Reflection and

Refraction
  Two laws of reflection
 1. The angle of incidence of a light ray striking a flat
reflecting surface is equal to its angle of reflection.
 2. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal (at
the point of incidence) all lie in the same plane.
Snell’s laws of
reflection
  1. When a light ray passes from one medium into another there exists a
definite ratio between the sines of the angle of incidence and the angle
of refraction. This ratio is dependent only on the two media and the
wavelength of the light.
 2. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal (at the point of
incidence) are all in the same plane.

Laws of
refraction
  Using Snells’ first law of refraction, we can derive a
numerical index from the relationship between the
angle of incidence in air and the angle of refraction in
the material.

Refractive
index


  There are two additional ways of defining refractive
index, both of which again use air as the standard:
 1. The ratio of the optical density of the gemstone
to that of air.
 2. The ratio of the velocity of light in air to the
Refractive velocity of light in the gemstone.
Index  Because refractive index varies with the wavelength of
light, the standard light source chosen for
gemmological work is the yellow monochromatic light
produced by a sodium lamp (if red light is used, the
measured refractive index will be slightly lower; for
blue light it will be slightly higher).
 The term ‘monochromatic’ means that all of
the emission energy of the light is confined to a
single colour (i.e. a very narrow segment or
‘bandwidth’ of the spectrum).
 Sodium light consists of two very closely
spaced emission lines whose mean value is
589.3 nm and whose overall bandwidth is only
0.6 nm.
 Sodium light was originally chosen as the
standard because it was easily and cheaply
produced by burning common salt in a Bunsen
flame.
  So far we have been considering materials which have
only one refractive index.
 Noncrystalline substances such as glass and amber, or
gemstones belonging to the cubic crystal system, are in
this category, and light entering these materials
Double produces a single refracted ray.
refraction  Such materials are called isotropic or singly refractive.
 However, crystalline materials, including gemstones,
belonging to the tetragonal, trigonal, hexagonal,
orthorhombic, monoclinic and triclinic systems (i.e. all
systems other than cubic) have two refractive indices.
  When a ray of light enters these materials it is split into two rays
which are polarized at right-angles to each other.
 These two polarized rays travel through the crystal at different
speeds, and as with light of different wavelengths they are
refracted by different amounts.
 Gemstones which produce two polarized rays are called
birefringent or anisotropic.
Double
refraction
Unpolarized
incident light
(vibrating in all
directions) is split
into two
plane polarized
rays on entering a
doubly
refracting material
  The instrument in general use for the
measurement of refractive index is the
refractometer.
The  This is also called the critical angle
refractometer refractometer or the TIR (total internal
reflection) refractometer, names which indicate
its mode of operation.
Parts of the
refractometer
• Ray I1, which is inclined at a large angle to the normal,
is reflected back into the denser medium from the
interface between the two mediums. The reflected
ray, R1, obeys the laws of reflection with the result
that the incident ray I1 undergoes total internal
reflection in the denser medium.
• As the angle of incidence is reduced, the rays
continue to be reflected back into the denser
medium.
• This total internal reflection of rays continues until
the critical angle of reflection is reached (I3,0,Nd)
At this point the incident ray (I3) ceases to obey the
laws of reflection, and travels along the interface
between the two mediums (R3)
• As the incident angle is decreased still further, the
rays (R4, R5) then obey the laws of refraction and pass
into the rarer medium where they are refracted away
from the normal Nr.
➢The refractometer is designed optically to use the
phenomenon of critical angle to provide direct readouts of
refractive indices, but it can only do this if the RI of the
gemstone being tested is less than that of the
refractometer’s glass prism.
➢In practice, the maximum measurable RI is limited still
further by the RI of the contact fluid necessary to make good
optical contact between the gemstone and the prism.
➢The dense glass used in the refractometer is usually made
from high lead-oxide content glass with a refractive index
around 1.86 and contact fluid having an RI of 1.79.
 • Because of the difficulty in obtaining a good optical
contact between a gemstone’s facet and the
refractometer prism, use is made of a contact fluid.
• Usually it contain saturated solution of sulphur in di-
iodomethane (RI 1.79)
Contact fluid
• A small drop of this fluid is placed in the centre of the
prism face, and the gemstone lowered onto it.
• The fluid effectively excludes any air from the
gem/prism interface, and because of its high RI does
not interfere with gemstone readings.
 ➢Refractive index for gemological purposes is
defined in terms of yellow monochromatic light
having a wavelength of 589.3 nm (i.e. sodium
light).
Sources of ➢if a ‘white’ light source is used, the RI reading
illumination must be taken against the yellow/green
boundary in the coloured shadow edge.
➢For accurate work it is best to use a
monochromatic sodium light source, as this
gives the sharpest and most easily seen
shadow edge.
 ➢As the refractometer prism is
relatively soft, care should be taken
to avoid scratching the contact
surface.
Using the
refractometer ➢the contact fluid must be made
with care, particularly if this is done
with a glass-rod type dropper, which
should not be brought into actual
contact with the prism.
➢The amount of contact fluid placed on the prism
should be limited to a drop 2–3 mm in diameter. Too
much fluid with a very small gem will cause it to ‘float’,
while a gem with a large table facet will require a little
more to ensure overall contact with the prism.
➢Place the gemstone on the refractometer table.
➢You may see one shadow edge.
➢Note the reading to three decimal places.
➢Rotate the polarizing filter and note the second reading
(if there is one).
➢Change the position of the stone and note the readings
four times.

➢When the test is completed, the fluid should be removed

from both the prism and the gemstone. (If the fluid is
allowed to evaporate on the prism, its surface may be
stained and crystals of sulphur will be deposited which
may hinder further tests.)
 ➢Only one shadow edge will be
Isotropic stone seen at each position when the
polarizing filter is rotated.
➢Read four times and get the
average index.
 ➢In the case of uniaxial stones, one
column reading should constant, while
the other column is varying.
➢Constant index = n0
➢Variable index = ne
Uniaxial
Stones ➢Birefringence = ne – n0
➢if ne > n0 stone is uniaxial Positive.
➢if ne < n0 stone is uniaxial Negative.
Anisotropic-
uniaxial stones
 ne no
1.624 1.641
1.621 1.641
1.626 1.641
Examples 1.622 1.641

Uniaxial
Negative ➢ ne= 1.621 no = 1.641
➢ Birefringence= ne-no
 =1.621-1.641
 = (-) 0.020
➢Stone is Tourmaline
➢Uniaxial Positive
n0 ne
1.544 1.552
1.544 1.551
1.544 1.553
1.544 1.549

➢ ne= 1.544 no = 1.553

➢ Birefringence= ne-no
 =1.544-1.553
 = (+) 0.009
➢Stone is Quartz
Biaxial Stones
➢If the readings in both columns are varying, stone is said
to be biaxial.
➢Underline the lowest leading on LHS (nα ) and the highest
on RHS (nϒ ).
➢Calculate the Average of all eight readings (nβ )
➢Birefringence = nα - nϒ
➢If nβ is close to nα the stone is biaxial positive and if nβ is
close to nϒ the stone is biaxial negative
 1.634 1.640 nα = 1.630
0.007
1.630 1.641
nβ = 1.637
1.637 1.642 0.005
1.635 1.640 nϒ = 1.642
Examples Birefringence = nα – nϒ
Biaxial = 0.012
𝐴𝑙𝑙
Negative ➢ nβ =
8
= 1.637
➢nβ is close to nϒ , therefore
➢Biaxial Negative
➢Stone is Andulusite
 nα = 1.602
1.608 1.618
0.008
1.610 1.620 nβ = 1.610
1.602 1.610 0.010
nϒ = 1.620
1.604 1.608

Examples Birefringence = nα – nϒ
= 0.018
Biaxial Positive ➢ nβ =
12.88
= 1.610
8
➢nβ is close to nα , therefore
➢Biaxial Positive
➢Stone is Brazillinite
 ➢If the stone has very small facets, or has
been fashioned as a cabochon it is very
difficult to identify the light-dark margin.
Distance Vision ➢To overcome this problem, L.B. Benson
Method (Jr) devised a technique which is called
the ‘distant vision’ method .
➢Place the curved surface of the stone on
the refractometer table.
➢View the scale from about 30-45cm
away.
➢As the head moves up and down
bubble may be seen changing from Refractive Index
Correspond to the
light to dark as shown. Gemstone

➢Read the scale when the bubble is

half light and half dark, which
correspond to refractive index
  When a colourless transparent gemstone is immersed in a
liquid having an RI close to that of the gem, it virtually
Other disappears.
methods of RI  Even if the gemstone is coloured, its facet outlines (or its
shape) will become indistinct.
measurement  This provides perhaps the simplest method of
approximating a stone’s RI, and consists of inserting the
gem in a series of small containers containing liquids of
1.Approximati various known refractive indices.
on by  The RI of the stone being tested will be nearest to that of
the liquid in which the stone’s outline appears most hazy.
immersion  As with SG determinations using heavy liquids, this method
should not be used with gemstones having a porous surface
(i.e. opal and turquoise) or with substances which might be
soluble in the test liquid.
Suitable
immersion
fluids and their
RIs
  The method requires the use of a microscope having light-field
illumination (i.e. transmitted light), an iris aperture adjustment
and a magnification factor of between 30x and 40x.
 The gemstone under test is placed, table facet down, in an
immersion cell containing a liquid of known RI.
2.  The immersion cell is placed on the microscope stage so that the
Approximation pavilion edges are visible, and the iris control closed so that the
light is restricted to the area of the gemstone.
by Becke line  The microscope is then focused down from the liquid into the
method body of the stone.
 If the facet edges change in appearance from light to dark as the
microscope is focused into the stone, then the RI of the gemstone
is greater than that of the liquid
  If the opposite occurs, and the facet edges change from dark to
light then the RI of the stone is less than that of the liquid.
 By progressively changing the liquid in the immersion cell for one
2. of a higher or lower RI, a close approximation to the gemstone’s RI
Approximation can be obtained.
 In some cases the SG of the stone will be less than that of the test
by Becke line liquid, and it will be necessary to weight the stone down while
method making the test.
 Photographs
of a
ruby (RI 1.77)
immersed in
di-iodomethane
(RI 1.74).
With the microscope focus With the focus lowered into
raised just above the stone, the stone, the facet edges
the facet edges appear light. appear dark.
  This method can only be used on a transparent polished
gemstone, and depends on the availability of a microscope having
a calibrated focus adjustment or a vernier height scale.
 The microscope is first used to measure the apparent depth of the
gemstone under test, and is then used to measure its real depth.
3. Direct The refractive index of the stone can then be calculated by
dividing the real depth by the apparent depth.
method of  Measurement of a gem’s RI using the direct method is limited to
measurement an accuracy of plus or minus 1%, but has the advantage that it can
be used to determine the refractive index of high RI stones such as
diamond and zircon.
 Unlike the use of the refractometer and the reflectance meter, it is
also independent of the quality and flatness of the stone’s surface
finish.
  When using the method, the gemstone is positioned on the
microscope with its culet in contact with the stage, and with its
table facet parallel with the stage.
 Using maximum magnification (to obtain a shallow depth of
3. Direct focus), the microscope is carefully focused on the surface of the
method of table facet, and the position of the focus setting read from the
scale.
measurement  The microscope is then focused down through the stone until the
culet is sharply defined, and a second reading is taken.
 The real depth can be arrived at by moving the stone to one side
and focusing the microscope on the surface of the stage.
3. Direct
method of
measurement
  Brewster’s law states that when monochromatic light meets the
flat surface of an optically denser medium, the reflected ray
4. becomes polarized in the horizontal plane of that surface when its
Measurement angle is normal (i.e. perpendicular) to the associated refracted ray
in that medium.
by the  If the Brewster angle of polarization is A, then (as RI = sine A/sine
Brewster angle B, and A + B = 90°) the RI of the reflecting medium is equal to tan
A, and this provides an interesting additional method of arriving at
of polarization a gemstone’s RI.
At the Brewster
angle A, only
horizontally
polarized rays are
reflected from the
surface of
a denser medium.
This occurs when
the reflected ray is
at right-angles to
the refracted ray
Brewster angle
refractometer
 To measure its Brewster angle a gemstone is placed
over a test aperture, and a control knob calibrated in
degrees is used to rotate the vertically polarized laser
beam around the test aperture.
 As the beam approaches the gem’s Brewster angle, the
intensity of the reflected ray as viewed on a translucent
screen reduces to a null (the red laser light is vertically
polarized and only horizontally polarized light is
reflected from the gem’s surface at the Brewster
angle).
 At the precise Brewster angle this null is seen as a dark
horizontal bar across the translucent screen. This angle
is read from the control scale and the gemstone is
identified from a set of tables which take into account
the laser wavelength and the dispersion of the gem.