Photogrammetry

Photogrammetry is the science of obtaining reliable information about the properties of surfaces
and objects without physical contact with the objects, and of measuring and interpreting this
information.

Photogrammetry can be defined as the science and art of determining qualitative and
quantitative characteristics of objects from the images recorded on photograph. Objects are
identified and qualitatively described by observing photographic image characteristics such as
shape, pattern, tone, and texture. Identification of deciduous versus coniferous trees, delineation
of geologic landforms, and inventories of existing land use are examples of qualitative
observations obtained from photography. The quantitative characteristics of objects such as size,
orientation, and position are determined from measured image positions in the image plane of the
camera taking the photography. Tree heights, stockpile volumes, topographic maps, and
horizontal and vertical coordinates of unknown points are examples of quantitative
measurements obtained from photography.

Terrestrial Photogrammetry: Maps are prepared from photographs taken from some fixed
positions on or near the ground with camera axis horizontal
Used for-
• Small scale mapping of open hilly or mountainous countries
• Reproduction of plan and elevation views of buildings and structures
• Motion picture photography
• For furnishing supplementary ground control for aerial photography

Aerial Photogrammetry: Maps are prepared from photographs taken by a precision camera
mounted in an aircraft flying over the area with camera axis vertical.
Used for-
• country’s reconnaissance and preliminary surveys
• Survey of rivers, roads and railways
• Survey of inaccessible regions like deserts and wooded countries
• Survey of power schemes and transmission lines
 • Town and village planning
• Flood control, irrigation, drainage and soil conservation
• Harbors, navigation channels and coastal defense
• Study of geology
• Soil and agricultural studies
• Military installations, camping and forbidden zones

Remote sensing: It is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without

making physical contact with the object and thus in contrast to on site observation.
Photogrammetry and remote sensing are two related fields. The principle difference between
photogrammetry and remote sensing is in the application; while photogrammetrists produce
maps and precise three-dimensional positions of points, remote sensing specialists analyze and
interpret images for deriving information about the earth’s land and water areas.

Aerial Photogrammetry

Terminology:

Optical Axis ( OpP) - Line

passing through center of
lens and intersecting the
photograph plane at right
angles.
Focal length (f) – Distance
from the lens center to the
plane of photograph.
Vertical axis (OvV) -Axis
of direction of gravity
Angle of tilt (θ) – Angle
formed by the optical axis
with the vertical axis.
Flying height – Vertical
distance of the lens
measured above ground
level.

Scale of photograph – It is
the ratio between two points
on the photograph to the distance between same points on ground.
Air base distance - The distance between to successive exposure of camera lens in the air is
called air base distance and the corresponding distance between two such points on the
photograph is called photo base distance.
Flight Planning: In order to achieve success in execution of any civil engineering projects,
proper planning is required. A flight plan indicates where and how the photographs are to be
taken to achieve the desired goal.
Major steps of flight planning are
• Purpose of aerial survey
• Scale of the photograph
• Direction of flight
• Flying height
• Minimum number of photographs required
• Interval between exposures
• Air base distance
Aerial photo projects for all mapping and most image analyses require that a series of exposures
be made along each of the multiple flight line. To guarantee stereoscopic coverage throughout
the site, the photographs must overlap in two directions: a) in the line of flight b) between
adjacent flights (Overlap) needed for parallax (Side lap) to avoid missing bits

Fiducial marks are photographed each time aerial

photograph is recorded. These marks are of
varying shape or form and may appear in the
corners or the middle of each side of the photo or
in all eight locations. These marks allow users to
locate the precise center of a photograph, i.e., the
principal point (PP). Drawing a line between
opposite fiducial marks locates the principal point
of the photograph.
Aerial photographs are usually classified according to the orientation of the camera axis as

True vertical photograph - A photograph with the camera axis perfectly vertical (Identical to
plumb line through exposure center). When the photo plane is kept parallel to the ground plane,
the photograph so obtained is known as vertical aerial photograph.

Tilted photographs - However, it is normally very difficult to achieve perfect parallelism

between the two planes due to the fact that the aircraft flies over the curved surface of the earth.
The photographic axis, therefore, deviates from the vertical axis. If such a deviation is within the
range of plus or minus 3°, the near-vertical aerial photographs are obtained. Any photography
with an unintentional deviation of more than 3° in the optical axis from the vertical axis is known
as a tilted photograph.
Low Oblique photograph - A photograph with the camera axis nearly vertical. The deviation
from the vertical is called tilt. It must not exceed mechanical limitations of stereo plotter to
accommodate it. An aerial photograph taken with an intentional deviation of 15° to 30° in the
camera axis from the vertical axis is referred to as the low oblique photograph. This kind of
photograph is often used in reconnaissance surveys.

High Oblique photograph -A photograph with the camera axis intentionally tilted between the
vertical and horizontal. A high oblique photograph is tilted so much that the horizon is visible on
the photograph. The high oblique are photographs obtained when the camera axis is intentionally
inclined about 60° from the vertical axis.
Applications of Aerial photography:

Aerial photographs enhance the value of many GIS, mapping, engineering and
telecommunications applications. Here are a few examples:
• Telecommunications Network Planning: -Engineers can see exact detail around resources
such as cell towers and fiber optic cable to improve site/asset management and streamline
new site selection and antenna placement.
• Site Selection: -The area around a proposed site can be viewed and analyzed in terms of
parking/traffic access, adjacent buildings, land types and street networks to improve
decision-making regarding site selection.
• Real Estate: -Using aerial photographs to present visually appealing advertising materials
that illustrate the exact design, nature and characteristics of the property in question. This
helps in increasing the value of the property.
• Public Sector: -Real-world pictures of an area help planners and administrators make
better decisions regarding land use planning, zoning, growth administration and resource
deployment.
• Cartography: -A process that is used in photogrammetric surveys, the basis for
topographic maps
• Land-use planning: - A method by which the ideal usage of a piece of land is determined
• Archaeology: -Studying a given area for potential archaeological sites, Movie production:
Evaluating a potential area for filming
 • Environmental studies: - Charting the environmental changes that have occurred in a
given area, examining a particular area and evaluating the environmental status and/or
damage that has taken place over a set period of time.
• Surveillance: Making sure that an area has not been compromised or occupied by hostile
forces

Data acquisition
Data acquisition in photogrammetry is concerned with obtaining reliable information about the
properties of surfaces and objects. This is accomplished without physical contact with the objects
which is, in essence, the most obvious difference to surveying. The remotely received
information can be grouped into four categories
Geometric information involves the spatial position and the shape of objects. It is the most
important information source in photogrammetry.
Physical information refers to properties of electromagnetic radiation, e.g., radiant energy,
wavelength, and polarization.
Semantic information is related to the meaning of an image. It is usually obtained by
interpreting the recorded data.
Temporal information is related to the change of an object in time, usually obtained by
comparing several images which were recorded at different times.
The photograph is the end result of the data acquisition process. Actually, the net result of any
photographic mission is the photographic negative.
Many factors determine the quality of aerial photography, such as
• Design and quality of lens system
• Manufacturing the camera
• Photographic material
• Development process
• Weather conditions and sun angle during photo flight

Air Photo Interpretation

Unlike a map, features on an aerial photograph are not generalized or symbolized. Air photos
record all visible features on the Earth’s surface from an overhead perspective. Although the
features are visible, they are not always easily identifiable. The process of studying and gathering
the information required to identify the various cultural and natural features is called photo
interpretation. With careful interpretation, air photos are an excellent source of spatial data for
studying the Earth’s environment. The following factors are assessed when trying to identify a
feature:
Shape: Shape describes the form or configuration of an
object. The form of an object on an air photo helps to identify the
object. Regular uniform shapes often indicate a human involvement.

Pattern: It is spatial arrangement of individual objects into distinctive, recurring forms. Similar
to shape, the spatial arrangement of objects (e.g. row crops vs. pasture) is also useful to identify
an object and its usage.

Size: It is measure of surface dimensions of objects, including height, length-width, slope (e.g.
single-lane vs. multi-lane highways)

Tone/Colour: It is the continuous gray scale varying white to black. Tone from the colour
characteristics of an object, relative to other objects in the photo, are used to identify the feature
(e.g. sand has a bright tone, while water usually has a dark tone; tree species can be determined
by the colour of their leaves at certain times of the year)

Shadow: a shadow provides information about the object’s height, shape, and orientation (e.g.
tree species)

Texture: The image texture refers to the roughness or smoothness of the image. It also depends
on scale of photograph. The physical characteristics of an object will change the way they
appear on a photo (e.g. calm water has a smooth texture; a forest canopy has a rough texture)

Association/Site: The location of object in relation to its geographic or topographic setting.

Associating the presence of one object with another, or relating it to its environment, can help
identify the object (e.g. industrial buildings often have access to railway sidings; nuclear power
plants are often located beside large bodies of water)

Time: temporal characteristics of a series of photographs can be helpful in determining the

historical change of an area (e.g. looking at a series of photos of a city taken in different years
can help determine the growth of suburban neighbourhoods.
Stereo perspective: seeing an area in stereo, or 3-D, is important for determining the
topographical relief of an area, as well as the height of objects such as trees and building
Stereoscopic imagery is the result of overlap, which is the amount by which one photograph
includes an area covered by a neighboring photograph. Air photo coverage is generally designed
to provide about 60 percent forward overlap between photographs. This allows stereoscopic, or
3D, viewing when the two overlapping photos are used with a stereoscope. In addition, from 20
to 40 percent lateral (side) overlap is allowed when complete coverage of an area is required. For
mapping, inventory and vegetation studies, for example, a survey is flown in a series of to-and-
from parallel strips with side overlaps between strips over the entire area.
For non-stereoscopic coverage, used in crop sampling or pollution detection, the photographer
may choose a 20 percent forward overlap.

Stereoscopic vision
Stereoscopic vision determines the distance to an object by intersecting two lines of sight. In the
human vision system, the brain senses the parallactic angle between the converging lines of sight
and unconsciously associates the angle with a distance. Overlapping aerial photographs can be
viewed stereoscopically with the aid of a stereoscope. The stereoscope forces the left eye to view
the left photograph and the right eye to view the right photograph. Since the right photograph
images the same terrain as the left photograph, but from a different exposure station, the brain
perceives a parallactic angle when the two images are fused into one. As the viewer scans the
entire overlap area of the two photographs, a continuous stereo model of the ground surface can
be seen. The stereo model can be measured in three dimensions, yielding the elevation and
horizontal position of unknown points. The limitation that elevation cannot be determined in a
single photograph solution is
overcome by the use of
stereophotography.

Mirror stereoscope. A mirror

stereoscope can be used for the
same functions as a lens, but is
not appropriate for field use. The
mirror stereoscope has a wider
field of view at the nominal
magnification ratio. Since
photographs can be held fixed
for stereo viewing under a
mirror stereoscope, the
instrument is useful for simple
stereoscopic measurements. Mirror stereoscopes can be equipped with binocular eyepieces that
yield 6X and 9X magnification. The high magnification helps to identify, interpret, and measure
photographed features

Aerial Photogrammetry versus Traditional Surveying Techniques:

Advantages:
• It is a permanent pictorial record of the significant area at that specific moment in time which
is recorded with metric camera (known interior orientation). Metric cameras are designed
primarily. for photogrammetric purposes, and thus the obtainable accuracy is high.
• The pictorial record also helps in minimizing field work. If certain data is missing or the
information has to be reevaluated it is not necessary to go back to site. The measurements can be
done in the office with using the same photography. Thus this new information is acquired
quicker due to the elimination of the field work.
• With aerial photogrammetry a larger area can be mapped more resourcefully and economically
than traditional survey methods.
• Photogrammetry can be used in areas that are unsafe and difficult to access. Whereas with
traditional field work it has a disadvantage in terms of time and the safety of the Survey team.
• When detail surveys of roads are required, roads don’t have to be closed or free flowing traffic
disturbed. The safety of the survey team is kept to the minimum as they would not have to be
physically on the road for long periods of time. Road features and important data can be obtained
in the office from measurements made from the photographs.
• Intervisibilty between control points and intervisibilty between the area to be surveyed and
control are not a requirement. This minimizes excessive control surveys. Every point within the
mapped area can be coordinated with no extra cost.

Disadvantages:
• Weather conditions could affect the quality of the picture and the flight plan. Conditions such
as snow might give a false representation of the ground
• The ground that is usually hidden by structures such buildings or by tree canopies and
vegetation cannot be accurately mapped.
• Accuracy of contours and cross sections depends on flight height and accuracy of ground
control.
• Generally, aerial photogrammetry cannot produce the same level of accuracy as traditional
survey field methods.
 Geographic Information System (GIS)

GIS is a computer-based information

system which attempts to capture, store,
manipulate, analyze and display spatially
referenced and associated attribute data
for solving complex research, planning
and management problems.

GIS is a tool of mapmaking and analyzing

things that exists and event that happen on
the earth surface.

GIS is a system of hardware, software,

data and people organizing, collecting,
storing, analyzing and disseminating
information about the areas of the earth.

GIS is an information technology which stores, analyses and displays both spatial and non-
spatial data

GISs are specialized data bases that preserve locational identities of the information that they
record.

GIS may be defined as a computer based information system which attempts to capture, store,
manipulate, analyses and display spatially referenced and associated data.
Local problems also have a geographic component that can be visualized using GIS
technology, whether finding the best soil for growing crops, determining the home range for an
endangered species, or discovering the best way to dispose of hazardous waste.
Careful analysis of spatial data using GIS can give insight into these problems and suggest ways
in which they can be addressed.

Map making and geographic analysis are not new, but a GIS performs these tasks
better and faster than do the old manual methods. And, before GIS technology, only a
few people had the skills necessary to use geographic information to help with decision
making and problem solving.
Today, GIS is a multi-billion-dollar industry employing hundreds of thousands of people
worldwide. GIS is taught in high schools, colleges, and universities throughout the world.
Professionals in every field are increasingly aware of the advantages of thinking and working
geographically.
COMPONENTS OF A GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM

A working Geographic Information System seamlessly integrates five key components:

hardware, software, data, people, and methods.

1. H A R D W A R E
Hardware includes the computer on which a GIS operates, the monitor on which results
are displayed, and a printer for making hard copies of the results. Today, GIS software
runs on a wide range of hardware types, from centralized computer servers to desktop
Westminster College http://www.westminster.edu/staff/athrock/GIS/GIS.pdf
computers used in stand-alone or networked configurations. The data files used in GIS
are relatively large, so the computer must have a fast processing speed and a large
hard drive capable of saving many files. Because a GIS outputs visual results, a large,
high-resolution monitor and a high-quality printer are recommended.

2. S O F T W A R E
GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display
geographic information. Key software components include tools for the input and
manipulation of geographic information, a database management system (DBMS), tools
that support geographic query, analysis, and visualization, and a graphical user
interface (GUI) for easy access to tools. The industry leader is ARC/INFO, produced by
Environmental Systems Research, Inc. The same company produces a more
accessible product, ArcView, that is similar to ARCINFO in many ways.

3. D A T A
Possibly the most important component of a GIS is the data. A GIS will integrate spatial
data with other data resources and can even use a database management system,
used by most organizations to organize and maintain their data, to manage spatial data.
There are three ways to obtain the data to be used in a GIS. Geographic data and
related tabular data can be collected in-house or produced by digitizing images from
aerial photographs or published maps. Data can also be purchased from commercial
data provider. Finally, data can be obtained from the federal government at no cost.
 4. P E O P L E
GIS users range from technical specialists who design and maintain the system to those
who use it to help them perform their everyday work. The basic techniques of GIS are
simple enough to master that even students in elementary schools are learning to use
GIS. Because the technology is used in so many ways, experienced GIS users have a
tremendous advantage in today’s job market.

5. M E T H O D S
A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan and business rules, which
are the models and operating practices unique to each organization.

HOW A GIS WORKS

A GIS stores information about the world as a collection of thematic layers that can be
linked together by geography. This simple but extremely powerful and versatile concept
has proven invaluable for solving many real-world problems from modeling global
atmospheric circulation, to predicting rural land use, and monitoring changes in
rainforest ecosystems.

GEOGRAPHIC REFERENCES
Geographic information contains either an explicit geographic reference such as a
latitude and longitude or national grid coordinate, or an implicit reference such as an
address, postal code, census tract name, forest stand identifier, or road name. An
automated process called geocoding is used to create explicit geographic references
(multiple locations) from implicit references (descriptions such as addresses). These
geographic references can then be used to locate features, such as a business or forest
stand, and events, such as an earthquake, on the Earth's surface for analysis.

GIS TASKS
General purpose GIS’s perform seven tasks.
• Input of data
• Map making
• Manipulation of data
• File management
• Query and analysis
• Visualization of results

GIS data consists of two different data

Spatial data - In the form of vector used for map making

Attribute data – In the form of Charts, tables, descriptive text about the places located in the map.
Data stored in layers

GIS gives you power to-

• Create map
• Integrate information
 • Analyze the data
• Solve complicated problems
• Present powerful ideas
• Develop effective solutions
Application of GIS

• GIS is used to improve organizational integration. Data can be collected once and used
many times
• GIS is used to make better decision.
• GIS is used for making maps.
• GIS is used for every organizations of the defense industry for many nations around the
world.

• Architect makes the design, planning in proper and precise way quickly with the help of
GIS
• GIS provides the analytical capabilities that form the hub of successful precision agricultural
system

• GIS is used in libraries and museums, in education, in conservation fo water and wastewater, in
transportation in universities, in mining and earth sciences.
 Remote sensing
What is remote sensing?
The art, science, and technology of obtaining reliable information about physical objects and the
environment, through the process of recording, measuring and interpreting imagery and digital
representations of energy patterns derived from noncontact sensor systems”.

The Remote Sensing is basically a multi-disciplinary science which includes a combination of various
disciplines such as optics, spectroscopy, photography, computer, electronics and telecommunication,
satellite launching etc. All these technologies are integrated to act as one complete system in itself, known
as Remote Sensing System. There are a number of stages in a Remote Sensing process, and each of them
is important for successful operation

Basic principle of Remote sensing:-

Remote sensing is the science of collecting information about the features of earth and other objects
without having a physical contact with them.
Remote sensing involves the use of electromagnetic energy for the characteristic determination of an
object. Changes in the electromagnetic energy occur when it comes in contact with the object on earth and
its environment.

• Detection of
electromagnetic
energy -
photographically or
electronically
• Photographi
cally – chemical
reaction on film
surface
• Electronicall
y – EME converted
into Electrical
signals

Stages in Remote Sensing

• Emission of electromagnetic radiation, or EMR (sun/self- emission)
• Transmission of energy from the source to the surface of the earth, as well as absorption and scattering
• Interaction of EMR with the earth’s surface: reflection and emission
• Transmission of energy from the surface to the remote sensor
• Sensor data output
Idealized Remote Sensing System

An Idealized remote sensing system consists of the following stages

1. Energy source
2. Propagation of energy through atmosphere
3. Energy interaction with earth’s surface features.
4. Airborne/space borne sensors receiving the reflected and emitted energy
5. Transmission of data to earth station and generation of data produce.
6. Multiple-data users.
What we see
At temperature above absolute zero, all objects radiate electromagnetic energy by virtue of their atomic
and molecular oscillations. The total amount of emitted radiation increases with the body’s absolute
temperature and peaks at progressively shorter wavelengths. The sun, being a major source of energy,
radiation and illumination, allows capturing reflected light with conventional (and some not-so-
conventional) cameras and films.
The basic strategy for sensing electromagnetic radiation is clear. Everything in nature has its own unique
distribution of reflected, emitted and absorbed radiation. These spectral characteristics, if ingeniously
exploited, can be used to distinguish one thing from another or to obtain information about shape, size
and other physical and chemical properties.
Image vs. Photograph
Photograph
• Photograph refers specifically to images that have been detected and recorded on aphotographic
film.
Image
• Images refers to any pictorial representation, regardless of wavelength and device used to
detect and record the EM energy.
• All photographs are images; not all images are photographs.
Photographic technology is simple and inexpensive and high accuracy
• Electronic sensors
• Generate electrical signals in response to energy variations from targets
 • CCDs are used to convert electrical signal to digital signal
• Broader spectral range of sensitivity, improved calibration potential, and the ability to
electronically transmit image data

Remote Sensing applications:

Remote Sensing data sources & their characteristics
Data correction Improvisation
Data analysis
Image Interpretation, Reqmt, methods, data evaluation for Visual image
interpretation
Digital Image Processing methods (Utilities evaluation).
Preparation of useful products of analysis & their incorporation to GIS.
Resolutions & their effect on analysis.
HIS, Image fusion, Image texture analysis
Artificial Neural network.

Advantages of remote sensing data collection method

1. Provides a quick synoptic view
2. Continuous / Regular viewing
3. Data collection in wavelengths that are not visible with the human eye
4. Can acquire data in inaccessible areas
5. Unobtrusive / undisturbing
6. Digital data formats facilitate in-depth analysis
7. Historical datasets
 8. Acquire data at different levels
9. Compatibility of data

Limitations of remote sensing data collection method

1. Remote sensing instruments can become uncalibrated

2. Appropriate data is not always available or easily acquired
3. Image processing has user bias (but so does in situ data processing)
4. Has a history of being oversold

Applications in general
As will be learned in the section on sensors, each one is designed with a specific purpose. With
optical sensors, the design focuses on the spectral bands to be collected. With radar imaging, the
incidence angle and microwave band used plays an important role in defining which applications
the sensor is best suited for.
Each application itself has specific demands, for spectral resolution, spatial resolution, and
temporal resolution. There can be many applications for Remote Sensing, in different fields, as
described below. In the body of this tutorial of Remote Sensing, some applications relevant for
hydrography and oceanography will be given in more detail.
A) Agriculture
Agriculture plays a dominant role in economies of both developed and undeveloped countries.
Satellite and airborne images are used as mapping tools to classify crops, examine their health
and viability, and monitor farming practices. Agricultural applications of remote sensing include
the following:
• crop type classification
• crop condition assessment
• crop yield estimation
• mapping of soil characteristics
• mapping of soil management practices
• compliance monitoring (farming practices)

B) Forestry
Forests are a valuable resource providing food, shelter, wildlife habitat, fuel, and daily
supplies such as medicinal ingredients and paper. Forests play an important role in
balancing the Earth's CO2 supply and exchange, acting as a key link between the
atmosphere, geosphere, and hydrosphere.
Forestry applications of remote sensing include the following:
Reconnaissance mapping:
Objectives to be met by national forest/environment agencies include forest cover updating,
depletion monitoring, and measuring biophysical properties of forest stands.
Commercial forestry:
Of importance to commercial forestry companies and to resource management agencies are
inventory and mapping applications: collecting harvest information, updating of inventory
information for timber supply, broad forest type, vegetation density, and biomass measurements.
Environmental monitoring:
Conservation authorities are concerned with monitoring the quantity, health, and diversity of the
Earth's forests.

C) Geology
Geology involves the study of landforms, structures, and the subsurface, to understand physical
processes creating and modifying the earth's crust. It is most commonly understood as the
exploration and exploitation of mineral and hydrocarbon resources, generally to improve the
conditions and standard of living in society.
Geological applications of remote sensing include the following:
• surficial deposit / bedrock mapping
• lithological mapping
• structural mapping
• sand and gravel (aggregate) exploration/ exploitation
• mineral exploration
• hydrocarbon exploration
• environmental geology
• geobotany
• baseline infrastructure
• sedimentation mapping and monitoring
• event mapping and monitoring
• geo-hazard mapping
• planetary mapping.

D) Hydrology
Hydrology is the study of water on the Earth's surface, whether flowing above ground, frozen in
ice or snow, or retained by soil
Examples of hydrological applications include:
• wetlands mapping and monitoring,
• soil moisture estimation,
• snow pack monitoring / delineation of extent,
• measuring snow thickness,
• determining snow-water equivalent,
• river and lake ice monitoring,
• flood mapping and monitoring,
• glacier dynamics monitoring (surges, ablation)
• river /delta change detection
• drainage basin mapping and watershed modelling
• irrigation canal leakage detection
• irrigation scheduling

E) Sea Ice
Ice covers a substantial part of the Earth's surface and is a major factor in commercial shipping
and fishing industries, Coast Guard and construction operations, and global climate change
studies.
Examples of sea ice information and applications include:
 • ice concentration
• ice type / age /motion
• iceberg detection and tracking
• surface topography
• tactical identification of leads: navigation: safe shipping routes/rescue
• ice condition (state of decay)
• historical ice and iceberg conditions and dynamics for planning purposes
• wildlife habitat
• pollution monitoring
• meteorological / global change research

F) Land Cover & Land Use

Although the terms land cover and land use are often used interchangeably, their actual meanings
are quite distinct. Land cover refers to the surface cover on the ground, while Land use refers to
the purpose the land serves. The properties measured with remote sensing techniques relate to
land cover, from which land use can be inferred, particularly with ancillary data or a priori
knowledge.
Land use applications of remote sensing include the following:
• natural resource management
• wildlife habitat protection
• baseline mapping for GIS input
• urban expansion / encroachment
• routing and logistics planning for seismic / exploration / resource extraction
• activities
• damage delineation (tornadoes, flooding, volcanic, seismic, fire)
• Legal boundaries for tax and property evaluation
• target detection - identification of landing strips, roads, clearings, bridges,
• land/water interface

G) Mapping
Mapping constitutes an integral component of the process of managing land resources, and
mapped information is the common product of analysis of remotely sensed data.
Mapping applications of remote sensing include the following:
Planimetry:
Land surveying techniques accompanied by the use of a GPS can be used to meet high accuracy
requirements, but limitations include cost effectiveness, and difficulties in attempting to map
large, or remote areas. Remote sensing provides a means of identifying and presenting
planimetric data in convenient media and efficient manner. Imagery is available in varying scales
to meet the requirements of many different users. Defence applications typify the scope of
planimetry applications - extracting transportation route information, building and facilities
locations, urban infrastructure, and general land cover.
Digital elevation models (DEM's):
Generating DEMs from remotely sensed data can be cost effective and efficient. A variety of
sensors and methodologies to generate such models are available and proven for mapping
applications. Two primary methods if generating elevation data are 1. Stereogrammetry
techniques using airphotos (photogrammetry), VIR imagery, or radar data (radargrammetry), and
2. Radar interferometry.
Baseline thematic mapping / topographic mapping:
As a base map, imagery provides ancillary information to the extracted planimetric or thematic
detail. Sensitivity to surface expression makes radar a useful tool for creating base maps and
providing reconnaissance abilities for hydrocarbon and mineralogical companies involved in
exploration activities. This is particularly true in remote northern regions, where vegetation cover
does not mask the microtopography and generally, information may be sparse. Multispectral
imagery is excellent for providing ancillary land cover information, such as forest cover.
Supplementing the optical data with the topographic relief and textural nuance inherent in radar
imagery can create an extremely useful image composite product for interpretation.

H) Oceans & Coastal Monitoring

The oceans not only provide valuable food and biophysical resources, they also serve as
transportation routes, are crucially important in weather system formation and CO2 storage, and
are an important link in the earth's hydrological balance. Coastlines are environmentally sensitive
interfaces between the ocean and land and respond to changes brought about by economic
development and changing land-use patterns. Often coastlines are also biologically diverse inter-
tidal zones, and can also be highly urbanized .
Ocean applications of remote sensing include the following:
• Ocean pattern identification:
• currents, regional circulation patterns, shears
• frontal zones, internal waves, gravity waves, eddies, upwelling zones, shallow
• water bathymetry ,
• Storm forecasting
• wind and wave retrieval
• Fish stock and marine mammal assessment
• water temperature monitoring
• water quality
• ocean productivity, phytoplankton concentration and drift
• aquaculture inventory and monitoring
• Oil spill
• mapping and predicting oilspill extent and drift
• strategic support for oil spill emergency response decisions
• identification of natural oil seepage areas for exploration
• Shipping
• navigation routing
• traffic density studies
• operational fisheries surveillance
• near-shore bathymetry mapping
• Intertidal zone
• tidal and storm effects
• delineation of the land /water interface
• mapping shoreline features / beach dynamics
• coastal vegetation mapping
I) Environmental Engineering
• Impact assessment on vegetation, water bodies
• siting applications
• loss of biological diversity/biosphere reserves/ecology hot spot areas/wet land
environment.
• weather forecasting
• monitoring of pollution in the form of oil spills and thermal plumes
• ozone layer depletion and global warming

J) Facilities management
• Locating underground pipes, cables
• balancing loads in electrical networks
• planning facility maintenance
• tracking energy use.