UNIT-2

#1 UMTS

UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) is a third-generation (3G) mobile

communication system developed as an enhancement of GSM. It provides high-speed data
and voice services using improved radio access and core networks.

UTRA, originally known as part of the UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications

System), now stands for Universal Terrestrial Radio Access. UTRA supports both
Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) and Time Division Duplex (TDD) modes, providing
flexibility in managing uplink and downlink transmissions.

Enhancements of GSM for UMTS

To evolve GSM into a system capable of handling higher data rates and multimedia services,
several enhancements were introduced:

●​ EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution)

●​ CAMEL (Customized Applications for Mobile network Enhanced Logic)
●​ VHE (Virtual Home Environment)

UTRA-FDD (Frequency Division Duplex)

UTRA-FDD is one of the duplexing methods used in UMTS. It assigns separate frequency
bands for uplink (device to network) and downlink (network to device) communication,
allowing continuous transmission in both directions.

●​ Uplink Frequency: 1920–1980 MHz

●​ Downlink Frequency: 2110–2170 MHz
●​ Duplex Spacing: 190 MHz (distance between uplink and downlink frequencies)
●​ Bandwidth: 12 channels, each 5 MHz wide

This method is efficient in environments where traffic is fairly balanced between uplink and
downlink.

UTRA-TDD (Time Division Duplex)

In contrast to FDD, UTRA-TDD uses the same frequency band for both uplink and
downlink, but splits the time to alternate between them. This allows for dynamic allocation of
bandwidth based on traffic needs (e.g., more downlink for video streaming).

●​ Frequencies Used:
○​ 1900–1920 MHz
○​ 2010–2025 MHz​

●​ Channel Bandwidth: Each channel is 5 MHz

UTRA-TDD is especially useful in areas with asymmetric traffic patterns and supports
deployment in limited spectrum scenarios.

UMTS Network Architecture

The UMTS network architecture can be divided into three main elements:

User Equipment (UE)

One of these is the User Equipment (UE). This is basically what we commonly call a
mobile phone. However, it's called UE because it can do more than just voice calls—it
also works like a data device (such as for internet browsing or connecting to a computer).
The UE connects to the mobile network through something called the UTRAN (Universal
Terrestrial Radio Access Network) using a wireless link called the Uu interface. The
UTRAN then connects to the Core Network (CN) through another connection called the Iu
interface.

UTRAN (Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network)

UTRAN is the part of the UMTS network that handles wireless communication with the
user's device. It manages cell-level mobility, meaning it ensures a smooth connection
when users move from one cell area to another. UTRAN contains the Radio Network
Subsystem (RNS), which is responsible for important tasks such as encrypting and
decrypting data, managing handover when a user moves between cells, and controlling
radio resources (like frequencies and power). In short, it handles everything related to the
radio (wireless) part of the network.

Core Network

The Core Network is the central part of the system and works similarly to the switching
center in GSM networks. It is responsible for managing inter-system handovers, such as
when a user moves between different networks (e.g., from UMTS to GSM). It also acts as a
gateway to other networks, such as the internet or other mobile networks. If the user’s
device is not directly connected to UTRAN, the core network keeps track of the user's
location and handles connection management.
User Equipment Domain

This part refers to the mobile device assigned to a specific user. It includes the phone or
terminal that allows the user to access UMTS services like calling, messaging, or internet
browsing.

Infrastructure Domain

This is the part of the network that is shared by all users. It includes the network equipment
and systems that provide UMTS services to everyone who is allowed to use them.

USIM (Universal Subscriber Identity Module)

USIM is a smart card inserted into the mobile device (like a SIM card). It is responsible
for encrypting data and verifying the identity of the user, ensuring secure communication
on the network.

Mobile Equipment Domain

This includes the hardware part of the mobile device (like antennas and radios). It handles
sending and receiving signals and provides the user interface to make calls or access
data services.

Access Network Domain

This domain includes parts of the network that are specific to radio communication, such
as Radio Access Networks (RAN). It also includes connections between the RAN and the
core network.
Core Network Domain

This part handles the main network operations and is not dependent on the radio access
part. It is split into two major areas:

Serving Network Domain

The part of the network that is currently handling the user’s connection and
communication.

Home Network Domain

This section manages the user's permanent account and subscription data, and it works
regardless of where the user is located or which access network they are using.

UMTS Handover

Handover (or handoff) is the process where a mobile device (User Equipment, or UE)
switches from one cell or base station to another while maintaining an active call or data
session.​
For UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System), smooth handover is critical
to ensure:

●​ Calls or data connections are not dropped.

●​ Users don’t experience interruptions while moving.
●​ Network service quality remains high, preventing user dissatisfaction.
TYPES:

Softer Handover

●​ Happens within the same Node B (base station).

●​ The UE connects to multiple sectors of the same base station.
●​ Example: Switching from one antenna sector to another of the same tower.
●​ Ensures a smooth transition with better signal quality.

Soft Handover

●​ Takes place between different Node Bs, but within the same RNC (Radio Network
Controller).
●​ The UE connects to multiple base stations at once during the handover.
●​ No disconnection occurs, making the process seamless.
●​ Improves call stability and reduces the chance of dropped calls.

Hard Handover

●​ (i) Between different RNCs within the same Mobile Switching Centre(MSC)
●​ (ii) Or between different MSCs altogether
●​ The existing connection is completely broken before a new one is made.
●​ This is similar to traditional 2G GSM handovers.
●​ Slight delay or risk of call drop, but sometimes necessary.​

Inter-System Handover (UMTS ⇄ GSM)

●​ Happens when switching between different network technologies, like from 3G

(UMTS) to 2G (GSM) or vice versa.
●​ Useful when a 3G signal becomes weak, and the network falls back to 2G.
●​ Maintains connectivity across different Radio Access Technologies (RATs).
#2 GSM

GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) is one of the most widely used digital
mobile communication systems and is currently in use across India and many parts of the
world. It is known for supporting both voice and data services while maintaining backward
compatibility with older 1G systems.

GSM operates on multiple frequency bands depending on the region. The most common are
the 900 MHz and 1800 MHz bands, used extensively in India, Europe, and Asia. In contrast,
countries in the Americas like the USA and Canada typically use the 850 MHz and 1900
MHz bands due to prior allocation of the 900 and 1800 MHz ranges. In certain regions such
as Scandinavia, the 400 MHz and 450 MHz bands are still in use, previously assigned to
first-generation systems. Specifically, in the 900 MHz band, GSM uses 890–915 MHz for
uplink (mobile to base station) and 935–960 MHz for downlink (base station to mobile),
ensuring efficient two-way communication.

GSM Services :

GSM provides three main categories of services. These are: (i) Bearer services (ii)
Teleservices (iii) Supplementary services.

1. Bearer Services

These services allow data to be transmitted between devices. For example, if you send a file
from one device to another or access the internet using mobile data, bearer services make
this possible. They mainly deal with how data travels over the GSM network.

2. Teleservices

These are the actual communication services like making phone calls or sending SMS (text
messages). They let you talk to someone or exchange messages using your mobile phone.

3. Supplementary Services

These are extra features that improve the basic calling or messaging experience. Examples
include caller ID, call waiting, call forwarding, and call barring. They make using your mobile
more flexible and convenient.

System Architecture of GSM

A GSM system consists of three main subsystems:

Radio Subsystem (RSS)

The Radio Subsystem is responsible for all the radio-specific components involved in GSM
communication. It manages the wireless communication between mobile devices and the
network. Key components of this subsystem include:
Mobile Station (MS)

The Mobile Station (MS) refers to the mobile phone or device. It has two key components:

1.​ SIM Card: A removable smart card containing subscription details and other
identifiers. It stores crucial information, including the user's phone number, PIN, and
subscribed services.​

2.​ Mobile Device: The actual phone or equipment used to make calls and use data
services. It includes other interfaces like USB and Bluetooth for user connectivity.

The SIM card plays a key role in the GSM network, activating the phone and storing
encrypted data.

Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

The Base Station Subsystem (BSS) manages the radio communication between the
mobile stations and the rest of the network. It consists of two components:

1.​ Base Transceiver Station (BTS): Handles all the radio equipment, such as
antennas, signal processors, and amplifiers, needed for transmitting and receiving
radio signals.​

2.​ Base Station Controller (BSC): Manages radio resources for multiple BTSs,
assigning frequencies, and ensuring smooth handoffs as users move from one BTS
to another.​
Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)

The Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS) is the core of the GSM network. It connects
the wireless network to the public switched telephone network (PSTN) and other networks. It
also manages services like roaming, billing, and call routing. The main components are:

Mobile Switching Center (MSC)

The MSC is the heart of the network, handling call setup, release, and routing. It connects
with other MSCs and networks, such as Public Data Networks (PDNs), and also supports
supplementary services like call forwarding and multiparty calls.

Home Location Register (HLR)

The HLR is a central database that stores all permanent subscriber details, such as the
user's IMSI, subscription type (prepaid/postpaid), and current location.

Visitor Location Register (VLR)

The VLR temporarily stores subscriber information for users roaming in the area. It reduces
the need to query the HLR, ensuring quicker access to user data.

Operation Subsystem (OSS)

The Operation Subsystem (OSS) is responsible for the overall management, monitoring,
and maintenance of the network. It ensures smooth operation and troubleshooting. Key
components include:

Operation and Maintenance Center (OMC)

The OMC monitors and manages the network's traffic, subscribers, security, and billing
functions. It helps in troubleshooting and ensures the network is running efficiently.

Authentication Center (AuC)

The AuC ensures the security of the network by verifying user identities and encrypting data
transmissions. It works closely with the HLR to authenticate users and protect against fraud.

Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

The EIR tracks the IMEI of mobile devices. It helps block calls from stolen, unauthorized, or
faulty devices, ensuring security and network integrity.

GSM Protocols

In GSM, the protocols are responsible for managing the communication between different
parts of the network. These protocols are organized into three layers depending on the type
of communication they handle: Layer 1 (Physical Layer), Layer 2 (Data Link Layer), and
Layer 3 (Network Layer).
Layer 1 (Physical Layer):

●​ Handles radio-specific tasks like data transmission, synchronization, and channel

quality measurement.
●​ Ensures data is sent over the air securely.

Layer 2 (Data Link Layer - LAPDm):

●​ Manages reliable data transfer, error correction, and flow control.

●​ Ensures data is delivered correctly and in the right order.

Layer 3 (Network Layer):

●​ Radio Resource Management (RR): Manages radio channels.

●​ Mobility Management (MM): Handles registration, authentication, and location
updates.

Call Management (CM): Manages calls, SMS, and supplementary services like call
forwarding.

GSM Handover:

In GSM networks, a handover is a process that allows a mobile phone (or mobile station) to
keep its call or data session active when moving from one cell's coverage area to another.
This ensures the user doesn't experience dropped calls or interruptions. Handover is
important because mobile phones don't stay in one place; they move between different cells
in the network.

Why Handover Happens

There are two main reasons why handover is needed:

 1.​ Weak Signal: If you're moving out of the range of a base station (BTS), the signal
becomes weak, and the call quality drops. The network moves your call to another
BTS that has a stronger signal.​

2.​ Traffic Load: If one cell is too busy (many people are using it), the network may shift
some users to a nearby cell with less traffic, ensuring better service for everyone.

Types of Handover

1.​ Intra-cell Handover​

This happens within a single cell, when the phone needs to change frequency
because of interference. The phone stays in the same cell, but the frequency it uses
changes.​

2.​ Inter-cell, Intra-BSC Handover​

This happens when the phone moves from one cell to another, but both cells are
managed by the same Base Station Controller (BSC). The phone is simply switched
to a new frequency in the new cell.​

3.​ Inter-BSC, Intra-MSC Handover​

If the phone moves to a new cell controlled by a different BSC, but still within the
same Mobile Switching Center (MSC), the MSC coordinates the handover between
the two BSCs.​

4.​ Inter-MSC Handover​

This happens when the phone moves into a new cell controlled by a different MSC.
Both MSCs work together to keep the call active during the transition.
#3 Generations of Mobile Communication Technologies

Generations of Mobile Communication Technologies - Detailed

Explanation

Mobile communication technologies have rapidly evolved over the years, from 1G to 5G,
with each generation bringing significant improvements in performance, speed, and service
offerings. Below is a detailed overview of the five generations of mobile communication
technology:

1. First Generation (1G)

●​ Introduced: Early 1980s.

●​ Technology: AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) and MTS (Mobile
Telephone System).
●​ Communication Type: Analog.
●​ Frequency Band: 824–894 MHz.
●​ Data Rate: 2.4 kbps (very low).
●​ Service Type: Voice-only service (no data services).

Features of 1G:

1.​ Analog Signals: 1G networks used analog signals to transmit voice, meaning that
the quality of communication was often degraded by interference, noise, and fading.​

2.​ Limited Capacity: The number of simultaneous calls that could be handled was
limited due to the frequency band, which was shared by multiple users.​

3.​ Mobility: This was the first generation that allowed people to make mobile phone
calls while on the move, as it provided cellular networks instead of fixed landlines.​
 4.​ Security: There were no encryption mechanisms, so calls were not secure, which
made it easier for eavesdropping.​

5.​ Push-to-Talk (PTT): The "Push to Talk" feature was introduced, which was
essentially a form of two-way communication (similar to walkie-talkies).​

Limitations of 1G:

●​ Limited Coverage: Only limited areas were covered due to the nature of analog
technology.​

●​ Poor Voice Quality: The quality of voice calls often degraded with distance or in
urban areas due to interference and congestion.​

●​ No Data Services: The technology was designed for voice calls only, and no text
messaging or internet services were available.

2. Second Generation (2G)

●​ Introduced: Late 1980s, became widespread in the 1990s.

●​ Technology: GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications), CDMA (Code
Division Multiple Access), TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access).
●​ Communication Type: Digital signals.
●​ Frequency Band: 900 MHz, 1800 MHz (global deployment).
●​ Data Rate: Up to 64 kbps.

Features of 2G:

1.​ Digital Communication: Unlike 1G, 2G networks,it uses digital signals, offering
improved clarity, better coverage, and higher security.​

2.​ Text and Multimedia Messaging: The introduction of SMS (Short Message
Service) allowed users to send text messages, and later, MMS (Multimedia
Messaging Service) was introduced for sending images, audio, and video clips.​

3.​ Efficient Use of Spectrum: 2G technologies, especially GSM, used frequency

bands more efficiently, allowing more users to be supported on a single network.​

4.​ Enhanced Security: Digital transmission offered improved encryption, reducing the
risk of eavesdropping on calls.​

5.​ Lower Power Consumption: The technology was more power-efficient, allowing
phones to last longer on a single charge.

Limitations of 2G:
 ●​ Slow Data Speeds: With data speeds limited to about 64 kbps, 2G could not support
high-quality video calls or internet browsing.​

●​ Limited Data Services: The technology was designed mainly for voice
communication and basic messaging, making it unsuitable for more complex internet
services.​

3. Third Generation (3G)

●​ Introduced: 2000 (official launch).

●​ Technology: WCDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple Access), UMTS
(Universal Mobile Telecommunications System), HSPA (High-Speed Packet
Access).
●​ Communication Type: Digital signals.
●​ Frequency Band: Typically 2100 MHz, with additional bands for specific regions.
●​ Data Rate: 384 kbps to 2 Mbps (initial 3G), with advanced 3G (HSPA) providing
speeds up to 14 Mbps.​

Features of 3G:

1.​ High-Speed Internet: 3G networks enabled faster internet access, allowing for
real-time video calls, faster web browsing, and downloading.​

2.​ Multimedia Services: 3G allowed for seamless access to services such as mobile
TV, video conferencing, and more robust mobile gaming experiences.​

3.​ Global Roaming: One of the major advantages of 3G was the ability to roam
internationally on compatible networks, providing a consistent experience across
different countries.​

4.​ Improved Voice Quality: The technology used packet-switching for voice, which
helped improve call quality and reduce dropped calls.​

5.​ Smartphones: 3G smartphones became more common, providing users with the
ability to access the internet, stream videos, and use GPS and location-based
services on the go.

Limitations of 3G:

●​ Limited Data Rates for Video Streaming: While 3G supported video calls and
streaming, it still struggled with handling high-definition (HD) video content without
buffering.​

●​ Network Congestion: In densely populated areas, 3G networks could become

congested, leading to slower speeds and less reliable service.
4. Fourth Generation (4G)

●​ Introduced: Late 2009/2010.

●​ Technology: LTE (Long-Term Evolution), WiMAX.
●​ Communication Type: Digital signals.
●​ Frequency Band: 700 MHz to 2.5 GHz (varied by region).
●​ Data Rate: Up to 1 Gbps (theoretical peak), but real-world speeds range from 10 to
100 Mbps.

Features of 4G:

1.​ Ultra-Fast Internet: 4G offers speeds up to 1 Gbps, enabling near-instantaneous

data transfer and high-speed internet browsing, video streaming in HD/4K, and
smoother video conferencing.​

2.​ Low Latency: With significantly lower latency than 3G, 4G allows for real-time
services such as online gaming, virtual reality (VR), and augmented reality (AR).​

3.​ Support for HD Content: 4G supports high-definition video and audio streaming,
making it ideal for watching TV shows, movies, and live sports events on mobile
devices.​

4.​ Enhanced Mobile Services: Applications such as mobile banking, mobile TV, video
calling, and real-time location-based services have become more common.​

5.​ Network Sharing: 4G's IP-based architecture allows more efficient sharing of
network resources and services across devices and applications.

Limitations of 4G:

●​ Limited Coverage: While 4G is available in many urban areas, rural and remote
locations may still experience limited coverage.​

●​ Capacity Challenges: As the number of connected devices grows, 4G networks

may struggle to provide the same level of speed and performance under heavy
traffic.

5. Fifth Generation (5G)

●​ Introduced: Late 2010s (initial deployments).

●​ Technology: 5G NR (New Radio), mmWave (Millimeter Wave).
●​ Communication Type: Digital signals (Advanced MIMO, beamforming, etc.).
●​ Frequency Band: 600 MHz to 100 GHz (including mmWave bands).
●​ Data Rate: Up to 10 Gbps (theoretical peak).

Features of 5G:

1.​ Superfast Data Speeds: 5G is designed to deliver speeds up to 10 Gbps, which

allows for the ultra-fast download and upload of high-definition (HD) and 4K video,
 large file transfers, and smoother online gaming experiences.​

2.​ Ultra-Low Latency: With a latency as low as 1 millisecond, 5G is ideal for

applications requiring near-instantaneous response times, such as autonomous
vehicles, industrial automation, and remote surgery.​

3.​ Massive Connectivity: 5G supports a significantly larger number of devices, making

it ideal for the growing Internet of Things (IoT), where billions of devices are expected
to be connected.​

4.​ Enhanced Mobile Broadband: 5G provides higher reliability and faster mobile
broadband speeds, making it suitable for immersive technologies like augmented
reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR).​

5.​ Network Slicing: 5G allows for network slicing, where virtual networks are created
for specific purposes (e.g., one slice for IoT, one for emergency services), ensuring
optimized performance for each type of use.​

Benefits of 5G:

●​ Smart Cities: 5G will enable smart city infrastructure by supporting IoT applications
such as smart traffic management, smart homes, and public safety systems.​

●​ Remote Control and Automation: 5G enables more reliable and low-latency remote
control of industrial machinery, robotics, and vehicles, leading to innovations in
manufacturing and automation.​

●​ Enhanced Consumer Experience: With ultra-fast speeds and low latency, 5G will
transform user experiences with applications like cloud gaming, VR/AR, and
high-quality video streaming.

Challenges of 5G:

●​ Infrastructure Costs: The deployment of 5G infrastructure requires significant

investment, especially in terms of building new cell towers and supporting equipment.​

●​ Battery Life: While 5G will increase data speed, it can also consume more battery
life, especially for devices using higher-frequency bands.