
On the other hand, for ‘M∞ > 1’, the sonic line must end at the 1+ 𝐶𝑝
2
point on the bow-shock wave for which the Mach number
downstream of the shock is just unity. 𝑑 𝐶𝑝 2
Or, 2 𝐶𝑝∗ + (𝑑𝑀 ) = 𝛾+1 (2 + 𝛾𝐶𝑝∗ )
For this reason, it is clear that the sonic line must pass through ∞ 𝑀∞=1
the shoulder corner. If it should terminate downstream of the
𝑑𝐶𝑝∗ 4+2𝛾𝐶𝑝∗
shoulder the flow over the wedge would remain subsonic. ∴ (𝑑𝑀 ) = 𝛾+1
− 2𝐶𝑝∗
If on the other hand, the sonic line should terminate upstream of ∞ 𝑀∞=1
the corner of the shoulder would have no influence upstream.
1
b. The local Mach number ‘M’ becomes stationary as ‘M∞’ passes =( ) (4 + 2𝛾𝐶𝑝∗ − 2𝛾𝐶𝑝∗ − 2𝐶𝑃∗ )
𝛾+1
through ‘unity’.
𝑑𝑀
That is, (𝑑𝑀 )𝑀∞=1 = 0 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (Ⅰ) 1
∞ = (𝛾+1) (4 − 2𝐶𝑃∗ )
For this consider ‘M∞’ a little larger than unity.
The math number 𝑀2 : downstream of a week normal shock is related to the 𝑑𝐶 ∗ 4 1
upstream make number 𝑀1 by (𝑑𝑀𝑝 ) = 𝛾+1 (1 − 2 𝐶𝑃∗ ) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (4)
∞ 𝑀∞=1
𝑀1 − 1 = 1 − 𝑀2 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (1) The slope of the pressure coefficient versus math number curve of sonic
In our case 𝑀1 ≡ 𝑀∞ . But as far as the wedge is concerned the upstream velocity is given by (4)
make number is 𝑀2 A point on the wedge where the pressure coefficient is ‘𝐶𝑝 ’ contributes 𝐶𝑝 ∙ 0
As 𝑀∞ → 1 from supersonic values 𝑀2 → 1 form subsonic values. to the drug coefficient of the wedges.
So when the local make number on the wedge is concerned. The conditions Hence from (4) it follows that the slope of the 𝐶𝑝 ∙ versus ‘𝑀∞ ’ curve at
just below and just above are identical.
sonic velocity is
Hence if M denotes the local make number at a point the wedge then
𝑑𝑀
( ) =0 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (2) 𝑑𝐶 4𝜃 2 𝐶∗
𝑑𝑀∞ 𝑀
∞=1
∴ (𝑑𝑀𝐷 ) = 𝛾+1 − 𝛾+1𝐷 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (5)
∞ 𝑀∞=1
If the wedge agile is small in the sense of small perturbation theory then in
1
equation (4) iy is permissible to neglect ‘2 𝐶𝑝∗’ compared to 1
Similarly, the second term in equation (5) is also negligible.
Hence within small perturbation theory. We have slope of the pressure
coefficient at sonic velocity is
𝑑𝐶 4
(𝑑𝑀𝑝 ) = 𝛾+1
∞ 𝑀∞=1
Figure: Transonic hodograph for flow over a wedge
One can transformation (1) and (2) into equations in which the variables x, y
And drag coefficient of sonic velocity is
became dependent, that is, function of the independent variables u, v.
𝑑𝐶 4𝜃 The resulting equations are said to be in the “hodograph plane” that is, in
(𝑑𝑀𝐷 ) = 𝛾+1 a plane where u and v are co-ordinates.
∞ 𝑀∞=1
We write,
u=u(x, y)
v=v(x, y)
Question: Describe hodograph transformation for transonic how and And hence
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
hence define physical and hydrograph plane prove that the hodograph du = 𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢𝑦 𝑑𝑦 where 𝑢𝑥 = 𝜕𝑥 , 𝑢𝑦 = 𝜕𝑥
transformation convert non-linear transonic equation into linear form 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
dv = 𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑦 𝑑𝑦 where 𝑣𝑥 = ,𝑣 =
and discuss how the equation changes its type from elliptic to hyperbolic. 𝜕𝑥 𝑦 𝜕𝑦
What is the limiting line. solving for dx/dy gives
1
Answer: The difficulty in dealing with transonic flow as the governing dx= [𝑣𝑦 𝑑𝑢 − 𝑢𝑦 𝑑𝑣]
∆
equation have essential non-linearity. 1
However, for two dimensional flow it is possible to transformation the dy== [−𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑣] ………… (3)
∆
equations into linear ones. This is accomplished by the hodograph
transformation. 𝑢𝑥 𝑢𝑦
With ∆= | 𝑣 𝑣𝑦 |
In this transformation the dependent and independent variables are 𝑥
interchanged. By far the larger part of the theoretical results of transonic flow We now consider x and y to be functions of u and v. that is
has obtained by the use of hodograph methods. x=x(u, v)
The transonic equation of motion can be written as: y=y(u, v)
and thus
2) 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑣 2
(𝛾−1)𝑀∞ 𝛿𝑢 dx = 𝑥𝑢 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑥𝑣 𝑑𝑣
(1 − 𝑀∞ + 𝛿𝑦 = 𝑢 𝛿𝑥 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (1)
𝛿𝑥 𝑈 dy = 𝑦𝑢 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑦𝑣 𝑑𝑣 …….….. (4)
In transonic flow within the small perturbation theory. We deal with comparing (4) with (3) we find the transformation scheme
irrotational flow and hence we have a second equation the condition of 1 1
𝑥𝑢 = ∆ 𝑣𝑦 𝑥𝑣 = − ∆ 𝑢𝑦
irrotationality. 1 1
𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑣 𝑦𝑢 = − ∆ 𝑣𝑥 𝑦𝑣 = ∆ 𝑢𝑥 …………. (5)
𝛿𝑦
− 𝛿𝑥 = 0 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (2)
Or, 𝑣𝑦 = ∆𝑥𝑢 , 𝑢𝑦 = −∆𝑥𝑣
Equations (1) and (2) are differential equations for the dependent variables
𝑣𝑥 = −∆𝑦𝑢 , 𝑢𝑥 = ∆𝑦𝑣 ……………. (6)
‘u’ and ‘v’ as functions of the independent variables.
Now if ∆≠ 0, then using (^) into (1) and (2)
Equation (1) and (2) are said to be in the “Physical plane”.
We find the transformed equations in the ‘hodograph plane’ as
That is in x and y (given in the figure) 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝑣
(𝛾+1)𝑀∞ 𝜕𝑦
𝑣
(1-𝑀∞ ) 𝜕𝑣 + 𝜕𝑢 = 𝑈
u𝜕𝑣 ……………………………… (7)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣
− 𝜕𝑢 = 0 ………………………………………………… (8)
Equations (7) and (8) are known as the transonic hodograph equations. These
equations are linear because the dependent variables ‘x’ and ‘y’ occur
linearly.
Now equation (7) can be written as
𝑣 (𝛾+1) 𝑣 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
{(1-𝑀∞ ) - 𝑈 𝑀∞ u} 𝜕𝑣 + 𝜕𝑢 = 0 …………………. (9)
Equation (9) changes type from ‘elliptic’ to ‘hyperbolic’ form specific value
of the perturbation velocity ‘u’ that is for,
𝑣 (𝛾+1) 𝑣
(1-𝑀∞ ) - 𝑈 𝑀∞ u=0
𝑢 1−𝑀∞𝑣 𝑢∗
Or, = 𝑣 = (say) …………………..(10)
𝑈 (𝛾+1)𝑀∞ 𝑈
𝑢 𝑢∗
If is smaller than the value of 𝑈 given by (10)
𝑈
𝑦𝑣 in equation (7) has the same sign as 𝑥𝑢 and the equation is elliptic.
𝑢 𝑢∗
If 𝑈 is larger than 𝑈 ‘𝑦𝑣 ’ has the opposite sign from 𝑥𝑢 and the equation
is hyperbolic.
But since ‘u’ and ‘v’ are now the independent variables equation (10) is a
relation that corresponding to a given straight line in the hodograph plane.
To the left of u=𝑢∗ the equation is elliptic and to the right of u=𝑢∗ it is
hyperbolic.
Equation (7) and (8) are of a type of differential equation studied by
Tricomi and thus often called ‘Tricomi equation’.
To solve a transonic problem in the hodograph plane one thus has to solve
the ‘Tricomi equation’.

The hodograph transformation becomes singular if ∆ = 0 and this

possible only in the supersonic range the lows of all points for which ∆ = 0 is
called the ‘Limiting Line’.