-:- Unit - I -:-

Introduction to computer graphics :- Computer graphics is a branch of computer science that deals
with the creation, manipulation, storing, representation and display the visual object such as
image,
video and animation using computer.
=> Computer graphics is widely used in movies, games, advertisement and storey telling programs
to create objects, provide motion and effects in that object.
=> Simulator(modeling real-world systems) is also an best example of computer graphics.
=> Simulator is the combination of Hardware and software that create an environment mostly for
training purpose such as car driving etc.

Basic terminologies related to computer graphics :-

1. Pixel :- Pixel is the basic(smallest) element of any visual object such as image etc.
2. Rendering :- Process to draw and create a visual object.
3. Resolution :- Resolution may be defined as total number of pixel an image/screen.
=> It is written in from of height * width
4. Aspect Ratio :- The aspect ratio may be defined as the ratio of width and height of a
visual object. The standard aspect ratio for PC 16:9 or 4:3

The Advantages of Interactive Graphics :-

1. User-Friendly Interfaces :- Enhances user interaction with software.
2. Visual Representation:- Simplifies complex data visualization.
3. Real-Time Feedback :- Allows immediate response to user actions.
4. Increased Productivity :- Effective Learning Tools

Representative Uses of Computer Graphics :-

1. User Interfaces (GUIs) :- Web and Mobile Applications
2. Computer-Aided Design (CAD) :- Used by engineers, architects, and designers.
3. Entertainment and Animation
4. Education and Training
5. Scientific Visualization, Medical Imaging, Image Processing

Classification of Application :- There are many types of application based on different criteria -
1. Based on the Nature of the Graphics:-
a) 2D Graphics b) 3D Graphics
2. Based on the Method of Generation :-
a) Raster Graphics b) Vector Graphics
3. Based on Interaction :-
a) Interactive Graphics b) Non-Interactive Graphics
Development of Hardware and software for Computer Graphics :-
1. Hardware Development :-
a. Display Devices i).CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) – Used in early monitors.
ii). LCD/LED Displays – Lighter, sharper, and energy-efficient.
iii). OLED, Plasma, and 4K/8K Displays – Used for high-definition and immersive visuals.
b. Graphics Processing Unit (GPU):- Specialized hardware for rendering graphics.
=> Performs parallel processing for real-time rendering in games and simulations.
c. Input Devices :- Keyboard, mouse, Stylus, 3D scanner, motion sensors (like Kinect), VR gloves.
d. Output Devices :- Printers – For hard-copy rendering of graphic designs.
Projectors and VR Headsets – For immersive and large-scale viewing.

2. Software Development :-
i. Programming Libraries and APIs like, OpenGL, DirectX, Vulkan
ii. Graphics Software and Tools like Photoshop, Illustrator, CorelDRAW
iii. Game Engines ex. Unity, Unreal Engine, Godot.

Conceptual Framework for Interactive Graphics :-

[User]←→[Input Devices]→[Graphics System(CPU/GPU + Software)]→[Output Devices]→[User]

Scan Conversion :- It refers the process to read pixel by pixel and convert it into an object that
is line, circle, ellipse etc.
1. Scan converting line :- It is a process to draw a line on a graphics(screen).
Hare, we need to calculate the each pixel of line and represent then on any graphics.

There are following algorithms to draw lines -

1. DDA Algorithms (Digital Differential Analyzer)
2. Bresnahan's Algorithms
3. Midpoint Algorithms

1. DDA Algorithms :- It stands for Digital Differential Analyzer.

=> It is a method to draw the line by using on incremental approach.

Steps of Algorithms :-
Step-1 : Read both end points of lines say (x1,y1) and (x2,y2).
Step-2 : Calculator the slope of line.
m = ∆y/∆x where : ∆x = x2-x1 ∆y = y2 - y1
Step-3 : Calculate the length (size of loop)
IF(abs(∆x)>abs(∆y))
 length=abs(∆x)
ELSE
length=abs(∆y)
Step-4 : Initialize the first Co-ordinates x=x1 , y=y1
Step-5 : if(m<1)
x=x+1
y= y +m
else
x=x+1/m
y=y+1
Step-6 : Plot the Co-ordinate (roundoff(x),roundoff(y))
Step-7 : Repeate the step 5 and step 6 length times.

2. Bresnahan's Algorithms :-

2. Scan converting circle :-

3. Scan converting ellipse :-

-: Unit II :-
Hardcopy Technologies :-
1. Printer :- A printer is an output device that produces a hardcopy (physical copy) of documents,
images, or graphics stored in digital form.
Types of Printers :-
1. Impact Printers
2. Non-Impact Printers

2. Plotter :- A plotter is a hardcopy output device used to print large-size graphics, drawings,
and designs with high precision.

Display Technologies :-
A. CRT :- It stands for Cathode Ray Tube. It is display technology that is used to visual object
such image video animation etc.
In this method Vacuum tube is used that contain an electron guns and phosphate coted screen.
It has following component :-
1. Control Grid :- Control the intensity of electron beam by setting various voltage level.
=> No. of electron reaching the screen since the light on the screen.
2. Heating Filament :-It is a Heating element that is eject the electron from cathode.
3. Cathode :- It is matter that eject the electron/Negative charge dement.
4. Focusing Anode:-It required the coverage of the electron because electrons replay to each other.
5. Accelerating Anode :- It is +vely charge plate that is used to Accelerate the speed of electron
beam.
6. Deflection Plats :- It is used to located the electron beam to a particular point.
There are two type - 1) Horizontal DP 2. Vertical DP
7. Phosphor coted Screen :- It is screen with coted +ve charge element.

Disadvantage of CRT :-
1. It is heavy.
2. It is Power consumption - more/high

Types of Displaying Technology :-

1. Roster Scan Display :- In this display system each point are pixel or scan one by one horizontally
i.e. Left to right. It is also know as point plotting System.
=> In Roster Scan Display system at the end of each scan line the electron beam written to the left
the screen. This written is horizontal retrace at the end of each frame the electron bream written
top
left corner of the screen to began the next frame. It is called vertical retrace.

Need of Roster Scan Display :-

1. To obtain the more realistic picture.
2. To display high quality image.
3. It is high quality in size.

2. Random Scan Display / Vector Scan Display :- In this system the data or image store are in frame
buffer in the form of curve such as point, line, circle etc.

B. DVST :-

C. Flat Panel Display :-

Raster-Scan Display System :-

Video Controller :-
Random-Scan Display processor :-

Input Devices for Operator Interaction :-

Image Scanners and Working exposure on graphics tools like Dream Weaver :-

3D Effects etc.

Clipping :-

Southland- Cohen Algorithm :-

Cyrus-Beck Algorithm :-

Midpoint Subdivision Algorithm :-

-: UNIT-III :-
Transformation :- Transformation is a process of changing the position, size, direction,
or shape of an object.
=> If the transformation is done in 2D space called 2D transformation.
2D Object :- tringle, circle, rectangle etc.
3D Object :- Sphere, Cylinder, Cone, Pyramid etc.

Types of Transformation basis of object and co-ordinate relationship :-

1. Geometrical Transformation
2. Co-ordinate Transformation

Geometrical Transformation :- In this transformation the object is moving while co-ordinate system
is in stationary form to achieve the transformation.

Co-ordinate Transformation :- In this transformation object is an stationary form while co-ordinate

system is moving.
Basic 2D Transformation :-
1. Translation
2. Rotation
3. Scaling
4. Reflecting
5. Shearing

1. Translation :- Translation is the process which is moves an object from one place to another
place
(one point to another point)with respect to co-ordinate system.
P'(x', y') = Tv(P(x, y))
Where : x' = x + tx y' = y + ty
Example: Moving a square from (2,2) to (5,5).

2. Rotation :- Rotation transformation changes the direction of object that means Object will be
rotated by an specified angle Θ.
This transformation also two types -
i). Anti clock or Counter Clock : Rotates object counter clock wish Θ.
x' = xCosΘ - ySinΘ
y' = xSinΘ + yCosΘ
ii). Clock wish : Rotates object clock wish Θ.
x' = xCosΘ + ySinΘ
y' = -xSinΘ + yCosΘ

3. Scaling :- Scaling is transformation in which the size of the object will be changed.
=> It means the original object either reduced or magnified.
P'(x', y') = S x, y(P(x, y))
Where : x' = Sx.X y' = Sy.Y

4. Reflecting :- Reflecting transformation gives the mirror image of the original object.
=> Flips the object over a line is called Reflecting.
It is three types -
i). Reflecting about x -axis
P'(x', y') = Refx (P(x, y))
Where x' = x y' = -y
ii). Reflecting about y -axis
P'(x', y') = Refy (P(x, y))
Where x' = -x y' = y
iii). Reflecting about line y=x
P'(x', y') = Refx=y(P(x, y))
Where x' = y y' = x

5. Shearing :- This transformation is responsible is responsible to change(Skews) the shape

of an object.
Ex. After Appling sharing transformation a circle converted into ellipse.

There are different way to define shearing transformation -

1. x sharing :- Shape change due to occur x-axis.
2. y sharing :- Shape change due to occur y-axis.
3. z sharing :- Shape change due to occur z-axis.

Homogeneous Coordinates :- In real life mostly transformation can be done used as sequence of
transformation can be used as sequence of transformation of composite transformation.
Therefore, we need to find composite transformation matrix.

Need of Homogeneous Coordinates :-

=>To calculate the composite transformation matrix we need to multiply all the basic
transformation.
=> It is used to represent infinte position in co-ordinate system.

Representation of Homegenouse coordinate :- (x, y, h) ( In General h=1)

Conversion of GCS to HCS :-

i) In GCS - (3,5) than In HCS - (3,5,1)
ii) In GCS - (2/3,5/3) than In HCS - (2,5,3)
To represent Infinite co-ordinate system :- (x,y,0)

Matrix Representation of 2D Transformations in form of Homegenouse coordinate :-

Composition of 2D Transformations :- It is combination of two or more basic transformation like
translation, Rotation, Scaling etc.
Types of Composition Transformation -
1. Rotation about an arbitrary Point
2. Scaling about an arbitrary Point
3. Reflecting about any line

1. Rotation about an arbitrary Point :- It means Rotation is not about origin but about other
point(h,k)
then there is three steps are involved.
Step-1 : Translate the arbitrary point (h, k) to the origin.
x' = x - h
y' = y - k
Step 2 : Rotate the object by angle θ about origin.
x' = xcosθ - ysinθ
y' = xsinθ - ycosθ

Step 3 : Translate the object from origin to arbitrary point.

Relation about arbitrary point is expressed as p(x',y')=T-vRθTv(P(x,y))

2. Scaling about an arbitrary Point :- This composite transformation has following steps -
Step 1 : Translate the arbitrary point (h,k) to the origin.
Step 2 : Scale the object with scaling factor Sx, Sy.
Step 3 : Reverse translate the arbitrary point from origin to original position.
After combine this basic transformation we can write as -
P'(x',y') = T-vSx,yTv(P(x,y))

Window :- The window defines a rectangular area in the world coordinate system that
you want to display.

Viewport :- The viewport defines the rectangular area on the output device (such as the screen)
 where the window will be mapped.

The Window-to-Viewport Transformations :-This transformation maps the world coordinates inside
the window to screen coordinates inside the viewport.

Window:
,,,
Viewport:
,,,

Introduction to 3D Transformations Matrix :- If the transformation occurs in 3D space that is

change
occurring in 3 dimension x-axis, y-axis and z-axis than
it is called 3D transformation.
=> It is also as all basic transformation such as translation, rotation, scaling reflecting, Shearing etc.

@#Prince
-: Unit-IV :-
Curves :- A curves is represented as collection of point that follows rule or equation.
A curve is repressed as a graph a function f(x) i.e. y=f(x) y is function of x
where y is depended variable. x is independent variable.

Types of Curve :-
1. Non-parametric Curve :- The curve that can not be represented in form of time t are the curve
that is not return using the time parameter t is called Non-parametric Curve.
This type of curve is either explicit or implicit.
Explicit Representation of Curve :- y = f(x) e.g. y=x2+2
Implicit Representation of Curve :- f(x, y)=0 e.g. x2 + y2 -a2 = 0

2. Parametric Curve :- In Parametric form each co-ordinate of a point on a curve is represented as

function of single parameter t i.e. x=x(t) y=y(t) where 0<=t<=1
P(t) = (x(t), y(t))

Continuity of Curve :- Any complex or shape are usually not modeled by single curve but pieces of
curve.
This joints create sharp corner that can create difficulty in representing fine curve.
There are various continuity condition at the joints -
A. Parametric Continuity
B. Geometric Continuity

There are three Parametric Continuity condition :-

1. Zero Order Parametric Continuity :- In this the two Curve join simply at point.
=> It is represented by C0.
=> In this continuity we do not achieve more fine join.

2. First Order Parametric Continuity :- It is represented by C1. The first order derivative means
the tangent line of the coordinate function for two successive curve section are equal at there
joining points. It provide smooth points.

3. Second Order Parametric Continuity :- It is represented by C2. First order provides the
intersection
point of the both curve near to zero order continuity. Therefore to achieve more smoothness.

Solid Modeling :- Solid modeling is an representation of physical solid object it is used to provide
precise and complete computer based representation.
=> It is mostly use in engineering application and manipulate 3D object.

Terminology related to Solid Modeling :-

1. Topology :- Define the structure of 3D shape.
2. Face
3. Edge
4. Loop

Representation of Solid :-

Boolean set operation both 3D solid :-

1. Union
2. Intersection
3. Difference

Types of Solid Modeling :-

1. Primitive Instancing
2. Boundary Representation (B-rep)
3. Spatial Partitioning Representation
4. Sweeping Representation
5. Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)

-: Unit -V :-

Animation :- Animation is a art of creating moving images by using computer.

=> Animation is the process of displaying a series of still images or frames in quick succession to
create the illusion of movement.
=> In animation a series of images changed remedially to create an elusion of movement.
A person who create animation is called animator.
Animation uses less memory space than the video editor.

Design of Animation Sequence :-

1. Storyboard Layout
2. Object Definitions
3. Key frame Specifications
4. Generation of In Between Frames
5. Line Testing
6. Recording

Types of Animation :- There are fowling types of Animations

1. Cell Animation
2. Computer Animation
3. Kinematic Animation
1. Cel Animation :- In this type of animation there are different-different graphics, images that is
called cell is created by Person and process this graphics or images using machine
that create illusion of motion. This graphics and images are hand made also
called
frame.

2. Computer Animation :- It is same as cell animation but hare frame design are by using computer
and
program. It also categized two types -
i). 2D ii). 3D

3. Kinematic Animation :- Kinematic cons the join the angle or more generally join setting and
position of
links difficult cons of Kinematic include the relationship between the joints
angle
and there rate of position and velocity of the links.

Animation Function :-
1. Morphing :- Morphing is the form of animation in which an object is transform one form to
another form
2. Twining :- Twining is the process of generating the in between frame. It means if the animation
sequence
designed with the help of in between the frame than it is called Twining Animation.

-: Unit-VI :-
Multimedia :- Multi means many media means source to convey information.
=> Multimedia is the combination of more than one media element such as text, images, audio
video, graphics, animation.
=> Multimedia is the combination of text, graphics, audio, video, and animation in a single
interactive
system or application.
=>Multimedia is an art creating interactive content.

Components of Multimedia :-
1. Text – Written content or information.
2. Graphics – Images, drawings, illustrations.
3. Audio – Sound, music, voice-over.
4. Video – Moving images, film clips.
5. Animation – Moving visuals/illustrations created frame-by-frame.

Need of Multimedia :-
1. Maintains interest of user
2. Interactive media
3. Easiest way interaction
4. Application of virtual reality

Uses of Multimedia :-
1. Education :- Smart classes, e-learning, tutorials, online courses
2. Entertainment :- Movies, music, video games, animation.
3. Advertising and Marketing :- Attractive product presentations, digital ads, social media
promotions.
4. Business, Healthcare :- Corporate training, Medical simulation
5. Science and Engineering :- Simulations, modeling complex structures, virtual labs.

Stage of Making Multimedia :-

1. Planning and Costing (Planning Meeting, Script Writing, Story Boarding)
2. Design and Multimedia (Designing, Editing, Production)
3. Testing
4. Delivery

Requirements for a Multimedia Project :-

1. Hardware :- RAM, ROM, HD, I/O like Keyboard, Mouse, monitor, speaker, printer etc.
2. Software :-Text Editor - MS Word, Google Docs, Graphics - Adobe Photoshop, CorelDRAWs
3. Skill :- Representation, Project Manger, Designer etc.

Motivation for Multimedia Usage :-

1. Increased Engagement
2. Better Communication
3. Improved Learning
4. Entertainment Value
 #Prince
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