GATE

PREPARATORY CLASS
EQUIVALENT IMPEDANCE
CALCULATION

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

ABIT, CUTTACK
LECTURE- 01
 BASIC THEORY
• When “n” number of resistances are connected in
series , then the combination of all resistances may
be equivalent to a single resistance of value:-

R equivalent = R se = R1+R2+……+Rn
• When “n” number of resistances are connected in
parallel , then the combination of all resistances
may be equivalent to a single resistance of value:-

R equivalent = R P = 1/ ((1/R1 + 1/R2 + ….+ 1/Rn))

DELTA-STAR CONVERSION
STAR-DELTA CONVERSION
PROBLEM-1
PROBLEM-2
PROBLEM-3
PROBLEM-4
PROBLEM-5
PROBLEM-6
PROBLEM-7
FULL LENGTH = 2×Pi×radius
As TOROID is half cut, so the
mean length is = Pi× radius
 PROBLEM-8

Find out the equivalent resistance

between M and N
LECTURE- 02
PROBLEM-9
PROBLEM-10
PROBLEM-11
As W = V×I
=> I = W / V
PROBLEM-12
PROBLEM-13
PROBLEM-14
LECTURE- 03
PROBLEM-15
As I = 2 Amp
PROBLEM-16
PROBLEM-17
PROBLEM-18
 Both are again
Connected in parallel
connected in
series connection

Connected in parallel
PROBLEM-19
As we know P = V.I = V. (V/R) = V2/R
R = V2/P
 PROBLEM- 20
The equivalent capacitance between the
terminal B and Y is …………
 CONNECTED
IN PARALLEL

CS + 2CS
CS + 2CS

BOTH ARE CONNECTED IN

SERIES
PROBLEM- 22
PROBLEM- 23
PROBLEM- 24
PROBLEM- 25
PROBLEM- 26
 PROBLEM- 27

in KJ
As 1 Kilowatts = 1000 Joules per second
PROBLEM- 28
LECTURE- 04
POWER IN AC CIRCUIT
 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT
TYPES OF POWER
 REAL POWER ( V.I.COSØ )
 REACTIVE POWER ( V.I.SINØ)
 APPARENT POWER ( V.I )
POWER IN AC CIRCUIT
 REAL POWER IN AC CIRCUIT
TRUE POWER
• The power which is actually consumed in the circuit is called
true power or active power. Measured in unit “WATT”
• We know that power is consumed in resistance only since
neither pure inductor (L) nor pure capacitor (C) consumes
any active power. Now, current and voltage are in phase in a
resistance.
• Therefore, current in phase with voltage produces true or
active power. It is the useful component of apparent power.
• The product of voltage (V) and component of total current in
phase with voltage (I cos Ø) is equal to true power.
• True power, P = Voltage × Component of total current in
phase with voltage
• = V × I cos Ø => P = VI cos Ø
 REACTIVE POWER IN AC CIRCUIT
REACTIVE POWER.
• The component of apparent power which is neither
consumed nor does any useful work in the circuit is called
reactive power. The power consumed (or true power) in L
and C is zero
• Now, current and voltage in L or C are 90° out of phase.
Therefore, current 90° out of phase with voltage contributes
to reactive power.
• The product of voltage (V) and component of total current
90° out of phase with voltage (I sin Ø) is equal to reactive
power i.e. Reactive power, Q = Voltage × Component of total
current 90° out of phase with voltage
• => Q = V × I sin Ø
• => Q = VI sin Ø
• It is measured in volt-amperes reactive (VAR).
 POWER FACTOR
• The factor representing “ how much apparent
power or available power is used for useful work ”
• Ex – Let 100% power is available out of which 80%
power has been utilized for useful work, then
power factor is 0.8
• It is represented by “ COS Ø”
1. COS Ø = cosine of angle between V and I
2. Power factor = R / Z = Resistance / Impedance
3. Power factor = True Power / Apparent Power
= V I COS Ø / V I
 Power factor range is 0 < COSØ < 1
 POWER FACTOR
 Power factor range is 0 < COSØ < 1

 For Purely Resistive Circuit :- I is in phase with V

COSØ = COS(0) = 1
 For Purely Inductive Circuit : I lags from V by 900
COSØ = COS(-90) = 0
 For Purely Capacitive Circuit : I lead to V by 900
COSØ = COS(+90) = 0
POWER IN AC CIRCUIT
 Rectangular and polar representation of
phasors
• According to complex algebra , two orthogonal
phasors can be represented simultaneously in one
complex form.
• It gives the resulting action of two individual
phasors.
• One of them is called as real part and the other
part is called as imaginary part.
• In a Cartesian coordinate system , x-axis is treated
as real axis and y-axis is treated as imaginary axis.
J-OPERATOR
By Phasor Algebra
By Phasor Algebra
Equivalent Impedance Method
 POWER IN Y-CONNECTED CIRCUIT
• The total power in the circuit is the sum of powers in the
three phases.
• For a balanced load, the power consumed in each load
phase is the same.
• Total power, P = 3 × Power in each phase
= 3 × Vph Iph cosØ

Reactive power, Q = √3 VL IL sinØ

 POWER IN Y-CONNECTED CIRCUIT
Now We have
• Real Power, P = √3 VL IL COSØ
• Reactive power, Q = √3VLILSINØ
• => Apparent Power, S = √(P2 + Q2)
S = √3 VL IL
Power Factor = COSØ
= Real Power/ Apparent Power
= P/S
• The current IN in the neutral wire in 4-wire, star-
connected system will be the phasor sum of
currents in the three lines i.e.
• IN = IR + IY + IB
 3-PH “DELTA (∆)” CONNECTION
• In ∆-connection, dissimilar
ends (start to finish) of the
phases are joined to form a
closed mesh and the three
lines are run from the
junction points as shown in
Figure.
• In a ∆-connection, no
neutral point exists and
only 3-phase, 3-wire system
can be formed.
 3-PH “DELTA (∆)” CONNECTION
 The finishing end of one
phase is connected to the
starting end of the other
phase and so on to obtain
mesh or delta as shown in
Fig.
The three line conductors
are taken from the three
junctions of the mesh or
delta and are designated as
R, Y and B.
In delta connection, no
neutral exists and, therefore,
only 3-phase, 3-wire system
can be formed.
 3-PH “DELTA (∆)” CONNECTION

The following points may be noted for a balanced 3-Ph load

1. VL = VPH
2. IL = √3 IPH
 3-PH “DELTA (∆)” CONNECTION

 Current in line 1, I1 = IR – IB ...Phasor difference

 Current in line 2, I2 = IY – IR … Phasor difference
 Current in line 3, I3 = IB – IY ... Phasor difference
 Current in phase = Line current / √3
 IPH = IL / √3
 IR = IY = IB = IPH = IL / √3 for balanced 3-ph circuit.
Power in Delta connected Circuit
• Total power, P = 3 × Power per phase = 3 × VPH . IPH COSØ
• For a delta connection, VPH = VL ; IPH = IL / √3
• => P = 3 × VL × (IL /√3) × COSØ
=> P = √3 VL IL COSØ ,
Where COSØ is the power factor of each phase.
 Note that in either case, star or delta, the expression for the
total power is the same provided that the system is balanced.
 Real Power, P = √3 VL IL COSØ
 Reactive power, Q = √3 VL IL SINØ
 Apparent power, S = √3 VL I L
• The relationship between active power (P), reactive power
(Q) and apparent power (S) is the same for balanced 3-phase
circuits as for single-phase circuits.
=> S = √(P2+Q2) where power factor COSØ = P/S
 Power in Star connected Circuit
• Total power, P = 3 × Power per phase = 3 × VPH . IPH COSØ
• For a star connection, VPH = VL / √3 ; IPH = IL
• => P = 3 × (VL / √3 )× IL × COSØ
=> P = √3 VL IL COSØ ,
Where COSØ is the power factor of each phase.
 Note that in either case, star or delta, the expression for the
total power is the same provided that the system is balanced.
 Real Power, P = √3 VL IL COSØ
 Reactive power, Q = √3 VL IL SINØ
 Apparent power, S = √3 VL I L
• The relationship between active power (P), reactive power
(Q) and apparent power (S) is the same for balanced 3-phase
circuits as for single-phase circuits.
=> S = √(P2+Q2) where power factor COSØ = P/S
 Y/∆ or ∆/Y Conversions for Balanced Loads

Two circuits are said to be electrically equivalent if :-

 They draw the same line current.
 They draw the same power when connected to
the same line voltage.
 Y/∆ or ∆/Y Conversions for Balanced Loads
Consider “Z1” is the impedance in each phase of a
balanced star connected load .
Consider “Z2” is the impedance in each phase of a
balanced delta connected load
Y/∆ or ∆/Y Conversions for Balanced Loads
 MEASUREMENT OF 3-PH POWER
Use of Single-Phase Wattmeter

Wattmeter is a device which

measures the power consumed
by the load circuit.
 A single-phase wattmeter
consists of two coils.
 One fixed coil called as
current coil.
 One movable coil called as
potential coil or voltage coil
carrying a pointer which moves
over a scale.
 MEASUREMENT OF 3-PH POWER
Use of Single-Phase Wattmeter
CURRENT COIL POTENTIAL COIL
……………………………........... ………………………………………
1. CONNECTED IN SERIES 1. CONNECTED IN
WITH THE LINE. PARALLEL.
2. HAVING LOW 2. HAVING HIGH
RESISTANCE. RESITANCE.
3. MEASURES THE 3. MEASURES THE
CURRENT (I) DRAWN VOLTAGE (V) ACROSS
BY THE LOAD. THE LOAD.

So the current measured by the current coil is “I” and

the voltage measured by the potential coil is “V”.
So the Power measured by the wattmeter is
P = V . I . COSØ
 MEASUREMENT OF 3-PH POWER
Use of Single-Phase Wattmeter
It is clear that a wattmeter has four
L
terminals ; two for current coil and M
two for potential coil. P C

M => MAIN POINT

L => LOAD POINT
C => COMMON POINT
P => PRESSURE POINT
MAIN POINT :- Connected to Supply End
LOAD POINT :- Connected to Load End
COMMON :- Connected to Both Current & Pressure coil
PRESSURE :- Connected to Neutral
 POWER MEASUREMENT IN THREE
PHASE CIRCUITS

• Measurement of power on three-phase circuits is

possible by the use of wattmeter.
• Power measurement can be done by the following
methods
1. Single-Wattmeter Method
2. Three-Wattmeter Method
3. Two-Wattmeter Method
 1. SINGLE WATTMETER METHOD
• In this case, only one wattmeter is used as the
circuit diagram.
NOW TOTAL POWER
CONSUMED BY THIS
BALANCED 3-PH
CIRCUIT CAN BE
CALCULATED AS

WTOTAL = 3W

• This wattmeter will measure the power consumed

by that particular phase as “W”.
2. THREE WATTMETER METHOD
3. TWO WATTMETER METHOD
 PHASOR DIAGRAM
VBY

IB
VB VRY

Ø
β 30
30 α VR
β = 30-Ø Ø
IR

α = 30+Ø

VY
 POWER MEASUREMENT
POWER MEASURED BY WATTMETER – 1 IS W1

W1 = VRY IR COS α = VL IL COS (30+Ø)

POWER MEASURED BY WATTMETER – 2 IS W2

W2 = VBY IB COS β = VL IL COS (30-Ø)

NOW
WTOTAL = W1 + W2 = VL IL COS (30+Ø) + VL IL COS (30-Ø)

WTOTAL = VL IL (2 COS 30 . COS Ø)

WTOTAL = VL IL (2× √3/2 × COS Ø)

WTOTAL = √3 VL IL COS Ø
 MEASUREMENT OF POWER FACTOR

W1 = VRY IR COS α = VL IL COS (30+Ø)

W2 = VBY IB COS β = VL IL COS (30-Ø)
│W1 - W2 │ = │W2 – W1 │
= VL IL COS (30-Ø) - VL IL COS (30+Ø)
= VL IL ( 2 sin 30 . sin Ø)
= VL IL ( 2× ½ × sin Ø)
= VL IL sinØ
MEASUREMENT OF POWER FACTOR
NOW We have,
W1 + W2 = √3 VL IL COS Ø………………(1)
W1 - W2 = VL IL SinØ………………………(2)
Now take the ratio of the above two equations
Equ-2/Equ-1 = W1 – W2
W 1 + W2
= (VL IL SinØ)/(√3 VL IL COS Ø)
= (1/√3) tanØ
Ø = tan-1 √3 ( (W1 - W2 )/(W1 + W2 )
SO POWER FACTOR = COS Ø
LECTURE- 05
NEW TRICKS TO REMEMBER
The following points may be noted carefully :
(i) The wattmeter whose deflection is proportional to
(30° – Ø) (i.e. W2 in this case) is always positive and is
the higher-reading wattmeter.
(ii) The wattmeter whose deflection is proportional to
(30° + Ø) (i.e., W1 in this case) is the lower-reading
wattmeter.
(iii) The negative reading will only be obtained on the
lower-reading wattmeter (i.e. W1 in this case) and that
too when the load Power factor is less than 0.5.
PROBLEM-I
PROBLEM-I-ANSWER
PROBLEM-2
PROBLEM-2-ANSWER
PROBLEM-3
PROBLEM-4
PROBLEM-5
PROBLEM-6
PROBLEM-7