International Trade: Theory and Policy

Twelfth Edition, Global Edition

Chapter 4
Specific Factors and
Income Distribution

Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Learning Objectives
4.1 Understand how a mobile factor will respond to price
changes by moving across sectors.
4.2 Explain why trade will generate both winners and losers
in the short run.
4.3 Understand the meaning of gains from trade when
there are losers.
4.4 Discuss the reasons why trade is a politically
contentious issue.
4.5 Explain the arguments in favor of free trade despite the
existence of losers.

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Preview
• Introduction
• The Specific Factors Model
• International Trade in the Specific Factors Model
• Income Distribution and the Gains from Trade
• Politics of Trade Protection
• International Labor Mobility
• Summary

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Introduction
• If trade is so good for the economy, why is there such
opposition?
• Two main reasons why international trade has strong
effects on the distribution of income within a country:
– Resources cannot move immediately or costlessly
from one industry to another.
– Industries differ in the factors of production they
demand.

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The Specific Factors Model (1 of 4)
• The specific factors model allows trade to affect income
distribution.
• Assumptions of the model:
– Two goods, cloth and food.
– Three factors of production: labor (L), capital (K), and
land (T for terrain).
– Perfect competition prevails in all markets.

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The Specific Factors Model (2 of 4)
– Cloth produced using capital and labor (but not land).
– Food produced using land and labor (but not capital).
– Labor is a mobile factor that can move between
sectors.
– Land and capital are both specific factors used only in
the production of one good.

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The Specific Factors Model (3 of 4)
• How much of each good does the economy produce?
• The production function for cloth gives the quantity of cloth
that can be produced given any input of capital and labor:
QC = QC ( K , LC )

– QC is the output of cloth

– K is the capital stock

– LC is the labor force employed in cloth

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The Specific Factors Model (4 of 4)
• The production function for food gives the quantity of food
that can be produced given any input of land and labor:

QF = QF (T , LF )

– QF is the output of food

– T is the supply of land

– LF is the labor force employed in food

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Production Possibilities (1 of 6)
• How does the economy’s mix of output change as labor
is shifted from one sector to the other?
• When labor moves from food to cloth, food production
falls while output of cloth rises.
• Figure 4.1 illustrates the production function for cloth.

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Figure 4.1 The Production Function for
Cloth

The more labor employed in the production of cloth, the larger the
output. As a result of diminishing returns, however, each successive
person-hour increases output by less than the previous one; this is
shown by the fact that the curve relating labor input to output gets
flatter at higher levels of employment.
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Production Possibilities (2 of 6)
• The shape of the production function reflects the law of
diminishing marginal returns.
– Adding one worker to the production process (without
increasing the amount of capital) means that each
worker has less capital to work with.
– Therefore, each additional unit of labor adds less
output than the last.
• Figure 4.2 shows the marginal product of labor, which
is the increase in output that corresponds to an extra unit
of labor.

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Figure 4.2 The Marginal Product of Labor

The marginal product of labor in the cloth sector, equal to the slope of
the production function shown in Figure 4.1, is lower the more labor the
sector employs.
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Production Possibilities (3 of 6)
• For the economy as a whole, the total labor employed in
cloth and food must equal the total labor supply:

LC + LF = L
• Use these equations to derive the production
possibilities frontier of the economy.

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Production Possibilities (4 of 6)
• Use a four-quadrant diagram to construct production
possibilities frontier in Figure 4.3.
– Lower left quadrant indicates the allocation of labor.
– Lower right quadrant shows the production function
for cloth from Figure 4.1.
– Upper left quadrant shows the corresponding
production function for food.
– Upper right quadrant indicates the combinations of
cloth and food that can be produced.

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Figure 4.3 The Production Possibility
Frontier in the Specific Factors Model

PP in the upper-right quadrant shows the economy’s production

possibilities for given supplies of land, labor, and capital. Due to
diminishing returns, PP is a bowed-out curve instead of a straight line.
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Production Possibilities (5 of 6)
• Why is the production possibilities frontier curved?
– Diminishing returns to labor in each sector cause the
opportunity cost to rise when an economy produces
more of a good.
– Opportunity cost of cloth in terms of food is the slope
of the production possibilities frontier—the slope
becomes steeper as an economy produces more
cloth.

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Production Possibilities (6 of 6)
MPLF
• Opportunity cost of producing one more yard of cloth is
MPLC
pounds of food.
1
– To produce one more yard of cloth, you need hours of labor.
MPLC

– To free up one hour of labor, you must reduce output of food by

MPLF pounds.

– To produce less food and more cloth, employ less in food and more in
cloth.
– The marginal product of labor in food rises and the marginal product of
MPLF
labor in cloth falls, so rises.
MPLC

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Prices, Wages, and Labor Allocation (1 of 10)

• How much labor is employed in each sector?

– Need to look at supply and demand in the labor
market.
• Demand for labor:
– In each sector, employers will maximize profits by
demanding labor up to the point where the value
produced by an additional hour equals the marginal
cost of employing a worker for that hour.

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Prices, Wages, and Labor Allocation (2 of 10)

• The demand curve for labor in the cloth sector:

MPLC  PC = W

– The wage equals the value of the marginal product of

labor in manufacturing.

• The demand curve for labor in the food sector:

MPLF  PF = W

– The wage equals the value of the marginal product of

labor in food.

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Prices, Wages, and Labor Allocation (3 of 10)

• Figure 4.4 represents labor demand in the two sectors.

• The demand for labor in the cloth sector is MPLC

from Figure 4.2 multiplied by PC

• The demand for labor in the food sector is measured from

the right.
• The horizontal axis represents the total labor supply L.

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Prices, Wages, and Labor Allocation (4 of 10)

• The two sectors must pay the same wage because labor
can move between sectors.
• If the wage were higher in the cloth sector, workers would
move from making food to making cloth until the wages
become equal.
– Or if the wage were higher in the food sector, workers
would move in the other direction.
• Where the labor demand curves intersect gives the
equilibrium wage and allocation of labor between the two
sectors.

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Figure 4.4 The Allocation of Labor

Labor is allocated so that the value of its marginal product (P  MPL)

is the same in the cloth and food sectors. In equilibrium, the wage rate
is equal to the value of labor’s marginal product.
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Prices, Wages, and Labor Allocation (5 of 10)

• At the production point, the production possibility frontier

must be tangent to a line whose slope is minus the price
of cloth divided by that of food.
• Relationship between relative prices and output:

MPLF PC
− =−
MPLC PF

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Figure 4.5 Production in the Specific
Factors Model

The economy produces at the point on its production

possibility frontier (PP) where the slope of that frontier
equals minus the relative price of cloth.
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Prices, Wages, and Labor Allocation (6 of 10)

• What happens to the allocation of labor and the distribution

of income when the prices of food and cloth change?
• Two cases:

1. An equal proportional change in prices

2. A change in relative prices

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Prices, Wages, and Labor Allocation (7 of 10)
• When both prices change in the same proportion, no real
changes occur.
– The wage rate (w) rises in the same proportion as the
prices, so real wages (i.e., the ratios of the wage rate
to the prices of goods) are unaffected.
– The real incomes of capital owners and landowners
also remain the same.

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Figure 4.6 An Equal-Proportional
Increase in the Prices of Cloth and Food

The labor demand curves in cloth and food both shift up in proportion to
the rise in PC from PC1 to PC 2 and the rise in PF from PF 1 to PF 2 .
The wage rate rises in the same proportion, from w 1 to w 2
but the allocation of labor between the two sectors does not change.
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Prices, Wages, and Labor Allocation (8 of 10)

• When only PC rises, labor shifts from the food sector

to the cloth sector and the output of cloth rises while that
of food falls.
• The wage rate (w) does not rise as much as PC since
cloth employment increases and thus the marginal
product of labor in that sector falls.

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Figure 4.7 A Rise in the Price of Cloth

The cloth labor demand curve rises in proportion to the 7 percent

increase in PC , but the wage rate rises less than proportionately.
Labor moves from the food sector to the cloth sector. Output of
cloth rises; output of food falls.
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Figure 4.8 The Response of Output to a
Change in the Relative Price of Cloth

The economy always produces at the point on its production possibility

frontier (PP) where the slope of PP equals minus the relative price of
cloth. Thus, an increase in PC  PF causes production to move down
and to the right along the production possibility frontier corresponding
to higher output of cloth and lower output of food.
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Figure 4.9 Determination of Relative Prices

In the specific factors model, a higher relative price of cloth will lead
to an increase in the output of cloth relative to that of food. Thus, the
relative supply curve RS is upward sloping. Equilibrium relative
quantities and prices are determined by the intersection of RS with
the relative demand curve RD.
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Prices, Wages, and Labor Allocation (9 of 10)

• Relative Prices and the Distribution of Income

– Suppose that PC increases by 10%. Then, the
wage would rise by less than 10%.
• What is the economic effect of this price increase on the
incomes of the following three groups?
– Workers, owners of capital, and owners of land

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Prices, Wages, and Labor Allocation (10 of 10)

• Owners of capital are definitely better off.

• Landowners are definitely worse off.
• Workers: cannot say whether workers are better or worse
off:
– Depends on the relative importance of cloth and food
in workers’ consumption.

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International Trade in the Specific
Factors Model (1 of 3)
• Trade and Relative Prices
– The relative price of cloth prior to trade is determined
by the intersection of the economy’s relative supply of
cloth and its relative demand.
– Free trade relative price of cloth is determined by the
intersection of world relative supply of cloth and world
relative demand.
– Opening up to trade increases the relative price of
cloth in an economy whose relative supply of cloth is
larger than for the world as a whole.

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Figure 4.10 Trade and Relative Prices

The figure shows the relative supply curve for the specific factors economy along with
the world relative supply curve. The differences between the two relative supply curves
can be due to either technology or resource differences across countries. There are no
differences in relative demand across countries. Opening up to trade induces an
( PC  PF ) to ( PC  PF ) .
1 2
increase in the relative price from

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International Trade in the Specific
Factors Model (2 of 3)
• Gains from trade
– Without trade, the economy’s output of a good must
equal its consumption.
– International trade allows the mix of cloth and food
consumed to differ from the mix produced.
– The country cannot spend more than it earns:

PC DC + PF DF = PCQC + PFQF

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International Trade in the Specific
Factors Model (3 of 3)

• The economy as a whole gains from trade.

– It imports an amount of food equal to the relative
price of cloth times the amount of cloth exported:

 PC 
DF − QF =    (QC − DC )
 PF 

– It is able to afford amounts of cloth and food that the

country is not able to produce itself.
– The budget constraint with trade lies above the
production possibilities frontier in Figure 4.11.

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Figure 4.11 Budget Constraint for a
Trading Economy and Gains from Trade
Point 2 represents the economy’s
production. The economy can choose
its consumption point along its budget
constraint (a line that passes through
point 2 and has a slope equal to minus
the relative price of cloth). Before
trade, the economy must consume
what it produces, such as point 1 on
the production possibility frontier (PP).
The portion of the budget constraint in
the colored region consists of feasible
post-trade consumption choices, with
consumption of both goods higher
than at pretrade point 1.

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Politics of Trade Protection (1 of 4)
• International trade shifts the relative price of cloth to food,
so factor prices change.
• Trade benefits the factor that is specific to the export
sector of each country, but hurts the factor that is specific
to the import-competing sectors.
• Trade has ambiguous effects on mobile factors.

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Politics of Trade Protection (2 of 4)
• Trade benefits a country by expanding choices.
– Possible to redistribute income so that everyone
gains from trade.
– Those who gain from trade could compensate those
who lose and still be better off themselves.
– That everyone could gain from trade does not mean
that they actually do—redistribution usually hard to
implement.

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Politics of Trade Protection (3 of 4)
• Trade often produces losers as well as winners.
• Optimal trade policy must weigh one group’s gain against
another’s loss.
– Some groups may need special treatment because
they are already relatively poor (e.g., shoe and
garment workers in the United States).
• Most economists strongly favor free trade.

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Politics of Trade Protection (4 of 4)
• Typically, those who gain from trade are a much less
concentrated, informed, and organized group than those
who lose.
– Example: Consumers and producers in the U.S.
sugar industry, respectively
• Governments usually provide a “safety net” of income
support to cushion the losses to groups hurt by trade (or
other changes).

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Trade and Unemployment (1 of 3)
• Trade shifts jobs from import-competing to export sector.
– Process not instantaneous—some workers will be
unemployed as they look for new jobs.
• How much unemployment can be traced back to trade?
– From 2001 to 2010, only about 2% of involuntary
displacements stemmed from import competition or
plants moved overseas.

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Trade and Unemployment (2 of 3)
• U.S. Trade Adjustment Assistance program provides
extended unemployment coverage (for an additional year)
and tuition reimbursement (for new job skill acquisitions) to
workers who are displaced by a plant closure.
– To qualify, the plant closure must be due to import
competition or an overseas relocation to a country
receiving preferential access to the United States.

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Trade and Unemployment (3 of 3)
• Figure 4.12 shows that there no evidence of a positive
correlation between unemployment and imports (relative
to U.S. GDP) for the United States.
– After 2012, both imports and unemployment do drop
significantly; However, the drop in imports was driven
by falling oil prices. Non-oil imports as a share of U.S.
GDP remained stable in those years.
• Unemployment is primarily a macroeconomic problem
that rises during recessions.
– The best way to reduce unemployment is by adopting
macroeconomic policies to help the economy recover,
not by adopting trade protection.
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Figure 4.12 Unemployment and Import
Penetration in the United States

The highlighted years are recession years, as determined by the

National Bureau of Economic Research.
Source: U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis for imports and U.S. Bureau of
Labor Studies for unemployment.
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Manufacturing Employment and Chinese
Import Competition (1 of 2)
• Is import competition from developing countries—especially
from China—at fault for declines in manufacturing employment
in the United States?
– Would closing off the United States from trade with China
increase the share of employment in U.S. manufacturing?
• Some workers in sectors that compete with Chinese imports
may lose their jobs and take time to find new jobs.
– Meanwhile, jobs are opening up in the export sectors of the
economy.
– What is the net effect of increase import competition on
manufacturing employment?

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Manufacturing Employment and Chinese
Import Competition (2 of 2)
• Figure 4.13 shows that this manufacturing employment
share has been steadily decreasing over the last half-
century.
• U.S. manufacturing was still producing the same quantity
of goods, but was using fewer and fewer workers (due to
increase productivity).
• Estimate share of manufacturing employment using data
from before China became a major source of U.S.
imports.
– Accurate fit to manufacturing employment now.
– China appears to have little, if any, effect.
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Figure 4.13 U.S. Manufacturing
Employment and Imports from China

Manufacturing employment is measured as a percent of total U.S.

non-farm employment. Imports from China are measured as a percent
of the U.S. manufacturing production.
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The Trump Trade War
• Substantial political pressure to protect import-competing
sectors, even if leads to aggregate losses.
– Trade protection usually limited to a few hard-hit sectors.
• The Trump administration enacted a vast set of tariffs on solar
panels, washing machines, steel, aluminium, and an
expanding list of manufactured good produced in China.
– Many of the protected sectors contained a high proportion
of intermediate goods imported by U.S. producers,
harming jobs in these downstream sectors.
– Retaliation by trading partners had a negative impact on
employment by U.S. exporters.

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International Labor Mobility (1 of 6)
• Movements in factors of production include
– Labor migration
– The transfer of financial assets through
international borrowing and lending
– Transactions of multinational corporations
involving direct ownership of foreign firms
• Like movements of goods and services (trade),
movements of factors of production are politically
sensitive and are often restricted.

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International Labor Mobility (2 of 6)
• Why does labor migrate and what effects does labor
migration cause?
• Workers migrate to wherever wages are highest.
• Consider movement of labor across countries instead of
across sectors.
• Suppose two countries produce one non-traded good
(food) using two factors of production:
– Land cannot move across countries but labor can.

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International Labor Mobility (3 of 6)
• Figure 4.13 finds the equilibrium wage and labor allocation with
migration across countries.
– Similar to how Figure 4.4 determined the equilibrium allocation
of labor between sectors.
• Start with OL1 workers in Home earning a lower real wage
1 
(point C) than the LO workers in Foreign (point B).

– Lower wage due to less land per worker (lower productivity).

• Workers in the home country want to migrate to the foreign country
where they can earn more.

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International Labor Mobility (4 of 6)
• If no obstacles to labor migration, workers move from Home to Foreign
until the purchasing power of wages is equal across countries (point A),
with OL2 workers in Home and L2O  workers in Foreign.

– Emigration from Home decreases the supply of labor and raises

real wage of the workers who remain there.
▪ Workers who start in the Home country earn more due to
emigration regardless if they are among those who leave.
– Immigration into Foreign increases the supply of labor and
decreases the real wage there.
• Wages do not actually equalize, due to barriers to migration such as
policies restricting immigration and natural reluctance to move.

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Figure 4.14 Causes and Effects of
International Labor Mobility
1 
Initially, OL1 workers are employed in Home, while LO
workers are employed in Foreign. Labor migrates from Home to
Foreign until OL2 workers are employed in Home, L2O 
in Foreign, and wages are equalized.

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International Labor Mobility (5 of 6)
• Workers initially in Home benefit while workers in Foreign
are hurt by inflows of other workers.
– Landowners in Foreign gain from the inflow of workers
decreasing real wages and increasing output.
– Landowners in Home are hurt by the outflow of workers
increasing real wages and decreasing output.

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International Labor Mobility (6 of 6)
• Due to higher wages in Western Europe relative to its
new EU partners in Eastern Europe, there have been
substantial east-to-west migration flows.
– Has this process been associated with wage
convergence as predicted by our model of labor
mobility? Yes, it has.
• Figure 4.15 plots the relative wage of manufacturing
workers from the new 2004 member countries relative to
Western Europe.
– Large compensation differentials still persist, but the
trend is toward convergence.

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Figure 4.15 Eastern–Western Europe
Relative Compensation 1997–2015

Western Europe includes: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece,
Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United
Kingdom. Eastern Europe includes: the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia.
Source: The Conference Board International Labor Comparisons, 2016; and Orley Ashenfelter and
Stepan Jurajda, "Comparing Real Wage Rates using McWages", mimeo, 2020.

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Immigration and the U.S. Economy (1 of 2)

• In the early 20th century, share of immigrants in the

United States increased dramatically.
– Vast immigration from Eastern and Southern Europe.
• Tight restrictions on immigration imposed in the 1920s.
– Immigrants were a minor force in the United States by
the 1960s.
• New wave of immigration began around 1970.
– Mostly from Latin America and Asia.
• As of 2014, 16.7% of the U.S. labor force is foreign-born.

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Figure 4.16 Foreign-Born Population as a
Percentage of the U.S. Population

Restrictions on immigration in the 1920s led to a sharp decline in the

foreign-born population in the mid-20th century, but immigration has
risen sharply again in recent decades.
Source: U.S. Census Bureau.
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Immigration and the U.S. Economy (2 of 2)

• The largest increase in recent immigration occurred

among workers with the lowest education levels, making
less educated workers more abundant.
– Possibly reduced wages for native-born workers with
low education levels while raising wages for the more
educated
– Widening wage gap between less educated workers
and highly educated workers.

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Figure 4.17 Foreign-Born and Total U.S. Population
Over 25 Years Old by Educational Attainment

Relative to native-born workers, foreign-born workers are concentrated

in both the highest and lowest educational groups.
Source: U.S. Census Bureau.
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Summary (1 of 4)
1. International trade often has strong effects on the
distribution of income within countries—produces
losers as well as winners.
2. Income distribution effects arise for two reasons:

– Factors of production cannot move costlessly

and quickly from one industry to another.
– Changes in an economy’s output mix have
differential effects on the demand for different
factors of production.

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Summary (2 of 4)
3. International trade affects the distribution of income in
the specific factors model.

– Factors specific to export sectors in each country gain

from trade, while factors specific to import-competing
sectors lose.
– Mobile factors that can work in either sector may
either gain or lose.

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Summary (3 of 4)
4. Trade nonetheless produces overall gains in the sense
that those who gain could in principle compensate those
who lose while still remaining better off than before.
5. Most economists would prefer to address the problem of
income distribution directly, rather than by restricting
trade.
6. Those hurt by trade are often better organized than
those who gain, causing trade restrictions to be adopted.

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Summary (4 of 4)
7. Labor migrates to countries with higher labor productivity
and higher real wages, where labor is scarce.

– Real wages fall due to immigration and rise due to

emigration.
– World output increases.

8. Real wages across countries are far from equal due to

differences in technology and due to immigration barriers.

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Figure 4A.1 Showing That Output Is Equal to
the Area under the Marginal Product Curve

By approximating the marginal product curve with a series of thin

rectangles, one can show that the total output of cloth is equal to the
area under the curve.
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Figure 4A.2 The Distribution of Income
within the Cloth Sector

Labor income is equal to the real wage times employment. The rest of
output accrues as income to the owners of capital.
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Figure 4A.3 A Rise in PC Benefits the Owners
P Sub C

of Capital

The real wage in terms of cloth falls, leading to a rise in the income of
capital owners.
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Figure 4A.4 A Rise in PC Hurts Landowners
P Sub C

The real wage in terms of food rises, reducing the income of land.
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