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 The Greek Enharmonic Scale.—The scale called Enharmonic
was made thus: The fourth and seventh strings were lowered a
whole tone; that is, to the pitch of the second and sixth, the second
and sixth were lowered a quartertone, thus:

C-flat is supposed to be halfway between B and C; F-flat halfway

between E and F. Our modern system does not provide for the
notation of quartertones.

Lyre. Cithara. Lydian Magadis.

Greek Instruments.—The standard instrument of the Greeks
was the Lyre. It bore many names, as Lyre, Tetrachordon, Chelys,
Phorminx, Cithara, etc. There may have been slight differences in
the size and the number of the strings, but great uncertainty prevails
on this point. Under the name of Flute (Aulos) they seem to have
included both Flutes proper and instruments of the hautboy or
clarinet family. These instruments bore a bewildering number of
names, the exact meaning of which is lost. Judging from the pictorial
representations that remain, the Greek instruments were inferior
both in variety and extent to those of the Egyptians. They seem to
have made little use of the Harp, of which instrument the Egyptians
had a great variety. The Greeks seem to have used instruments
chiefly, if not solely, to accompany the voice; and they appear never
to have combined large numbers of instruments for any purpose.
Even in their tragedies, which were performed in immense theatres
open to the sky, the Chorus was limited to fifteen men, accompanied
by two flutes. When accompanying the voice with the lyre they may
have occasionally struck the fourth, fifth or octave of the vocal
melody; but, in general, they played the voice part. Their most
highly developed instrument was a variety of lyre, the strings of
which passed over a bridge placed one-third of the strings’ length
from the lower end of the lyre, thus causing the lower part of the
string to sound the octave of the upper part. The shorter part of the
string was played with a plectrum in the right hand, the longer part
by the fingers of the left hand. This instrument was called Magadis
—from Magas, a bridge. The term Magadize was eventually used to
signify playing or singing in octaves, and was synonymous with
Antiphony.
 Greek Musical Notation.—Our knowledge of Greek musical
notation is very defective, being derived from only four or five
specimens of ancient music, and a few small fragments. They appear
to have used a separate notation for each mode, and these four
hymns are apparently all in the same mode, but authorities differ as
to the mode. They used the letters of their alphabet, both capital
and small, written in various positions, sometimes upright,
sometimes lying on one side. The notation for the lyre differed from
that used for the voice. The letters representing the vocal part were
written above the words, those representing the instrumental part,
below the words. These letters represented the pitch of the sounds,
but not their duration. The duration was regulated by the meter of
the poetry. Instead of a portion of one of these hymns, the first
three lines of our National Hymn are given as a sample of this
notation:
R R Φ Γ R Φ σ σ P σ Φ
R Φ R Γ R
My country ’tis of thee, Sweet land of
liberty, Of thee I sing.
These letters have been interpreted as indicating the following
sounds, the transposed Hypo-Lydian Scale in its old form; that is, the
Lesser Perfect System with G sharp as its keynote.

[Listen.]
Greek View of Harmony.—The question has been much
debated as to whether or not the Greeks practiced harmony. It
seems hardly possible with such a defective notation; but the best
argument against it is, that there is not a word in any of the extant
treatises as to combinations and successions of these combinations,
and it is impossible that any art of harmony should have existed
unless some rules for its employment should have been evolved.
 Greek Terms in Music.—The modern terminology of music is
largely indebted to the Greek system, although many of the words
have entirely changed their significance. The word Music itself, to the
Greek, meant the whole circle of the sciences, especially Astronomy
and Mathematics. Melody meant the rising and falling of the voice in
either speaking or singing. Harmonia meant rather what we call
Melody than our Harmony. This latter, namely, the sounding together
of different sounds, was called Symphony. Antiphony originally
meant singing in octaves, that is, men with women or boys.
Chromatic and Enharmonic have already been explained. Diapason,
now applied chiefly to organ stops, originally meant the octave; that
is, “through all.” Diatonic has nearly retained its original meaning.
Tone, Semitone and Tetrachord have retained their meaning, with
the exception that in the modern tetrachord the halftone is at the
other end.

References.
Monro.—The Modes of Ancient Greek Music.
Rowbotham.—History of Music.
Oxford History of Music, Vol. I.

Questions and Suggestions.

What was the Greek use of the term Octave; “Dorian Octave,” for
example?
What change did Claudius Ptolemy suggest? What confusion
resulted?
What is the meaning of the prefix “Hyper”?
Explain the Greek Chromatic Scale.
Explain the Greek Enharmonic Scale.
What was the standard Greek musical instrument? What names
were given to modifications of it?
What instruments were comprehended under the term Aulos?
 How were the instruments used in accompanying the voice?
What is meant by “magadizing”?
Give an account of Greek musical notation.
Did the Greeks use “Harmony” as we understand that term?
Name some musical terms that come from the Greek. Berlioz
gives the characters of different keys in his book on Instrumentation.
“Auld Lang Syne” is a pentatonic melody, scale of F, with fourth and
seventh omitted. Any series of five notes on the black keys of the
piano will make a pentatonic scale, major character. The language of
music was determined by scholars, hence the use of so many terms
with Greek and Latin roots.
 LESSON V.
Ecclesiastical System.

Rome the New Centre.—The Power that rules in the affairs of

men seems to have made provision for the elevation of the whole
race by diffusing at intervals of centuries, the treasures of art,
science and thought accumulated by a nation of unusual power and
energy. Egypt dominated the northern part of Africa, the shores of
the Mediterranean and the western slopes of Asia Minor, and in
course of time yielded to the advance of the Greeks, but leaving
behind, as a legacy, much that has had enduring value. What had
once been centred in one nation, under the control of one caste, the
priests, was spread through much of the known world. Greece, in
turn, shaped the destinies of expanding civilization. In the Greek
social life free art played a great part; wherever the Greeks went as
merchants and colonists, they carried with them the principles of
Greek art, including music. Greek musicians were accounted stars of
the first magnitude in Egypt, in the Greek colonies of Italy, and later
in Rome, which, after the fall of Greece as a political factor, became
the political, social and artistic centre of the world; through her
conquests and subsequent colonizing diffusing throughout a larger
world than Egypt and Greece knew, an increased wealth of thought
and action which greatly influenced later generations.
Rome Dependent Upon Greece.—The Romans did not show a
native instinct for art. Their national qualities were essentially
warlike, and were developed by years of struggle for existence. A
people whose organized life was political and martial, and for so long
found expression first in defence, later in conquest, would not
develop a true art life. As they grew stronger they built up their
collections by pillage and by purchase; they were taught music,
oratory, architecture, sculpture by Greeks who sought the capital of
the world. Roman nobles imitated Greek customs, learned the Greek
language and literature, cultivated music according to Greek
methods, used Greek instruments, such as the cithara, lyre and flute,
sang Greek songs and formed companies of singers and players to
furnish entertainment at their feasts and at the public spectacles.
The Roman drama was modified by Greek principles, and Greek
actors replaced Roman artists; the pantomime was borrowed from
Egypt. Music was a favorite distraction in the high ranks of Roman
society, and men known to history were skilful players or singers—
Sylla, Flaccus, Calpurnius Piso, Titus, Caligula, Hadrian, and, best
known of all, Nero.

Growth of Christianity.—While the Roman Empire, in its turn,

had served the purpose of the Ruling Power in the affairs of men, in
secret a new force was gaining strength, one that was soon to drive
pagan arts and pleasures from open cultivation. In the Catacombs, in
remote sections of the great city, pursued, hunted like beasts,
martyrized, the Christians clung to their faith with its simple rites of
worship, in which the singing of songs was a marked feature.
Whence these songs came is by no means certain, the prevailing
opinion being that they were of Greek origin, modified by Hebrew
influence.[7] In the course of years songs were introduced in the
Christian service with no other warrant than that of tradition. During
the years of persecution no systematic cultivation of music was
possible. Later, when Constantine accepted the Cross, 325 A. D., and
Christianity had triumphed over Paganism, the abuses became such
that the ecclesiastical authorities set themselves to the task of
reform and of establishing a system of song for the use of the
Church.
Tonus Peregrinus as a chant

[Listen.]
Origin of the Church Scales.—It is absolutely unknown when
or by whom the system of scales, known as the Church Scales, was
invented. The latest writer on the Greek System was Claudius
Ptolemy (about 130 A. D.). In 330, Pope Sylvester established a
school for training church singers, but we have no information as to
the system he employed. The name of Ambrose, Bishop of Milan
(333-397), has for centuries been associated with what are called
the Authentic Scales, but there is no valid evidence whatever that he
had anything to do with their adoption. The name of Pope Gregory
(540-604) has also been associated with another set of scales called
Plagal, with as little authority as in the previous case. There does not
appear to have existed any system of notation in the time of
Ambrose or Gregory. The Greek notation by letters was forgotten,
and the very insufficient system of notation by Neumes had not been
invented. The only writer of any authority after Ptolemy was
Boethius, and he did more to confuse the subject of music than to
explain it.
Foundation of the Church Scales.—But if we know nothing of
the inventor of the Church Scales, or of the way in which they grew
into their final form, we are, nevertheless, perfectly well informed of
the fully-developed system which, it must be remarked, grew out of
a misunderstanding of the Greek Scales. The Church Scales were
founded on the Greater Perfect System of the Greeks, with this
restriction, namely, that it was not transposable; whereas, we have
seen that the various Greek modes were transpositions of either the
Lesser or Greater Systems.

[Listen.]
This is the series of sounds from which the Church Scales were
made. None of them might be altered by sharp or flat, except the B
in the second octave (and this was a later addition which was
probably owing to a remembrance of the Lesser Perfect System in
which the B was flat.) The Greek names were retained for the
Church Scales, but as not one of the notes was inflected, it follows
that the halftones occur in different places in every scale. The scales
to which these names were given were called Authentic, those with
the prefix Hypo were called Plagal. In the table on the next page,
the Greek and Church Scales, also the Greek octaves are given side
by side.
Confusion Between the Systems.—We may gather from this
table how the confusion between Dorian and Phrygian has arisen.
The Phrygian Octave is identical with the Church Dorian, and the
Dorian Octave with the Church Phrygian. A proof that the Church
Scales originated in the way indicated may be found in the fact that
the Church and Greek Hypo-Dorian Scales are identical, this being
the only Greek Scale without a sharp or flat. The Church Hypo-
Lydian was also called the Ionian Scale; its arrangement of tones
and semitones is the same as that of the modern major scale. It was
not considered appropriate for church music, being looked upon as
soft, effeminate and lascivious, by both Greeks and mediæval
churchmen.
 GREEK OCTAVES
At the pitch as transposed by Ptolemy
CHURCH SCALES GREEK
SCALES

[Listen: Phrygian
[Listen: Dorian] [Listen: Dorian]
Octave]
[Listen: Dorian Octave] [Listen: Phrygian] [Listen: Phrygian]
[Listen: Hypo-Lydian
[Listen: Lydian] [Listen: Lydian]
Octave]
[Listen: Hypo-Phrygian [Listen: Mixo-
[Listen: Mixo-Lydian]
Octave] Lydian]
[Listen: Hypo-Dorian [Listen: Hypo-
[Listen: Hypo-Dorian]
Octave] Dorian]
[Listen: Mixo-Lydian [Listen: Hypo- [Listen: Hypo-
Octave] Phrygian] Phrygian]
[Listen: Hypo-
[Listen: Lydian Octave] [Listen: Hypo-Lydian]
Lydian]
[Listen: Phrygian [Listen: Hypo-Mixo-
Octave] Lydian]
Eight Modes in Use.—The Church Scales were numbered from
one to eight; the Authentic Scales were given the odd, and the
Plagal Scales the even numbers, thus:
1. Dorian 2. Hypo-Dorian
related scales.
3. Phrygian 4. Hypo-Phrygian
related scales.
5. Lydian 6. Hypo-Lydian
related scales.
7. Mixo-Lydian 8. Hypo-Mixo-Lydian
related scales.
A melody in an Authentic Scale had to end on its Keynote, but a
melody in a Plagal Scale ended on the Keynote of its related
Authentic Scale. Observe that the Dorian and Hypo-Mixo-Lydian
Scales are identical; but while the former had to end on the Keynote,
D, the latter ended on G, which is the fourth of its scale, and
Keynote of its related Authentic Scale.
Traces of these Authentic and Plagal Scales may be found in
many old folk-songs. Thus, the melody of the “Last Rose of Summer”
begins on the Keynote, rises in the course of the melody to the
octave, but ends by falling to the Keynote; it is therefore Authentic.
On the other hand, the melody of “Robin Adair” begins on the fourth
below the Keynote, rises to its octave, but ends on the fourth above
its initial note and is Plagal; thus:
 LAST ROSE OF SUMMER. ROBIN ADAIR.
The term Hyper (above) was sometimes applied to the Authentic
Scales. In the Greek System the Hyper Scales were the same
distance above the standard scales that the Hypo Scales were below.
Although twelve modes were theoretically admitted in church music,
it was for the most part confined to the eight modes given above.
The Dominant.—In addition to the keynote there was another
note in every scale of almost equal importance, called the Dominant.
This name has been retained in the modern system, but with a total
change of meaning. In the Church Scales it meant the Reciting Note,
that is, the note on which the principal part of the words was
chanted. In all the Authentic Scales but the Phrygian, the fifth of the
scale is the Dominant; in the Phrygian the sixth is the Dominant,
because the B was a changeable note, that is, might be natural or
flat. The Dominants of the Plagal Scales are a third below the
Dominants of the related Authentic Scales, except in the Hypo-Mixo-
Lydian, in which the Dominant is a second below that of its related
Authentic Scale. Therefore the Dominant is the sixth of all the Hypo
Scales, but the Hypo-Phrygian and Hypo-Mixo-Lydian, in which it is
the seventh.
Hucbald’s Scale.—Two attempts were made in the 10th century
to construct new scales, first by Hucbald, who founded his series of
sounds on a tetrachord, in which the halftone was between the
second and third, thus: A B C D. His object seems to have been to
obtain a series in which a succession of perfect fourths and fifths
might be secured, for which purpose he made use of the following
series of sounds:
 [Listen.]
In the first tetrachord B was flat, in the third natural; in the
fourth, F was sharp. As to the use made of this scale, little or
nothing is known.
Guido’s Scale.—The other attempt, usually attributed to Guido,
a contemporary of Hucbald, resulted in the Hexachord Scale (six-
note scale). This scale was formed by adding a whole tone above
and below the Hucbald tetrachord, thus: G, A, B, C, D, E. To
complete the series of Hexachord Scales, another sound was added,
namely: the G below the A on which the Greek scales and their
derivatives, the Church scales, began. The first seven letters of the
Roman alphabet were used to name the sounds already in use,
hence to indicate this sound the Greek letter, Gamma, was adopted.
At the same time the syllables ut—re—mi—fa—sol—la were used to
name the sounds of every hexachord (precisely as the movable Do is
used now); hence this lowest sound was called Gamma-ut, corrupted
into Gamut. The sounds in the series were indicated by placing after
the letter the syllables that indicated its position in all the
hexachords in which it was found, thus:

G A B—C D E
C D E—F G A
1. Gamma—ut. 2. A—re. 3. B—mi. 4. C—Fa—ut, because C is fa
in the first, and ut in the second hexachord. Consequently, to a
mediæval musician, C—fa—ut meant what we would call C, second
space bass clef.
The following table gives all the Hexachord Scales with the
names of the sounds. It is of interest because this system of
nomenclature persisted long after the one which gave rise to it was
obsolete.
 The Hexachords in which the B was flat were called Soft (Mollis);
those in which B was natural, Hard (Dura); the term mollis has been
retained in the French word Bemol, a flat, and in the German name
for a minor key, Moll. The word dura (hard) is also retained in the
German as a name for the major key Dur. When the letters were
used as a means of notation, the sound B-flat was indicated by the
old form of the letter b, which has been retained as the sign for a
flat. This was called B rotundum (round B); when B natural was
wanted, a stroke was put on the right side of the ♭ , called B
quadratum (squared B), the sign to this day for a natural.

Reference.
Oxford History of Music, Vol. I.

Questions and Suggestions.

 What city became the centre of life after Athens and Greece fell?
What new influence was shaping in the Roman Empire?
When did music receive official attention and reform?
What names are associated with the early history of Church
Music?
On which Greek system were the Church Scales founded?
What difference exists between the Greek and the Church Scales
as to the positions of the halftones?
What is meant by Authentic and Plagal?
What were the rules in regard to a melody in the Authentic
forms? What Plagal? Give an example of each.
What is meant by Dominant? Was the position of the Dominant
the same in each scale? Name some variations.
What attempts were made to construct new scales?
What is meant by “Gamut”?
What is meant by C—fa—ut?
What names were given to the different forms of the Hexachord?
What are the modern meanings of the terms?
What is the origin of the flat and natural signs?
Note the points of similarity and difference in the three scale
forms on page 65 in this lesson. As an exercise take well-known airs
to see if they are Authentic or Plagal. In the “Taming of the Shrew,”
by Shakespeare, is a passage in which reference is made to the
names of the notes as found in this lesson. Read this passage in
class.
 LESSON VI.
Notation.

System of Notation by Letters.—The earliest system of

Notation, attributed to Boethius, the Roman philosopher, seems to
have been the placing of letters over the syllables, thus:

C C D B C D
My country ’tis of thee.

Boethius’ Notation

[Listen.]
During the period of history dominated by Pope Gregory the
Great, a change was made in this system by which capital letters,
small letters and double letters were used, an improvement, since
only the first seven letters of the alphabet were employed, thus:

[Listen.]
This system seems to have been used chiefly for theoretic
demonstration. These two methods indicated the pitch sufficiently,
but not the duration of the sounds.
Neumes.—The next attempt was somewhat of a retrogression
instead of an improvement. Signs called Neumes were placed over
the words. These signs consisted of points, lines, accents, hooks,
curves, angles and a number of other characters placed more or less
exactly over the syllables to which they were intended to be sung, in
such manner as to show, relatively, by the distance above the text,
how much the voice was to rise or fall. They did not indicate
duration. absolute pitch or The number of characters in use,
according to manuscripts still preserved, varied from seven to forty.
In later forms they appear in the notation used for the old Plain
Song melodies (Gregorian) which were recalled into general use by
Pope Pius X, in 1904.
 [Listen: Notation moderne.]
Parallel Lines.—Another plan was to use a variable number of
lines, writing the syllables in the spaces, thus:
 This clumsy contrivance indicated relative pitch well enough, but
not the key—or the duration. The next step was to use lines—which
varied in number—upon or between which the Neumes, which
gradually changed to square notes, were written. The pitch was
indicated by using a red line for F, and a yellow or green line for C. A
further improvement was, to put the letters F or C and later G on
one of the lines at the beginning; the modern clefs are simply
modifications of these letters.
Characters to Indicate Duration.—The honor of suggesting
characters to indicate duration is usually attributed to Franco of
Cologne, an ecclesiastic who lived in the latter part of the 12th
century; but as in the case of Gregory and Guido, we must believe
that his name simply stands as representative of a period. A system
is rarely the work of one man, rather a development from the labor
of many. Franco’s treatise on the subject marked an epoch. Up to
the end of the 13th century the notes in use were the Longa, Brevis,
and Semibrevis, as well as the Duplex Longa, or Maxima. The
smaller values, the Minima, and the Semiminima first occur about
1300. About the middle of the 15th century white notes were
introduced in place of certain of the black, the latter color being
reserved only for the smaller note values. The signs underwent some
change at this time. Maxima, Longa, Brevis, Semibrevis (our whole
note), Minima (half note), Semiminima (quarter), Fusa (eighth),
Semifusa (sixteenth).
 The Beginnings of Harmony.—Our information as to the
beginning of Harmony is very vague and uncertain. As early as the
Saxon times in England some rude kind of part singing, without
written rules apparently, seems to have existed. The first intimations
we have of any scientific attempts are Faburden or Falsoborden and
Diaphony or Organum. Faburden consisted of singing a melody while
another voice sang a drone accompaniment below it; thus:

[Listen]
Diaphony or Organum consisted of a succession of fourths or
fifths and octaves, thus:

Two Parts Three Parts

[Listen: 2 PARTS]
[Listen: 3 PARTS]
It has been denied by some authorities that such a barbarous
manner of singing ever existed; but two considerations have been
lost sight of, in making this denial: First, the fourth, fifth and octave
were esteemed the only consonances. Secondly, the undisputed fact
that as late as the time of Chaucer, if not later, what was called
“discanting quatible” or “quinable” existed; this discanting was done
as follows: The performer while singing a melody accompanied
himself on the lute, playing the same melody a fourth or fifth above.
It can hardly be doubted that a style of performance that was
esteemed in the 15th, was perfectly satisfactory to the ears of the
10th century.
Discant.—Another early attempt at harmonic effect was the
singing of an extemporaneous part or parts with the melody, called
Discanting. In course of time the Discant or Organum gradually
crystallized into rules, and other intervals were accepted. Strangely
enough, dissonances seem to have been admitted with great
freedom, and thirds and especially sixths, were avoided. The only
dissonance that was not allowed was the minor second.
The New Organum.—In the 11th century, a method of
combining sounds, called the New Organum, was developed. This
kind of Organum admitted thirds and sixths. The following example
will sufficiently illustrate this:

[Listen.]
Measured Music.—The next step in advance, and one that
proved very important and far-reaching in its results on the
development of music, was the invention of a notation that
indicated, although not very conveniently, the relative duration of
sounds. Thus it became possible to express two or more parts in a
permanent form. The plan of this first attempt at a notation by
means of which relative duration of notes might be expressed was
very complicated. Music written with these signs was called
Measured Music (Cantus Mensurabilis).
The Record of Early Harmony.—There are references to the
manner of using voices in combination in the writings of several men
associated with the Christian Church in its early days. Censorinus,
who lived in the 3d century, makes mention of a practice of using a
melody in octaves accompanied by the fifth to the lower note of the
octave, which is also the fourth to the upper. Cassiodorus, in the
6th century, mentions various ways of accompanying the chant with
consecutive fourths and fifths. In a work called “Sentences About
Music,” written by Bishop Isidore of Seville, who lived in the 7th
century, we read that “harmony is a modulation of the voice, the
concordance of many sounds and their agreement.” In the 9th
century we meet with the names of several writers: Remi
d’Auxerre who defines harmony as “a consonance of voices, and
their union in one group”; Jean Scot Erigene who recognized that
the succession of chords composed of octaves, fifths and fourths is a
rational one; Odo or Otger, a churchman of the south of France,
whose work was the first to mark an epoch in the development of
the art of music. Also another monk, the Fleming Hucbald, who
lived in the 10th century. They defined consonance and dissonance,
and appear to have been the first to give rules for the construction
of Diaphony. Hucbald says in his “Musica Enchiriadis”: “Certain
dissimilar sounds sung together make an agreeable effect, and this
mingling of voices is sweet to the ear.”
Their immediate successor, Guido, has been credited, unjustly,
with being the inventor of nearly every improvement in the art up to
his time. The old organum closed with his. The earliest writer who
treats of the new organum is John Cotton, in the 11th century. He
was the first to promulgate the rule that contrary motion is always to
be preferred to similar or oblique. He says: “At least two singers are
required in diaphony formed from different sounds. While one voice
sings a melody, the other surrounds it with different tones, and at
the end of the phrases the two voices unite at the unison or octave.”
The fullest development of the new organum was attained in the
works of Guy de Chalis, about the close of the 12th century. He
gives examples in which we find intervals of the eleventh and
twelfth, a demonstration of the existence of a system differing from
the Gregorian, which does not exceed the octave. In the same
epoch, Denis Lewts, of Liége, a Carthusian monk, gives rules to fix
the use of accidental signs, a flat to lower B, a sharp to raise F. He
speaks of these as if they had been in use for a long time, and
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