ABOUT THE TUTORIAL

SQL Tutorial
SQL is a database computer language designed for the retrieval and management of data in relational
database. SQL stands for Structured Query Language.

This tutorial will give you quick start with SQL.

Audience
This reference has been prepared for the beginners to help them understand the basic to advanced
concepts related to SQL languages.

Prerequisites
Before you start doing practice with various types of examples given in this reference, I'm making an
assumption that you are already aware about what is database, especially RDBMS and what is a
computer programming language.

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 Table of Content
SQL Tutorial ............................................................................. 2
Audience .................................................................................. 2
Prerequisites ............................................................................ 2
Copyright & Disclaimer Notice.................................................. 2
SQL Overview ........................................................................ 15
What is SQL? ........................................................................................... 15
Why SQL? ................................................................................................ 15
History: ..................................................................................................... 16
SQL Process: ........................................................................................... 16
SQL Commands: ...................................................................................... 17
DDL - Data Definition Language: ............................................................. 17
DML - Data Manipulation Language: ........................................................ 17
DCL - Data Control Language: ................................................................. 17
DQL - Data Query Language: .................................................................. 17
SQL RDBMS Concepts .......................................................... 18
What is field?............................................................................................ 19
What is record, or row? ............................................................................ 19
What is column? ....................................................................................... 19
What is NULL value?................................................................................ 19
SQL Constraints: ...................................................................................... 20
NOT NULL Constraint: ............................................................................. 20
DEFAULT Constraint:............................................................................... 21
Example: .................................................................................................. 21
Drop Default Constraint: ........................................................................... 21
UNIQUE Constraint: ................................................................................. 21
Example: .................................................................................................. 21
DROP a UNIQUE Constraint:................................................................... 22
PRIMARY Key: ......................................................................................... 22
Create Primary Key: ................................................................................. 22
Delete Primary Key: ................................................................................. 23
FOREIGN Key: ......................................................................................... 24
Example: .................................................................................................. 24
DROP a FOREIGN KEY Constraint: ........................................................ 25
CHECK Constraint: .................................................................................. 25
Example: .................................................................................................. 25
DROP a CHECK Constraint: .................................................................... 25
INDEX: ..................................................................................................... 26

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Example: .................................................................................................. 26
DROP a INDEX Constraint:...................................................................... 26
Data Integrity: ........................................................................................... 26
Database Normalization ........................................................................... 27
Third Rule of 1NF: .................................................................................... 29
SQL RDBMS Databases ........................................................ 32
MySQL ..................................................................................................... 32
History: ..................................................................................................... 32
Features: .................................................................................................. 33
MS SQL Server ........................................................................................ 33
History: ..................................................................................................... 33
Features: .................................................................................................. 34
ORACLE .................................................................................................. 34
History: ..................................................................................................... 34
Features: .................................................................................................. 35
MS- ACCESS ........................................................................................... 36
Features: .................................................................................................. 36
SQL Syntax ............................................................................ 37
SQL SELECT Statement: ......................................................................... 37
SQL DISTINCT Clause: ........................................................................... 37
SQL WHERE Clause:............................................................................... 37
SQL AND/OR Clause: .............................................................................. 37
SQL IN Clause: ........................................................................................ 38
SQL BETWEEN Clause: .......................................................................... 38
SQL Like Clause: ..................................................................................... 38
SQL ORDER BY Clause: ......................................................................... 38
SQL GROUP BY Clause: ......................................................................... 38
SQL COUNT Clause: ............................................................................... 38
SQL HAVING Clause: .............................................................................. 38
SQL CREATE TABLE Statement: ............................................................ 38
SQL DROP TABLE Statement: ................................................................ 39
SQL CREATE INDEX Statement: ............................................................ 39
SQL DROP INDEX Statement: ................................................................ 39
SQL DESC Statement: ............................................................................. 39
SQL TRUNCATE TABLE Statement: ....................................................... 39
SQL ALTER TABLE Statement: ............................................................... 39
SQL ALTER TABLE Statement (Rename): .............................................. 39
SQL INSERT INTO Statement: ................................................................ 39
SQL UPDATE Statement: ........................................................................ 39

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SQL DELETE Statement: ......................................................................... 40
SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement: .................................................... 40
SQL DROP DATABASE Statement: ........................................................ 40
SQL USE Statement: ............................................................................... 40
SQL COMMIT Statement: ........................................................................ 40
SQL ROLLBACK Statement:.................................................................... 40
SQL Data Types .................................................................... 41
Exact Numeric Data Types: ...................................................................... 41
Approximate Numeric Data Types: .......................................................... 41
Date and Time Data Types: ..................................................................... 42
Character Strings Data Types: ................................................................. 42
Unicode Character Strings Data Types: ................................................... 42
Binary Data Types: ................................................................................... 42
Misc Data Types: ..................................................................................... 43
SQL Operators ....................................................................... 44
What is an Operator in SQL? ................................................................... 44
SQL Arithmetic Operators: ....................................................................... 44
SQL Comparison Operators: .................................................................... 45
SQL Logical Operators: ............................................................................ 47
SQL Expressions ................................................................... 50
Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 50
SQL - Boolean Expressions: .................................................................... 50
SQL - Numeric Expression: ...................................................................... 51
SQL - Date Expressions: .......................................................................... 51
SQL CREATE Database ........................................................ 53
Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 53
Example: .................................................................................................. 53
DROP or DELETE Database ................................................. 54
Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 54
Example: .................................................................................................. 54
SQL SELECT Database......................................................... 55
Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 55
Example: .................................................................................................. 55
SQL CREATE Table .............................................................. 56
Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 56
Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 56
Example: .................................................................................................. 57
Example: .................................................................................................. 57
SQL DROP or DELETE Table................................................ 59

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Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 59
Example: .................................................................................................. 59
SQL INSERT Query ............................................................... 60
Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 60
Example: .................................................................................................. 60
Populate one table using another table: ................................................... 61
SQL SELECT Query .............................................................. 62
Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 62
Example: .................................................................................................. 62
SQL WHERE Clause ............................................................. 64
Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 64
Example: .................................................................................................. 64
SQL AND and OR Operators ................................................. 66
The AND Operator: .................................................................................. 66
Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 66
Example: .................................................................................................. 66
The OR Operator: .................................................................................... 67
Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 67
Example: .................................................................................................. 67
SQL UPDATE Query.............................................................. 69
Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 69
Example: .................................................................................................. 69
SQL DELETE Query .............................................................. 71
Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 71
Example: .................................................................................................. 71
SQL LIKE Clause ................................................................... 73
Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 73
Example: .................................................................................................. 74
SQL TOP Clause ................................................................... 75
Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 75
Example: .................................................................................................. 75
SQL ORDER BY Clause ........................................................ 77
Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 77
Example: .................................................................................................. 77
SQL Group By........................................................................ 79
Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 79
Example: .................................................................................................. 79
SQL Distinct Keyword ............................................................ 81
Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 81

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Example: .................................................................................................. 81
SQL SORTING Results.......................................................... 83
Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 83
Example: .................................................................................................. 83
SQL Constraints..................................................................... 85
NOT NULL Constraint: ............................................................................. 85
DEFAULT Constraint:............................................................................... 86
Example: .................................................................................................. 86
Drop Default Constraint: ........................................................................... 86
UNIQUE Constraint: ................................................................................. 87
Example: .................................................................................................. 87
DROP a UNIQUE Constraint:................................................................... 87
PRIMARY Key: ......................................................................................... 88
Create Primary Key: ................................................................................. 88
Delete Primary Key: ................................................................................. 89
FOREIGN Key: ......................................................................................... 89
Example: .................................................................................................. 89
DROP a FOREIGN KEY Constraint: ........................................................ 90
CHECK Constraint: .................................................................................. 90
Example: .................................................................................................. 90
DROP a CHECK Constraint: .................................................................... 91
INDEX: ..................................................................................................... 91
Example: .................................................................................................. 91
DROP a INDEX Constraint:...................................................................... 91
Dropping Constraints:............................................................................... 92
Integrity Constraints: ................................................................................ 92
SQL Joins .............................................................................. 93
SQL Join Types: ....................................................................................... 94
INNER JOIN ............................................................................................. 94
Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 94
Example: .................................................................................................. 94
LEFT JOIN ............................................................................................... 95
Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 95
Example: .................................................................................................. 95
RIGHT JOIN ............................................................................................. 96
Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 96
Example: .................................................................................................. 96
FULL JOIN ............................................................................................... 97
Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 97

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Example: .................................................................................................. 98
SELF JOIN ............................................................................................... 99
Syntax: ..................................................................................................... 99
Example: .................................................................................................. 99
CARTESIAN JOIN ................................................................................. 100
Syntax: ................................................................................................... 100
Example: ................................................................................................ 100
SQL Unions Clause ............................................................. 102
Syntax: ................................................................................................... 102
Example: ................................................................................................ 102
The UNION ALL Clause: ........................................................................ 103
Syntax: ................................................................................................... 103
Example: ................................................................................................ 104
Example: ................................................................................................ 105
SQL NULL Values ................................................................ 109
Syntax: ................................................................................................... 109
Example: ................................................................................................ 109
SQL Alias Syntax ................................................................. 111
Syntax: ................................................................................................... 111
Example: ................................................................................................ 111
SQL Indexes ........................................................................ 113
The CREATE INDEX Command: ........................................................... 113
Single-Column Indexes: ......................................................................... 113
Unique Indexes: ..................................................................................... 113
Composite Indexes: ............................................................................... 114
Implicit Indexes: ..................................................................................... 114
The DROP INDEX Command: ............................................................... 114
When should indexes be avoided? ........................................................ 114
SQL ALTER TABLE Command............................................ 115
Syntax: ................................................................................................... 115
Example: ................................................................................................ 116
SQL TRUNCATE TABLE ..................................................... 118
Syntax: ................................................................................................... 118
Example: ................................................................................................ 118
SQL - Using Views ............................................................... 119
Creating Views: ...................................................................................... 119
Example: ................................................................................................ 119
The WITH CHECK OPTION:.................................................................. 120
Updating a View: .................................................................................... 120

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Inserting Rows into a View: .................................................................... 121
Deleting Rows into a View: ..................................................................... 122
Dropping Views: ..................................................................................... 122
SQL HAVING CLAUSE ........................................................ 123
Syntax: ................................................................................................... 123
Example: ................................................................................................ 123
SQL Transactions ................................................................ 125
Properties of Transactions: .................................................................... 125
Transaction Control: ............................................................................... 125
The COMMIT Command: ....................................................................... 125
Example: ................................................................................................ 126
The ROLLBACK Command: .................................................................. 126
Example: ................................................................................................ 126
The SAVEPOINT Command: ................................................................. 127
Example: ................................................................................................ 127
The RELEASE SAVEPOINT Command:................................................ 128
The SET TRANSACTION Command: .................................................... 129
SQL Wildcard Operators ...................................................... 130
Syntax: ................................................................................................... 130
Example: ................................................................................................ 131
SQL Date Functions ............................................................. 132
ADDDATE(date,INTERVAL expr unit), ADDDATE(expr,days) ............... 134
ADDTIME(expr1,expr2) .......................................................................... 135
CONVERT_TZ(dt,from_tz,to_tz) ............................................................ 135
CURDATE() ........................................................................................... 135
CURRENT_DATE and CURRENT_DATE() ........................................... 136
CURTIME() ............................................................................................ 136
CURRENT_TIME and CURRENT_TIME() ............................................. 136
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP and CURRENT_TIMESTAMP() .................... 136
DATE(expr) ............................................................................................ 136
DATEDIFF(expr1,expr2) ........................................................................ 136
DATE_ADD(date,INTERVAL expr unit),................................................. 137
DATE_SUB(date,INTERVAL expr unit) .................................................. 137
DATE_FORMAT(date,format) ................................................................ 138
DATE_SUB(date,INTERVAL expr unit) .................................................. 140
DAY(date) .............................................................................................. 140
DAYNAME(date) .................................................................................... 140
DAYOFMONTH(date) ............................................................................ 140
DAYOFWEEK(date) ............................................................................... 140

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