SS 1

Calvary crown academy

CHEMISTRY

Lesson Note Compiled By Calvary Crown Academy Coach

Coach
Calvary Crown Academy
22/4/2024
 THIRD TERM SCHEME OF WORK
WEEK TOPICS CONTENT

1 WATER Sources of water

Occurrence and properties of
water, types of water
Water pollution, uses of water
and conservation of water
Types of water hardness

2–6 CARBON AND IT'S Carbon

COMPOUND Allotropes of carbon
Coal and coke
Carbon(iv) oxide and carbon (II)
oxide
Synthetic gas and carbon cycle

7–8 HYDROCARBON Introduction to Hydrocarbon

AND ITS MAIN Classification of Hydrocarbons
CLASSES
9-10 CRUDE OIL AND Crude oil and natural gas,
NATURAL GAS cracking and reforming quality &
importance of crude oil
Location of Nigerian refinery,
exploration and drilling of crude
oil

11 – 12 REVISION AND EXAMINATION

LESSON NOTE FOR WEEK 1
Date:…………………………………………
Class: SS 1
Subject: Chemistry
Topic: Water
Duration: 45mins
Sex: Mixed
Content: Sources of water
Occurrence and properties of water, types of water
Water pollution, uses of water and conservation of water
Types of water hardness
Reference Book: Online Materials, Extensive Chemistry for
Senior Secondary School and College by: Tijani Olanrewaju I,
Nwaneri Chigozie, Abideen Rasaki A., Sanni Ahmed M.
New School Chemistry for Secondary School by: Osei Yaw
Ababio
Essential Chemistry for Senior Secondary School by I. A. Odesin
A.
Instructional materials: Textbook, Lesson Note, Whiteboard,
Ink and Marker
Behavioural Objective: By the of the lesson, students should
be able to:
i. Define the term Water?
ii. Distinguish between hard water and soft water
iii. Outline five physical properties of water
iv. State three ways of removing permanent hardness of
water

Entry Behaviour: The teacher checks the student’s learning

history on the topic by asking them questions based on or
related to the topic.
Presentation of steps:
Step 1: The teacher introduces the new topic by writing the
topic on the board
Step 2: The teacher explains what the topic entails
Step 3: The teacher outlines some key points as regards the
topic
Step 4: The students are given a summary note of the lesson
to copy from the board
Step 5: The teacher concludes the lesson by evaluating the
students
Period 1: WATER
Water is one of the most essential substances required for the
existence of life. It constitutes 70% of our body weight. Water
form 90% of our blood and acts as a universal solvent. It is
composed of chemical elements, hydrogen and oxygen. It
exists in all three states of matter, i.e. solid (ice), liquid (water)
and gaseous (water vapour). Its molecular formula is H 2O and
chemical name is dihydrogen monoxide. It is a neutral oxide
and has no effect on litmus.

SOURCES OF WATER
Water is a natural resource which is available in large quantity
in the earth. About two-thirds (70%) of the earth’s surface is
covered by water in the form of oceans, seas, lakes, rivers,
springs, wells, rains, etc.
The sources of water are broadly divided into two categories:
1. Natural resources of water, e.g. ocean, sea, river and lakes.
2. Artificial sources of water, e.g. well water, tap water,
borehole and distilled water.
NATURAL SOURCES OF WATER
Those sources of water which are present naturally and are not
man-made are called natural sources of water. Generally,
natural water is found on the earth’s surface such as rain,
oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, springs, etc.
Rainwater
Rain is water that falls from the clouds in small drops. It is the
purest form of natural source of water. However, as the
rainwater falls from the clouds, it dissolves gases like carbon
(IV) oxide, nitrogen and oxygen from the air. The rainwater also
brings with it smoke and dust particles present in the
atmosphere. Therefore, the first shower of the rain contains
many impurities, but the showers that follow are pure.

Oceans and Seas

About 70% of the world's water is found in seas and oceans.
They are the largest source of natural water. But this water is
highly salty and unfit for consumption.

Rivers, Lake and Springs

The sources of water in lakes in rivers are rainfall and melting
of glaciers. These sources of water are fit for consumption, i.e.
for drinking, irrigation and industrial purposes. The water from
these sources can be purified before consumption.

ARTIFICIAL SOURCES OF WATER

The sources of water that are constructed by human are called
artificial sources of water. This is an important source of
water. A large number of people draw water from wells, tube
wells, boreholes, tap water and hand pumps. These sources
provide water below the surface of the earth which is called
groundwater. Groundwater contains dissolved salts of sodium,
potassium, calcium and iron.
Well
A well is an excavation or structure created in the ground
through digging, or drilling to access liquid resources, like
water. The well water is drawn up by a pump, or with the use of
containers, such as buckets, that are raised mechanically or by
hand.
Borehole
A borehole is a very narrow hole drilled down through the
earth. For irrigation purposes, the borehole is drilled to reach
the water in an aquifer, it is a much more efficient way of
getting water than digging a well.
Tap Water
A tap water is a treated water supplied through a pipe. Its uses
include drinking, washing, cooking and the flushing of toilets.
Indoor tap water is distributed through “indoor plumbing”. Tap
water is often culturally assumed to be drinking water,
especially in developed countries.
 OCCURRENCE OF WATER
Water occurs in both free and combined states.
1. In the free state, water occurs in solid, liquid and gaseous
state.
 In the solid state, water occurs in the form of ice, snow,
frost, etc.hn
 River water, lake water, seawater, etc. are the liquid state
of water on the surface of the earth. water is also found
underground in its liquid state. Dew is the liquid state of
water above the earth’s crust.
 In the gaseous state, water occurs as water vapour,
steam, cloud, fog, etc.
2. In the combined state, water occurs in all living matter, i.e.
plants and animals. Water is also found in certain minerals.

PROPERTIES OF WATER
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER
1. Nature: Pure water is a clear, transparent, tasteless and
odourless liquid at ordinary temperature.
2. Density: At 4oC, the density of water is maximum (1g per
cm3). Above and below 4oC, the density of water is lower.
3. Thermal conductivity: Pure water is a bad conductor of
heat.
4. Electrical conductivity: Pure water is a bad conductor of
electricity
5. Boiling point: Pure water boils at 100oC and pressure
760mmHg. The boiling point is directly proportional to the
pressure, i.e. the boiling point increases with the increase in
atmospheric pressure and decreases with the decrease in
atmospheric pressure. Presence of impurities increases the
boiling point of water.
6. Freezing point: Pure water freezes at 0 oC and pressure
760mmHg. The freezing point of water is inversely
proportional to the pressure. If pressure increases on the
surface of water, its freezing point decreases. The freezing
point of water decreases due to the presence of dissolved
impurities.
7. Specific latent heat of vaporization: The specific latent
heat of vaporization of water is 2260 Jg-1 or 540 cal g-1.
8. Specific latent heat of fusion: The specific latent heat of
fusion of water is 336 J g-1 or 80 cal g-1.
9. Specific heat capacity: Water has the highest specific heat
capacity, i.e. water requires more heat to raise its
temperature by 1oC than an equal mass of any other
substance. The specific heat capacity of water is 4.2J g -1 oC-1
or 1 cal g-1 oC-1.
10. It dissolves nearly everything especially the inorganic
substances and some organic ones. Therefore, water is
called a universal solvent.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER
1. Action on litmus paper: Pure water is neutral to litmus.
2. Stability: Water is stable to heat. It does not decompose on
heating. However, acidulated water can be split up into
hydrogen and oxygen by the passage of an electric current
2H2O ------------------ 2H2 + O2
3. Catalytic nature: Water (moisture) acts as a catalyst in
some chemical reactions.
Examples
 Rusting of iron occurs only in the presence of water
(moisture)
4Fe + 3O2 ---------- 2Fe2O3
Iron Oxygen Iron(III) oxide
 Synthesis of hydrogen chloride occurs only in the presence of
moisture.
H2 + Cl2 ---------- 2HCl
Hydrogen Chlorine Hydrogen
chloride
4. Action of water on metals
 Potassium: Potassium reacts with cold water. It even reacts
with moisture (water vapour).
2K + 2H2O ------------- 2KOH + H2
(Exothermic reaction)
 Sodium: The reaction takes place in cold water.
2Na + 2H2O ------------ 2NaOH + H2
(Exothermic reaction)
It even reacts with moisture (water vapour).
 Calcium: The reaction takes place in cold water.
Ca + 2H2O --------- Ca(OH)2 + H2
 Magnesium: The reaction takes place with boiling water, but
a moderate reaction takes place when burning magnesium
reacts with steam.
Mg + H2O ------ MgO + H2
 Zinc: The reaction takes place when steam is passed over
red hot zinc.
Zn + H2O ------- ZnO + H2
(Steam)
 Aluminium: Aluminium also reacts with steam.
2Al + 3H2O ------- Al2O3 + 3H2
(Steam)
 Iron: When steam is passed over red hot iron, the reaction
takes place.
3Fe + 4H2O ======= Fe3O4 + 4H2
5. Reaction of water on non-metals
 Reaction with carbon: When super-heated steam is passed
over red-hot coke, a mixture of carbon(II) oxide and
hydrogen, called water gas, is produced. It is a good fuel and
reducing agent.
C + H2O -------- CO + H2
(Water gas)
 Reaction with chlorine: When chlorine gas is passed through
water, hydrochloric acid and oxochlorate (I) acid are
produced.
Cl2 + H2O --------- HCl +HOCl
6. Action of water on metallic oxides
Metallic oxides react with water to form respective
hydroxides (alkali).
K2O + H2O ------ 2KOH
Na2O + H2O -------- 2NaOH
CaO + H2O ------ Ca(OH)2
7. Action of water on non-metallic oxides
Non-metallic oxides, acid anhydride react with water to form
respective acids.
SO2 + H2O -------- H2SO3
P2O5 + 3H2O ------ 2H3PO4
CO2 + H2O ------- H2CO3

TYPES OF WATER (HARD AND SOFT WATER)

If soap solution is added to distilled water and the mixture is
shaken, there is an immediate formation of lather–a collection
of tiny soap bubbles on the surface of the water:
Water which does not produce good lather with soap is called
hard water. Or Hard water is water that does not form lather
readily with soap. It is difficult to wash with soap in hard water.
Water seeping through the ground becomes hard water. It is
not good for laundry and laboratory purpose.
Water which produces good lather with soap is called soft
water. Washing with soap is easy in soft water. Distilled water
is soft water.
FORMATION OF HARD WATER
When rain falls it combines with carbon(IV) oxide in the air to
form weak acid, i.e.
H2O(l) + CO2(g) ====== H2CO3(aq)
When the solution falls on rock or soil containing CaCO 3 or
MgCO3 it forms hard water
H2CO3 + MgCO3 -------- Mg(HCO3)2
H2CO3 + CaCO3 ------- Ca(HCO3)2
TYPES OF WATER HARDNESS
There are two types of water hardness:
1. Temporary hardness: It is a type of water hardness caused
by the presence of dissolved hydrogen trioxocarbonate salts
of calcium or magnesium. Temporary hardness can be
removed by boiling. When temporary hard water is boiled,
the hydrogen trioxocarbonate(IV) of calcium and magnesium
undergo decomposition to form insoluble
trioxocarbonate(IV).
Ca(HCO3)2(aq) ----------- CaCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O
Calcium hydrogen Calcium Carbon(IV) oxide Water
trioxocarbonate(IV) trioxocarbonate(IV)

Mg(HCO3)2(aq) ---------- MgCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O

Magnesium hydrogen Magnesium Carbon(IV) oxide
Water
trioxocarbonate(IV) trioxocarbonate(IV)
 The insoluble trioxocarbonate(IV) of calcium and magnesium
can be removed by filtration and the water thus obtained is
free from calcium and magnesium ions and is soft.

Chemical methods of removing temporary hardness

 By adding slaked lime
Ca(HCO3)2(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) ---------- 2CaCO3(s) + 2H2O(l)

 By adding washing soda

Ca(HCO3)2(aq) + Na2CO3 -------- CaCO3(s) + 2NaHCO3

2. Permanent hardness: This type of water hardness is due

to the presence of calcium or magnesium trioxosulphate(VI)
or chlorides. Permanent hardness cannot be removed by
boiling. It can be removed by using water softeners.
Cleaning with soap is effective in soft water. Soap lathers
better in soft water and is scum free. Things become cleaner
and time, money and energy are saved.

REMOVAL OF PERMANENT HARDNESS

The following are the chemicals used for removing
permanent hardness:
1. Na2CO3 (Washing soda)
2. NaOH (Caustic soda)
3. Permutit or zeolite in ion-exchange resins
They are used as follows:
1. Na2CO3 (Washing soda): They remove calcium and
magnesium ions from hard water by precipitation.
Na2CO3(aq) + CaSO4(aq) --------- CaCO3(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
Soluble Insoluble precipitate
Na2CO3(aq) + MgSO4(aq) -------- MgCO3(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
Soluble Insoluble precipitate
2. NaOH (Caustic soda): Addition of sodium hydroxide
(caustic soda) remove calcium and magnesium ion from hard
water as insoluble calcium and magnesium hydroxide.
NaOH(aq) + CaSO4(aq) -------- Ca(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4
Soluble Insoluble precipitate
NaOH(aq) + MgSO4(aq) ------- Mg(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4
Soluble Insoluble precipitate
3. In industry and at home, water softener like permutit or
zeolite is an ion exchange resin used for removing
permanent hardness. The sodium in the resin is exchanged
 with the calcium and magnesium ions present in the hard
water, which make it to become soft.
Let Y represents zeolite or permutit.
Na2Y(s) + CaSO4(aq) -------- CaY(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
Soluble Insoluble
When the zeolite or permutit in the resin are used up,
concentrated solution of sodium chloride may be poured into
the resin as follows to regenerate it.
2NaCl(aq) + CaY(s) ---------- Na2Y(s) + CaCl2(aq)

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF HARD WATER

ADVANTAGES OF HARD WATER
 Hard water is good for making our bones and teeth stronger
when we drink it
 Hard water does not dissolve lead, and as a result of this, it
does not cause lead poisoning if lead pipes are used in
transferring the water into households.
 Hard water tastes better than soft water
DISADVANTAGES OF HARD WATER
 It is hot advisable to use hard water in washing white fabrics
since it tends to stain white fabrics by making them appear
grey.
 Hard water is not good for dyeing materials, because Ca 2+
and Mg2+ may interfere.
 Hard water forms annoying lime scales in containers such as
kettles, pots, pipes, etc.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SOFT WATER

ADVANTAGES OF SOFT WATER
 It is compatible with dyeing, which is why the dyeing
industry prefers using it in their business.
 It does not stain white clothes when used in laundry, unlike
hard water.
 Unlike hard water, soft water does not form scales in kettles
or pipes when it stays long in these containers.
DISADVANTAGES OF SOFT WATER
 Soft water can easily cause lead poisoning if it is transferred
through lead pipes or kept in lead containers. This is
possible because it can quickly dissolve lead.
 Soft water does not help in strengthening our bones and
teeth since it contains no calcium.
 Soft water is not very safe for drinking as compared to hard
water.
EFFECT OF TEMPORARY HARDNESS
1. The presence of calcium hydrogen trioxocarbonate(IV)
Ca(HCO3)2 in water causes formation of scales in kettles and
boiler (i.e. CaCO3 precipitate).
2. Formation of stalagmites and stalactites in caves.

WATER POLLUTION
Water is required as polluted when it changes its quality or
composition, directly or indirectly as a result of man’s
activities. This makes it less suitable for drinking, domestic
use, agricultural practice, fisheries or other purposes. Thus,
addition of harmful and unwanted materials into water is called
water pollution.
All kinds of water resources like ponds, rivers, lakes and
oceans, are polluted by a variety of waste materials which are
the direct result of population explosion in large scale
industrialization.

CAUSES OF WATER POLLUTION

The water of rivers, lakes and ponds gets polluted by various
human activities. The major causes of water pollution are:
 Domestic sewage: Discharge of sewage water containing
human urine and faeces, animal dung, used water, etc. into
water bodies is one of the most common primary sources of
water pollution, especially near big cities. This contaminated
water may contain bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites
which cause various diseases like cholera, typhoid and
jaundice. Gutter water and faulty drainage system may also
pollute water.
 Industrial wastes: Many industries such as oil refineries,
paper factories, textile mills, sugar mills, and chemical
factories discharge harmful chemicals and other toxic
wastes into water bodies. Industrial wastes include toxic
substances such as chloride, ammonia, hydrogen sulphide,
different acids and salts of metals like copper, zinc, lead,
nickel, mercury, arsenic, etc. The throwing of these wastes
into water bodies is also a cause of water pollution.
 Agricultural wastes: Various minerals and organic wastes are
carried to the lakes, rivers and other water reservoirs from
agricultural fields where a variety of fertilizers, insecticides
and herbicides are applied almost throughout the year.
 Oil pollution: Crude oil during transport in ships is
discharged into the seawater. Oil refineries situated near
seashores also pollute water, through oil spillage.
HARMFUL EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION
 Effect on health: Impurities in industrial effluents and
agricultural wastes in water can cause diseases like
diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid, jaundice, hepatitis, etc. The
household sewage not properly disposed can mix with
drinking water.
 Effect on quality of water of rivers, lakes and seas: The
domestic sewage cause the quality of water to decrease
considerably. A still water body like a lake can become dead
in due course of excessive dumping of waste in it. Similarly,
rivers may also suffer due to dumping of waste in them. Oil
spills frequently occur in the seas. The oil can spill into the
sea either due to leakage or ship accidents.
 Effect on aquatic plants and animals: Due to dumping of
wastes, the quality of water goes down. This also disturbs
the oxygen balance in the water, on which aquatic life
depends. Industries and factories release some very harmful
chemicals, which are poisonous and can damage aquatic life
to a large extent.
 Disturbance to the aesthetics: Natural water bodies like
rivers, lakes and seas have been a source of entertainment
for people as they are one of the most beautiful natural gifts
to us. However, due to dumping of wastes these water
bodies are no more beautiful. Apart from quality, their colour
changes and in some cases, may smell bad.
 Effect on the soil: Excessive use of fertilizers is now being
looked upon as a source of pollution. They kill naturally-
occuring microbes in the soil which help in nitrogen fixation.
Many of these chemical fertilizers together with insecticides
such as DDT, BHC, etc. are washed by rain into the ponds
and rivers which contribute to water pollution.
CONTROL OF WATER POLLUTION
 Septic tank treatment should be used for individual houses in
the communities.
 The sewage and factory waste have to be cleaned before
they flow into the water reservoirs.
 The use of fertilizers and herbicides should be judicious and
minimal.
 The use of synthetic detergents should be minimized/
 A large number of trees should be planted along the
riverbanks.
USES OF WATER
The uses of water can be broadly divided into domestic,
agricultural and industrial uses. The major portion of water is
used for irrigation. We also use water for different domestic
purposes.
 Domestic Uses: We need water for our everyday household
uses. The daily uses include drinking, cooking, bathing,
washing clothes and dishes, brushing teeth, watering the
garden, washing pets, etc. A good quality domestic water
storage tank is a must to have to meet our household needs.
 Agricultural Uses: The irrigation of agriculture depends on
availability of water. Farmers and agriculturists make use of
water in the rural areas of our country.
 Industrial Uses: Major water using industries are paper, steel
chemical, and petroleum refining industries.
 Commercial Uses: Water is used on a daily basis in different
commercial ventures such as hotels, restaurants, office
buildings and other commercial properties.
 Recreational Uses: Water is used in several recreational
centres such as swimming pools, parks, etc.

CONSERVATION OF WATER
It includes all the strategies and activities made to sustainably
manage the natural freshwater resource, to protect the water
environment, and to meet the current and future human
demand. Water is a precious resource that should be
conserved. This can be done in following ways:
1. Preventing water leakage from the taps and pipes.
2. Over-watching of gardens and flowerpots should be avoided.
3. Using collected rainwater for watering plants and for other
cleaning purposes.
4. Planting more trees, i.e. afforestation, and preventing
deforestation as rainfall is affected by forest cover.
5. Rainwater harvesting
6. Minimizing the wastage of water while brushing teeth and
washing utensils.
7. Industries can recycle water and reuse it for different
purposes.
EVALUATION
1. Define the term Water?
2. Distinguish between hard water and soft water
3. Outline five physical properties of water
4. State three ways of removing permanent hardness of water
5. State two advantages and disadvantages of soft water
6. Mention two ways of preventing water pollution
LESSON NOTE FOR WEEK 2 – 6
Date:…………………………………………
Class: SS 1
Subject: Chemistry
Topic: Carbon and its Compound
Duration: 45mins
Sex: Mixed
Content: Carbon, Allotrope of Carbon, Diamond and Graphite
and Crystaline, Physical and Chemical properties of diamond
and graphite and their uses.
Reference Book: Online Materials, Extensive Chemistry for
Senior Secondary School and College by: Tijani Olanrewaju I,
Nwaneri Chigozie, Abideen Rasaki A., Sanni Ahmed M.
New School Chemistry for Secondary School by: Osei Yaw
Ababio
Essential Chemistry for Senior Secondary School by I. A. Odesin
A.
Instructional materials: Textbook and a chart showing the
diamond and graphite, Lesson Note, Whiteboard, Ink and
Marker
Behavioural Objective: By the of the lesson, students should
be able to:
i. Define carbon and its oxide
ii. Distinguish between diamond and graphite
iii. Outline five physical properties of diamond and graphite
iv. Uses of diamond and graphite

Entry Behaviour: The teacher checks the student’s learning

history on the topic by asking them questions based on or
related to the topic.
Presentation of steps:
Step 1: The teacher introduces the new topic by writing the
topic on the board
Step 2: The teacher explains what the topic entails
Step 3: The teacher outlines some key points as regards the
topic
Step 4: The students are given a summary note of the lesson
to copy from the board
Step 5: The teacher concludes the lesson by evaluating the
students
Period 1: CARBON AND ITS COMPOUND

OCCURRENCE

1. It occurs naturally as diamond and graphite.

2. It occurs in an impure form as coal.
3. It occurs in the combined state as petroleum, wood and
natural gases.
4. It occurs in minerals such as limestone (CaCO3) and
dolomite (MgCO3)
5. It occurs in the atmosphere (air) as CO2
6. It is an essential constituent of all forms of plant and
animal life.

ALLOTROPES OF CARBON
Allotropy is the phenomenon whereby an element exists in two
or more different forms in the same physical state. The
different forms of the elements are known as allotropes. They
have the same chemical properties but different physical
properties.
Carbon exists in several allotropic forms:
(1). Crystalline Allotropes e.g Diamond and graphite
(2). Non-crystalline Allotropes/Amorphous carbon e.g coal,
charcoal, coke, lampblack and carbon black (soot)

CRYSTALLINE ALLOTROPES OF CARBON

Diamond: Diamond is the purest form of carbon. The diamond
crystal is octahedral in shape. It is actually a giant molecule in
which the carbon atoms are closely packed and held together
by strong covalent bonds.
 Structure of diamond (Octahedral shape)

PROPERTIES OF DIAMOND
(1) Diamond is extremely hard and strong with high melting
point because of strong covalent bond. Diamond is the hardest
substance known in the world.
(2) It has a high density because of its compactness of crystal.
(3) It is a very resistant to chemical action and temperature
because all four valence electrons are saturated bonded.
(4) It is a non-conductor of electricity because there are no free
valence electrons in the crystal lattice.
(5) Transparent and highly refractive, hence it is used as a
jewel and sparkling substance.
 USES
(1) They are used industrially in drills for in mining since they
are dense and hard.
(2) They are used to sharpen very hard tools.
(3) They are used for cutting glass and metals.
(4) They are also used as pivot supports in precision
instruments and as dies for drawing wires
(5) It is valuable in making jewellery (i.e. its high refractive
index and dispersion power give it a sparkling brilliance when it
is cut and polished).
Artificial diamond: They are made by subjecting graphite to a
very high temperature and pressure for several hours in the
presence of nickel or rhodium catalyst.

GRAPHITE: The graphite crystal is hexagonal in shape. The

carbon atoms in graphite form flat layers. These layers are
arranged in parallel, one above the other to form a crystal
lattice.

PROPERTIESStructure of graphite (Hexagonal shape) OF GRAPHITE

(1) Graphite is soft and
slippery because of
weak forces holding its
layers. Each layer can slide over one another. Hence, graphite
acts as a lubricant.
(2) It is less dense and prone to chemical attack due to its open
structures in layers.
(3) It is a good conductor of electricity because of the presence
of free delocalized electrons (mobile electron) in the crystal
lattice.
(4) It is inert and used to absorb radiations in nuclear station in
atomic pile.

USES
(1) It is usually used on bicycle chains and for the bearings of
some motor cars.
(2) It is used as a non-greasy lubricant (i.e combining it with oil
makes a high temperature lubricant).
(3) It is used as electrodes in electroplating and in dry cells
(since it is a good conductor of electricity and relatively inert).
(4) Graphite can be used to make a non-conductor conductive
by coating with it.
(5) It is used to line crucibles for making high-grade steel and
other alloys (since it can withstand high temperature).
(6) It is used in making lead pencils i.e. combining it with clay
makes lead in pencils.
(7) It is used as a black pigment in paints.
(8) It is used as a neutron moderator in atomic piles.

INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION OF GRAPHITE

Graphite is produced industrially by heating coke in an electric
furnace to a very high temperature for about 20 to 30 hours.
This process is called the Acheson process. Acheson process is
a process of producing graphite from coke at high temperature.
Air is excluded by covering the coke with sand. The graphite
produced is very pure and free from grit.

DIFFERENCES IN PROPERTIES BETWEEN GRAPHITE AND

DIAMOND

Graphite Diamond
1. It has a density of
1. It has a density of 2.3gcm-3
3.5gcm-3
2. It is a black, opaque solid 2. It is a colourless,
 transparent solid
3. It is the hardest
3. It is very soft, marks paper
known substance.
4. It is a non-
4. It is a good conductor of electricity conductor of
electricity
5. Attacked by potassium trioxochlorate 5. Not attacked by
(v) and trioxonitrate (v) acid together. these reagents.
Note: Diamond is transparent to x-rays while glass is almost
opaque.

EVALUATION

1. (a) What is allotropy? (b) Mention two allotropes of carbon

2. Compare the properties of these allotropes of carbon.

AMORPHOUS CARBON
Carbon also occurs in a number of other forms which has no
definite crystalline structure. These non-crystalline structures
which are not considered to be true allotropes include:

 CHARCOAL: This is made by burning wood, bones, sugar etc

in a limited amount of air. Charcoal is used to remove colour
from substances. Wood charcoal is used in absorbing
poisonous gases while animal charcoal is used in absorbing
colours.
 CARBON BLACK AND LAMP BLACK: Lamp black is
obtained by burning the wick of an oil lamp excessively so
that it leaves a deposit of soot on the lamp-glass and cover;
while carbon black is obtained from burning coal gas, natural
gas or petroleum. Carbon black and lamp black are used as
an additive to rubber tyres. They are also used in making
printer’s ink, carbon paper, black shoe polish, type writing
ribbons etc.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON
(1) All the different allotropes of carbon are black or greyish-
black solids except diamond and they are odourless and
tasteless.
(2) They have a high melting point of about 35000C.
(3) They are insoluble in all common solvents like water, alkalis,
acids, petrol and carbon (iv) sulphide (CS2). This is the reason
carbon deposits inside motor engines have to be removed
mechanically. This is known as decarbonization of motor
engines.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON

(1) COMBUSTION:
(a) All forms of carbon burn in excess oxygen to produce
carbon (iv) oxide gas.
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) (Complete combustion)
(b) All forms of carbon also burn in a limited supply of air to
produce carbon (ii) oxide.
C(s) + O2(g) CO(g) (Incomplete
combustion)

(2) COMBINATION REACTION: Carbon combines directly with

certain elements such as Sulphur, Hydrogen, Calcium and
Aluminium at very high temperatures.
C(s) + 2S(s) CS2(l)
Carbon (iv) sulphide
C(s) + 2H2(g) CH4(g)
Methane
2C(s) + Ca(s) CaC2(s)
Calcium carbide
3C(s) + 4Al(s) Al4C3(s)
Aluminium carbide.

(3) AS A REDUCING AGENT: Carbon is a strong reducing

agent. It reduces the oxides of the less active metals to the
metals, while carbon is itself oxidized to either carbon (iv) oxide
or carbon (ii) oxide, depending on the reaction conditions.
Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) 2Fe(s) + 3CO(g)
2CuO(s) + C(s) 2Cu(s) + CO2(g)
H2O(g) + C(s) CO(g) + H2(g)
CO2(g) + C(s) 2CO(g)
K Na Ca Mg Al Zn Fe Sn Pb H
Cu Hg Ag Au
The oxide is not reduced The oxide is reduced to the metal
when
when heated heated
ZnO(s) + C(s) Zn(s) + CO(g)
PbO(s) + C(s) Pb(s) + CO(g)

(4) REACTION WITH STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS: When

carbon is heated with conc. HNO3 or conc. H2SO4, it is oxidized
to Carbon (iv) oxide.
C(s) + 4HNO3(aq) 2H2O(l) + 4NO2(g) +
CO2(g)
C(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) 2H2O(l) + 2SO2(g) +
CO2(g)

EVALUATION

1. List the amorphous allotropes of carbon and state the use

of each
2. Write balanced equations to show the chemical properties
of carbon

COAL AND FUEL GASES

 Coal.
 Fuel gases/Gasification of coke.

COAL
Coal is an impure form of carbon. Coal is a complex mixture of
compounds composed mainly of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
with small amounts of nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus as
impurities.

CARBONIZATION OF COAL
Coal was formed by the gradual decomposition of plant
vegetation under pressure and in the absence of air. Carbon
(iv) oxide, methane, and steam were liberated, leaving behind
a material that contained a very high percentage of carbon.
During this process of carbonization, the vegetable material
was converted in stages into peat. They gradually passed
through several stages: Peat -------- lignite --------- bituminous
------- anthracite.

TYPES OF COAL
There are 4 different types of coal namely:
(1) Peat-like coal: It contains about 60% of carbon by mass.
(2) Lignite coal (brown coal): It contains about 67% of carbon
by mass.
(3) Anthracite coal (or hard coal): It is tough and hard. It
contains about 94% of carbon by mass. Impurities present may
include nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus. Anthracite is the last
stage of coal.
(4) Bituminous (soft) coal: These are use every day at home. It
contains about 88% by mass of carbon.

DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION OF COAL

The process by which a wide variety of substances can be
obtained from coal is known as the destructive distillation of
coal.
During the process, coal is heated to a very high temperature
in the absence of air so that all the volatile components distil
over.
Coal ----------- Coke + Ammoniacal liquor + Coal tar + Coal gas.
Coal decomposes to yield a number of products such as:
Solid product e.g coke: It is the non-volatile residue left behind
after destructive distillation.

USES OF COKE
(i) Coke is mainly used as a fuel.
(ii) It is a very important industrial reducing agent and is used
in the extraction of metals, especially iron, from their ores.
(iii) It is also used in the production of gaseous fuels, like water
gas and producer gas.
(iv) It is used for the manufacture of graphite, calcium carbide,
silicon carbide and carbon (iv) sulphide.

2. Liquid product: It include: Ammoniacal liquor and coal

tar.
(a) Ammoniacal liquor: is a solution of NH3 in water.
(b) Coal tar: This is the thick, viscous substance from which
more than a hundred other products are derived. Products
obtained by fractional distillation of coal tar include toluene,
phenol, benzene, naphthalene and anthracene which are used
in the synthesis of important commercial product like dyes,
paints, insecticides, drugs, plastics and explosives.

3. Gaseous product e.g coal gas: It consists mainly of about

50% hydrogen, 30% methane, 10% carbon (ii) oxide with
small amounts of gaseous impurities such as SO2, CO2,
ethane, N2, hydrogen sulphide, carbon (iv) sulphide and
hydrogen cyanide.
Distillates of Coal Uses
1.Ammoniacal
To produce (NH4)2SO4 for fertilizer.
liquor
To produce useful chemicals such as
2.Coal tar
disinfectants and perfumes
3.Coal gas Used as industrial fuel.

USES OF COAL

1. Coal is used mainly as fuel to generate power for steam

engines, factories and electrical plants.
2. It is also used for making various chemicals.

EVALUATION

1. List the types of coal.

2. List the products of the destructive distillation of coal and
state the use of each product

FUEL GASES/GASIFICATION OF COKE

There are 3 types of fuel gases.
 PRODUCER GAS: Producer gas is a mixture of nitrogen and
carbon (ii) oxide. It is prepared by passing a stream of air
through red hot coke.
2C(s) + O2(g) +N2(g) --------- 2CO(g) + N2(g) + Heat
Producer gas

 WATER GAS: Water gas is a mixture of hydrogen and

carbon (ii) oxide gas. It is prepared by passing steam over
white hot coke.
H2O(g) + C(s) ------- CO(g) + H2(g)
Steam + white hot coke ------------- Water gas
Water gas is then mixed with excess steam, and the mixture
passed over iron (iii) oxide catalyst at 4500C.The carbon (ii)
 oxide decomposes the steam and the product are hydrogen
and carbon (iv) oxide.
CO(g) + H2(g) + H2O(g) --------- CO2(g) + 2H2(g)
Caustic soda or water is used to absorb carbon (iv) oxide
from the mixture. Ammoniacal copper (i) chloride can be
used to remove unreacted carbon (ii) oxide. The final product
is hydrogen.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PRODUCER GAS AND WATER

GAS
(1) Producer gas has a low calorific value while water gas has a
high calorific value (i.e producer gas has a lower heating ability
than water gas.
(2) Water gas consists of equal volumes of hydrogen and
carbon (ii) oxide both of which are combustible whereas
producer gas consists of 33% combustible CO and 67% non-
combustible N2.
Note: Industrially, producer gas and water gas can be made in
the same plant, by passing air and steam through heated coke
at a temperature above 10000C.
Producer gas is inexpensive and is widely used in heating
furnaces and firing of retorts (in the manufacture of Zn and coal
gas) and limekilns. It is also a source of nitrogen for the
manufacture of NH3 (Haber process).
Water gas is an important industrial fuel and is used in the
manufacture of hydrogen and other organic compounds e.g.
methanol and butanol.

3. SYNTHETIC GAS: It is a mixture of hydrogen and carbon (ii)

oxide gas. It is prepared by mixing steam with methane
(obtained as natural gas) and passing them over Nickel
catalyst at about 8000C.
CH4(g) + H2O(g) --------- CO(g) + 3H2(g)
Synthetic gas is not a major source of air pollution because
sulphur is removed in the gasification process/it does not
contain sulphur or sulphur compounds.

EVALUATION

1. List the three types of fuel gases.

2. What can be used to absorb carbon (iv) oxide from a water
gas mixture?
3. What can be used to remove unreacted carbon (ii) oxide
from a water gas mixture?

CARBON (IV) OXIDE

The percentage composition of carbon (iv) oxide in the
atmospheric air is about 0.03% by volume while in dissolved air
is about 0.50% by volume.

LABORATORY PREPARATION

1. Carbon (iv) oxide is prepared in the laboratory by the action

of dilute acids on a trioxocarbonate (iv) or a hydrogen
trioxocarbonate (iv). Usually CaCO3, in form of marble chips,
shells or ‘potash’; is used with hydrochloric acid or
trioxonitrate (v) acid. Reaction between CaCO3 and HCl can
be carried out in a Kipp’s apparatus.
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) ---------- CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) +
CO2(g)
NaHCO3(aq) + HNO3(aq) ---- NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l) +
CO2(g)

2. It is also prepared by heating metallic trioxocarbonates (iv)

[except those of Na and K], or the hydrogen trioxocarbonate
(iv) of Na or K.
CuCO3(s) --------- CuO(s) + CO2(g)

Note: If the gas is required dry, it is pass through potassium

hydrogen trioxocarbonate (iv) solution first to remove any acid
fumes, and then through a U-tube containing fused Calcium
chloride to remove the water vapour. The dry gas is then
collected by downward delivery as it is heavier than air.

METHOD OF COLLECTION OF GASES

The method of collection of gases depends on its:

1. Density.
2. Solubility.
There are two methods of collecting gases:
(a) Downward delivery/upward displacement of air: This
method is used for collecting gases that are denser than air e.g.
CO2, SO2, H2S, NO2, Cl2 and HCl e.t.c.
(b) Upward delivery/downward displacement of air: This
method is used for collecting gases that are less denser than
air e.g NH3, H2, N2, methane and ethane.

INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION
CO2 is obtained industrially as a byproduct in fermentation
processes and when limestone is heated to make quicklime.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
(1) CO2 is a colourless, odourless gas with a sharp refreshing
taste.
(2) It is about 1.5 times denser than air.
(3) It is soluble in water. At room temperature and standard
pressure, water dissolves its own volume of the gas.
(4) It turns damp blue litmus paper pink because CO2 dissolves
in water to yield trioxocarbonate (iv) acid.
(5) On cooling, it readily liquefies and solidifies (-780C) to form
a white solid known as dry ice.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

1. Reaction with water: Carbon (iv) oxide is not very active

chemically. It dissolves in water to form trioxocarbonate (iv)
acid (Soda water). This is a weak, dibasic acid which ionizes
slightly.
(a) CO2(g) + H2O(l) --------- H2CO3(aq)
(b) H2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) --------- H3O+(aq) + HCO3-(aq)
(c) HCO3- (aq) + H2O(l) -------- H3O+(aq) + CO32-(aq)

On heating, trioxocarbonate (iv) acid decomposes to form

H2O(l) and CO2(g).

2. Reaction with alkalis: It reacts directly with alkalis to yield

trioxocarbonate (iv)
CO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) ------- Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
Limited
Excess CO2 reacts with alkalis to produce Hydrogen
trioxocarbonate (iv) salt.
CO2(g) + NaOH(aq) --------- NaHCO3(aq)
Excess.

3. Reaction with burning Na, K or Mg: CO2 is reduced to carbon

by burning Na, K or Mg.
CO2(g) + 2Mg(s) -------- C(s) + 2MgO(s)
Note: CO2 does not support combustion.

4. Reaction with red hot carbon: CO2 is reduced to CO, If the

gas is passed over red hot carbon.
CO2(g) + C(s) ------- 2CO(g)
The reaction is of great importance in the blast furnace and in
the manufacture of gaseous fuels.

TEST FOR CO2

Bubble the unknown gas through a solution of lime water
(Calcium hydroxide) if the lime water turn milky due to the
formation of insoluble calcium trioxocarbonate (iv), then the
unknown gas is CO2
If the gas is bubbled in excess, the milkiness disappears and
turns to a clear solution due to the formation of soluble calcium
hydrogen trioxocarbonate (iv).
CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) -------- Ca(HCO3)(aq)
Finally, if the clear solution is heated, the milkiness reappears
due to the decomposition of soluble Ca(HCO3)2 to form
insoluble CaCO3
Ca(HCO3)2(aq) -------- CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

USES OF CARBON (IV) OXIDE

1. It is used as a fire extinguisher since it does not support

combustion.
2. It gives carbonated (aerated) drinks their refreshing taste.
Beer, cider and champagne contains CO2
3. It is used in the manufacture of Na2CO3 (washing soda) by
the Solvay process.
4. It is used as a leavening agent in the baking of bread. Yeast
and baking powder produces CO2 which make the dough of
bread to rise.
5. It is used in the manufacture of fertilizer (such as urea and
(NH4)2SO4.
6. Solid CO2 (i.e dry ice) is used as a refrigerant for perishable
goods e.g ice cream. (It sublimes on warming and provides a
lower temperature).
7. Gaseous CO2 is used to preserve fruits.
8. CO2 is also used as a coolant in nuclear reactors.

EVALUATION

1. Describe the laboratory preparation of dry carbon (iv) oxide.

2. Write balanced equation to show the following reactions of
CO2:
(a) Reaction with sodium hydroxide
(b) Reaction with burning magnesium

CARBON (II) OXIDE

LABORATORY PREPARATION

1. Carbon (ii) oxide can be prepared by passing Carbon (iv)

oxide through red-hot carbon while the Carbon (iv) oxide is
 itself reduced to Carbon (ii) oxide. The gaseous mixture is
passed through concentrated NaOH to remove the excess
Carbon (iv) oxide.
CO2(g) + C(s) -------- 2CO(g)
The pure Carbon (ii) oxide is collected over water.

2. Carbon (ii) oxide can also be prepared by the dehydration of

methanoic (formic) acid or ethanedioic (oxalic) acid, using
concentrated tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid.
HCOOH(l) Conc. H2SO4 CO(g) + H2O
Methanoic acid
Note: The gaseous mixture is passed through concentrated
NaOH to remove the CO2.
Caution: The preparation of CO must be done in a fume
cupboard as the gas is poisonous.
The major air pollutants that can result from smoky vehicles
are Carbon (ii) oxide and Carbon particles.

When CO is breath in for any length of time, even 1% of it in

the air may cause death, which makes it clear how dangerous it
can be to run a car engine in a closed garage or a generator in
a closed room. Very often the victim collapses without warning
so insidious is its effect.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CO
(1) CO is a poisonous, colourless, tasteless and odourless gas.
(2) It is insoluble in water, but dissolves in a solution of
ammoniacal copper (i) chloride.
(3) It is neither lighter nor heavier than air.
(4) It is neutral to litmus.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CO
(1) AS A REDUCING AGENT: CO is a strong reducing agent. It
reduces some metallic oxides to the metals and it is oxidized to
CO2.
PbO(s) + CO(g) Pb(s) + CO2(g)
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
CuO(s) + CO(g) Cu(s) + CO2(g)
2. COMBINATION REACTION
(a). With oxygen: CO burns in air with a faint pale blue flame
to form CO2 .
2CO(g) + O2(g) --------- 2CO2(g)

(b). With haemoglobin: CO combines irreversibly with

haemoglobin in the red blood cells to form carboxy
haemoglobin thereby preventing the red corpuscle from acting
as oxygen carrier.

3. CO mixed with NaOH at 1500C under 50atm pressure to form

Sodium formate.
CO(g) + NaOH(aq) ---------- HCOONa(aq)
This product decomposes into Sodium oxalate and H2 at 4000C
COONa
2HCOONa(aq) + H2(g) 4000C COONa
4. CO combined with certain metals (e.g Ni, Fe, Cobalt) when
hot to form a volatile carbonyl.
Ni(s) + 4CO(g) -------- Ni(CO)4(aq)
5. CO is absorbed readily by a solution of Copper (i) Chloride
(CuCl) in aqueous NH3 or conc. HCl forming a compound,
CuCl.CO.2H2O. This reaction is used to separate CO from a
mixture of gases.
CO(g) + CuCl(s) + 2NH4OH(aq) ------ CuCl.CO.2H2O(aq) +
2NH3(g)
6. CO combined with Chlorine gas when expose to ultra-violet
light or passed over a catalyst of activated charcoal at 1500C
to form carbonyl chloride.
CO(g) + Cl2(g) -------- COCl2(g)
This product, COCl2, is also known as Phosgene and was
employed as a poisonous gas in the First World War. It is now
use in the manufacture of dyestuff.

TEST FOR CARBON (II) OXIDE

When a lighted splint is inserted into a test tube containing
CO(g) and some lime water added to it and shaken, the
CO(g) burn with a pale-blue flame and turn lime water milky
after burning but not before burning.

USES OF CARBON (II) OXIDE

(1) CO is used in the extraction of metals from their ores.
(2) It is also an important constituent of gaseous fuels like
producer gas and water gas.
(3) CO gas is used in the manufacture of methyl alcohol,
synthetic petrol, carbonyl chloride, oxalate and formate.

EVALUATION
1. Describe the laboratory preparation of Carbon (ii) oxide.
2. Explain
why Carbon
(ii) oxide
cannot
be

collected by any method of delivery

3. Write two equations to show the chemical properties of
Carbon (ii) oxide

CARBON CYCLE
The carbon cycle is the circulation and transformation of carbon
in its various forms, back and forth between living organisms
and the environment. Carbin is required by the life forms for
their exoskeleton and endoskeleton. Besides this, proteins,
carbohydrates, fats, nucleic acids and vitamins all have carbon
in their molecular structure.

Carbon cycle in nature

Carbon (IV) oxide is released into the atmosphere through the
following process:
1. During the process of respiration, sugar undergoes complete
oxidation to produce carbon (IV) oxide as one of the
products.
C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g) ----------- 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) + energy
2. When human beings burn fossil fuels to power factories,
power plants, cars and trucks, most of the carbon quickly
enters the atmosphere as carbon (IV) oxide gas. The oceans
and other bodies of water soak up some carbon from the
atmosphere.
3. When plants and animals die, they decay into organic
materials
4. Carbon (IV) oxide is released during heating of
trioxocarbonates (IV) and hydrogen trioxocarbonates (IV).
5. Fermentation of sugars also releases carbon (IV) oxide.
Carbon (IV) oxide is removed from the atmosphere by the
following:
1. During photosynthesis process, plants use carbon (IV) oxide,
water and sunlight to synthesis carbohydrates.
6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) --------- C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g)
2. Carbon (IV) oxide is removed by dissolving in natural water
bodies and rainwater. The dissolved carbon (IV) oxide
combines with calcium and magnesium trioxocarbonates (IV)
in the sea to form hydrogen trioxocarbonates (IV). These
reactions and solution of carbon (IV) oxide in water are
reversible. Thus, the sea and other water bodies act as
reservoirs.
LESSON NOTE FOR WEEK 7 – 8
Date:…………………………………………
Class: SS 1
Subject: Chemistry
Topic: Hydrocarbon And Its Main Classes
Duration: 45mins
Sex: Mixed
Content: Introduction to Hydrocarbon, Classification of
Hydrocarbons
Reference Book: Online Materials, Extensive Chemistry for
Senior Secondary School and College by: Tijani Olanrewaju I,
Nwaneri Chigozie, Abideen Rasaki A., Sanni Ahmed M.
New School Chemistry for Secondary School by: Osei Yaw
Ababio
Essential Chemistry for Senior Secondary School by I. A. Odesin
A.
Instructional materials: Textbook, Lesson Note, Whiteboard,
Ink and Marker
Behavioural Objective: By the of the lesson, students should
be able to:
i. Explain the different classes of Hydrocarbon
ii. State two differences between aliphatic and aromatic
hydrocarbon
iii. State five uses of hydrocarbon

Entry Behaviour: The teacher checks the student’s learning

history on the topic by asking them questions based on or
related to the topic.

Presentation of steps:
Step 1: The teacher introduces the new topic by writing the
topic on the board
Step 2: The teacher explains what the topic entails
Step 3: The teacher outlines some key points as regards the
topic
Step 4: The students are given a summary note of the lesson
to copy from the board
Step 5: The teacher concludes the lesson by evaluating the
students
 HYDROCARBON AND CRUDE OIL

Hydrocarbons are very simple organic compounds composed

mainly of hydrogen and carbon only.

The sources of hydrocarbons are coal, natural gases and

petroleum.

CLASSIFICATION OF HYDROCARBON
Hydrocarbon can be divided into two main classes:
Aliphatic hydrocarbon
Aromatic hydrocarbon

ALIPHATIC HYDROCARBON: They are further divided into

three groups: Alkanes, Alkenes and Alkynes. The Aliphatic may
be Acyclic or Cyclic. The acyclic hydrocarbons are the straight
or branched chain hydrocarbon while the cyclic hydrocarbons
consist of closed ring chain such as cycloalkane e.g.
cyclopropane.

AROMATIC HYDROCARBON

Contain ring structure having non localized orbital e.g C6H6.

Aromatic hydrocarbons are all cyclic hydrocarbons. The basic
cyclic structure is the benzene ring.

CLASSIFICATION OF HYDROCARBONS

Hydrocarbons are classified as aliphatic chain compounds and

aromatic ring compounds. Open chain and acyclic organic
compounds are called aliphatic compounds. Organic
compounds that contain rings of atoms in their molecules are
called aromatic or cyclic compounds. For example, butane is
an aliphatic organic compound while benzene is an aromatic
organic compound.

Aliphatic or open chain compounds are further subdivided as

saturated hydrocarbons and unsaturated hydrocarbons.

 The hydrocarbons in which carbon atoms are linked to one

another with single covalent bonds only are called
saturated hydrocarbons. Saturated hydrocarbons form a
series of compounds called alkanes.

 The hydrocarbons which contain one or more double or triple

bonds between carbon atoms are called unsaturated
 hydrocarbons. They are further classified into two types –
alkenes and alkynes.

Alkenes contain at least one double bond and alkynes at least

one triple bond between carbon atoms.

IMPORTANCE OF HYDROCARBONS

1. Hydrocarbons are widely used as fuels. For example, LPG

(Liquefied Petroleum Gas), LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas).

2. They are used in the manufacturing of polymers such as

polyethene, polystyrene, etc.

3. These organic compounds find their application in the

manufacturing of drugs and dyes as a starting material.

4. They serve as lubricating oil and grease.

LESSON NOTE FOR WEEK 9 – 10
Date:…………………………………………
Class: SS 1
Subject: Chemistry
Topic: Crude Oil and Natural Gas
Duration: 45mins
Sex: Mixed
Content: Crude oil and natural gas, cracking and reforming
quality & importance of crude oil
Location of Nigerian refinery, exploration and drilling of crude
oil
Reference Book: Online Materials, Extensive Chemistry for
Senior Secondary School and College by: Tijani Olanrewaju I,
Nwaneri Chigozie, Abideen Rasaki A., Sanni Ahmed M.
New School Chemistry for Secondary School by: Osei Yaw
Ababio
Essential Chemistry for Senior Secondary School by I. A. Odesin
A.
Instructional materials: Textbook, Lesson Note, Whiteboard,
Ink and Marker
Behavioural Objective: By the of the lesson, students should
be able to:
i. Briefly explain Crude oil
ii. State out the constituent of crude oil
iii. Explain the origin of crude oil

Entry Behaviour: The teacher checks the student’s learning

history on the topic by asking them questions based on or
related to the topic.

Presentation of steps:
Step 1: The teacher introduces the new topic by writing the
topic on the board
Step 2: The teacher explains what the topic entails
Step 3: The teacher outlines some key points as regards the
topic
Step 4: The students are given a summary note of the lesson
to copy from the board
Step 5: The teacher concludes the lesson by evaluating the
students
 PETROLEUM (CRUDE OIL)

Petroleum is the chief source of aliphatic hydrocarbon. It is a

dark viscous liquid which is usually trapped or found under the
ground or sea beds in certain part of the world e.g. Nigeria,
Saudi Arabia, Iran, USA, Iraq and Russia. Petroleum is a mixture
of Alkanes, alkenes, cyclo alkanes and aromatic hydrocarbons
together with about 1 – 6% impurities consisting mainly of
compounds of sulphur and minute quantity of H2 and
O2 compounds. Natural gas consists mainly of methane.

ORIGIN OF CRUDE OIL AND NATURAL GAS

Natural gas and petroleum are formed by the decomposition of

vast quantities of organic material, undoubtedly of marine
origin, buried in sediment. When these tiny aquatic organisms
died, their remains gradually settled on the sea beds. Over the
years, the remains became covered by mud, silt and other
sediments. As the sediment piled up, their mass exerted a
great pressure on the lower layers, changing them to hard
sedimentary rocks. During this process, bacterial activity, heat
and pressure probably changed the plants and animal remains
into crude oil and natural gas. The oil and gas formed slowly
moved to other areas through the tiny holes or pores in the
porous rocks around them. Since oil and gas are not dense,
they tend to seep upwards until they meet a non- porous layer
or rocks and are trapped under it, thus forming an oil trap.

REFINING OF PETROLEUM

The process of petroleum refining is basically that of converting

crude oil into a range of products required to meet an economic
market demand. How is this achieved? Crude oil consists of a
very complex mixture of hydrocarbons, which individually exist
as gas, liquid or solid at normal temperatures and pressures.
The crude oil can be separated into fractions by comparatively
simple distillation and for every given variety of crude oil; their
relative proportions and properties are fixed. Modern
competitive marketing conditions, however, demand that these
fractions from crude oil are of such a quality that simple
distillation is not enough.

Fractional distillation, necessitating more advanced refinery

techniques is now adopted.

Crude oil (petroleum) is composed mainly of a complex mixture

of hydrocarbons. By using fractional distillation, crude oil can
be separated into fractions or groups of similar compounds.
Each fraction contains several compounds all of which fall
within a certain range of boiling points. These fractions can be
differentiated from one another by their different volatility,
odour texture and their relative rate of ignition and burning.
The fractional distillation is carried out in a fractionating column
of towers. The crude oil is passed into a fractionating column
with a temperature ranging between 4000C at the bottom of
the column of the steel pipe and 400C at the top part of the
column.

The fractionating column is divided into several compartments

by perforated plates called trays, each of which is maintained
within a specified range of temperature. The crude oil is first
heated to about 400oC so that all the components are
vaporized. The vapour enters the bottom of the fractionating
column. They rise up the column and cool. Those with high
boiling points will soon condense to liquids and will not move
far up the column, whereas those with low boiling points will
have to cool considerably before they condense and so will
move towards the top of the column. This means that
substances with higher boiling points separated out in the trays
on the lower part of the column, while those with lower boiling
points separate out in the trays on the upper part of the
column. The fractions are collected in horizontal trays at
different heights on the column, redistilled to improve purity
and then further treated to obtain different liquid fuels and
petrol chemicals.

The petroleum fractions are gases, petrol, kerosene, diesel oil,

lubricating oil and bitumen.

USES OF PETROLEUM FRACTION

1. Natural gas: The gas fractions consist mainly of

hydrocarbon containing 1 – 4 carbon atoms per molecule
and distilling around 40oC. These are methane, ethane,
ethane, propane and butane. Methane and ethane are
usually burnt as fuel. The propane and butane are
liquefied and distributed in high pressure gas cylinders or
tank to the public for lighting and heating purposes in
homes. They are also used for synthesizing a large
number of compounds e.g. methanol, butadiene etc, They
are also used for the manufacture of products like
hydrogen, carbon(iv)sulphide, tetrachloromethane and
ethyne.
 2. Petrol or Motor gasoline: Petrol is the most important
product derived from petroleum because of the rapid
increase of the use of motor vehicles. Petrol is a complex
mixture of volatile hydrocarbons containing C6 –
C10 carbon atoms per molecule. (such as hexane, heptane
and octane) distilling off between 500C – 2000C. Petrol is
used as a fuel for aeroplanes and vehicles. It is also a good
solvent for paints, grease and stains etc. It is a volatile
liquid. Since straight chains hydrocarbons making up the
petrol fraction of petroleum usually cause engine knock
and engine wear, they have to be reformed to branched
chain hydrocarbons which are not prone to knocking.
3. Kerosene or paraffin oil: This is a mixture of hydrocarbons
containing C10 – C16 carbon atoms per molecule and
boiling between 1700C – 2500C. It is a fairly volatile liquid
and is used as a fuel for lightning and heating. It is also
used as a major fuel in jet engines, aeroplanes and
tractors and gas turbines. It is a good solvent for grease
and paints.
4. Gas Oil or Diesel oil: This is a mixture of hydrocarbons
containing C14 – C18 carbon atoms per molecule and
boiling between 3000C – 3600C.It is used in internal
combustion of diesel engines of trains, lorries and tractors
etc, They are also used as raw materials in the cracking
process.
5. Lubricating oil, Grease and wax: It is a mixture of long
chain hydrocarbons with more than 20 carbons atoms per
molecule which distil over in the temperature range of
3500C – 5000C.They are viscous liquids used as a
lubricant for moving parts of engines and machines and
also for making Vaseline or petroleum jelly. Paraffin wax is
used for making candles, water proof materials, polish,
grease ointment and cream
6. Bitumen or Asphalt: It is a complex mixture of non-soluble
solids made of polycyclic hydrocarbons. It is used as a
biding agent for roofing materials and in road surfacing as
a protective coating.

Name of fraction Boiling Point Carbon atoms Uses

Range in 0C in molecules

1. Petroleum gas below 40 1 – 4 Fuel and

manufacture of other
2. Petrol 40 – 200 4 – 12 Fuel in
aeroplanes and
motor vehicles
3. Kerosene 200 – 250 12-18 Fuel for
lighting, heating and jet engine

4. Gas oil and 250-350 12-25 Fuel for heating and

diesel engines.

Diesel oil Raw materials for

cracking process

5. Lubricating Oil 350– 500 more than 20 Lubricating

moving parts of machines, Making candles, creams & hair
care products

6. Bitumen Above 500 more than 35 Surfacing roads

CRACKING AND REFORMING

CRACKING: Cracking is the process used in breaking down large

hydrocarbon molecules into two or more smaller hydrocarbon
molecules. This is the method used in increasing the quantity of
petrol. The fraction from which petrol is produced (C6 – C12) is
small compare with other fractions with greater number of
carbon atoms. The petroleum refineries find it difficult to cope
with large demands of petrol from users, while on the other
they are left with large surplus of the less volatile fractions like
kerosene and diesel oil. They has therefore been forced to think
of method of converting these less volatile fractions into petrol.
This method is known as CRACKING.

There are two types of cracking in use in the petroleum

industry:

1. THERMAL CRACKING: This involves vaporizing the oil

fractions of long carbon chain (C12 – C18) and heating them
for a short time to temperature around 6000C under very
high pressure of about 300atoms.
2. CATALYTIC CRACKING: The long chain hydrocarbons are
heated in the presence of a silica alumina or zeolite catalyst.
The catalyst speeds up the process which requires less
energy. The pressure needed is lower and high grades of
petrol are produced by increasing the octane number of
petrol. The temperature is still about 5000C. This catalytic
cracking is more widely used. Catalytic cracking is better
because:
(i) The process is more controllable, i.e. the conditions can be
adjusted such that desirable products of certain chain lengths
are obtained. This process thus yields a source of alkenes
which serve as raw materials for great variety of organic
chemicals.

(ii) The process does not only yield more petrol but also gives
petrol a high quality. In fact, this petrol is a higher grade petrol
than the one obtained directly from the petrol fractions during
the distillation of crude oil.

C16H34 C8H18 + C8H16.

CH3(CH2)8CH3 CH3C (CH3)2CH2CH(CH 3)CH3 + C2H4

The overall benefits of the cracking process are:

(i)It increases the yield of petroleum

(ii)It provides a petrol mixture rich in branched chain

hydrocarbons with an attendant increase in octane number.

(iii)It yields as by product, large quantity of ethane, propene,

butane etc used for making plastics, synthetic rubber,
detergent and many important chemicals like ethanol and
phenol.

REFORMING: This is the process used in converting long chain

hydrocarbons to shorter and branched chain molecules to
improve its anti-knock properties. The process usually takes
place in the presence of catalysts such as oxides of silicon and
aluminum at about 6000C and pressure between 8 and 15 atm
in order to increase its octane number and to produce high
grade petrol.

Cracking is a breaking down process while reforming is an

isomerization process (i.e. changing a compound into its
isomers)

OCTANE NUMBER
The octane number of octane rating of petrol is a mixture of the
proportion of branched chain hydrocarbons to the straight
chain hydrocarbons in a given blend of gasoline (petrol).

Gasoline is composed of C7 – C9 hydrocarbons i.e. heptane,

octane and nonane. These hydrocarbons are present in their
straight chain or branched chain isomers. It has been shown
that straight chain hydrocarbons (e.g. n – heptane) burn too
rapidly in the car engine thus, causing irregular motion of the
pistons which result in rattling noise.

The rattling noise is known as ‘KNOCKING’.

Petrol containing a higher percentage of straight chain

hydrocarbons causes more knocking that petrol containing a
higher percentage of branched-chain hydrocarbons

A straight chain alkane like heptane is assigned an octane

number of O while a highly branched chain alkane like 2,2,4
trimethylpentane is assigned an octane number of 100 which
burns very smoothly in engines. Therefore, the quality of any
petrol is rated according to its octane number, i.e. the
percentage of heptane to 2,2,4 – trimethylpentane in a mixture.

CH3 – CH 2– CH 2– CH 2– CH 2– CH2 – CH3

Heptane octane number = 0

CH3 CH3 2,2,4 – trimethylpentane (iso – octane)

CH3 C CH2 C CH3 octane number = 100

CH3 H

Octane number is a measure of the performance of the fuel in

engines and the rating is given as the percentage of iso –
octane (2,2,4 – trimethyl pentane) to straight chain
hydrocarbon present. For e.g a gasoline with an octane rating
of 94 is understood to contain 94% iso octane and 6% straight
chain heptane. Similarly, a fuel with an octane number of 50
has a performance equivalent to 50 – 50 mixture of heptane
and 2,2,4 – trimethylpentane.

When low grade petrol is used in some auto mobile engines,

there is a tendency for the engine to knock. The difference in
the grade of petrol is therefore, a difference in their octane
numbers.

Motor car engines are known as petrol engines.

GRADE OF PETROL

Petrol can be graded as:

(a) Super or extra (b) Regular or Ordinary
Petrol which is graded as super or extra has an octane number
closer to 100 than petrol that is graded as regular or ordinary.

Octane number of some hydrocarbons.

Straight chain Hydrocarbon Relative molecular
mass Octane number
Propane 44 100
Pentane 72 61
Hexane 86 25
Heptanes 100 0
Octane 144 -27
Nonane 128 -45

The octane number of straight – chain hydrocarbons is related

to their molecular mass, i.e. the lower the molecular mass of
the hydrocarbon, the higher the octane number. Some fuels
which are superior to 2,2,4 – trimethylpentane have an octane
number greater than 100.

SYNTHETIC PETROL

Synthetic Petrol is made from materials such as coal, coke and

hydrogen which do not occur in

crude petroleum. Synthetic petroleum can be gotten from two

sources:

1. From Coal: When powdered coal is heated with hydrogen

in the presence of Fe or Sn as catalyst at 5000C and 20
atmospheric pressure, it is converted into an oily mixture
of hydrocarbons. The mixture is separated by distillation
into a petrol fraction boiling at 2000C and heavy oil
residue which can be further treated with fresh coal to
obtain more petrol.
2. From Coke: When steam is passed over heated coke at
1000C, a mixture containing equal volumes of CO and
hydrogen known as water gas is obtained.
C + H2O CO + H2

Water gas

The water gas can be hydrogenated to a mixture of

hydrocarbons by adding hydrogen and passing it over finely
divided nickel as catalysts at 2000C. About half of the product
is petrol, the less volatile fraction being used as fuel for diesel
engines.

PETROCHEMICALS

Petrochemicals are substances that are manufactured from the

by – products of petroleum. These include plastics, synthetic
rubber and fibres. Petroleum and natural gas are now used in
increasing amounts to produce many inorganic compounds.
Examples include ethanol, ethane, propane 1, 2, 3 – triol,
benzene and toluene. These small molecules organic
compounds are in turn used to make large – molecule organic
compounds like plastic, synthetic rubber, insecticides,
detergents and synthetic fibers like nylon and Dacron.
 PROBLEMS OF PETROLEUM CHEMISTRY

1. The petrol produced is too small to meet the demand of

the world
2. The quality of the petrol produced is too low and may
result in knocking of the petrol engine

SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEMS

These problems can be solved by increasing the amount of

petrol produced through

(a) Breaking down of larger hydrocarbon molecule into smaller

hydrocarbon molecule (Pyrolysis)

C10H22 H2 + C C5H12 + CH3 – CH = CH – CH3

But – 2 – ene (iso butene)

(b) By addition of lead – tetraethyl (known as ‘anti – knock’

compounds) to prevent knocking and thereby increases the
octane number.

Note; Cracking, catalytic reforming and uses of additives

(tetraethyl lead) are used to improve the yield and quality of
petrol.

EVALUATION

1. What are petrochemicals?

2. What is octane number?
3. List two types of cracking
4. Explain the term “reforming”