Weather and Climate

The term “weather” refers to the atmospheric conditions which exist in an area at a

particular time. The weather in a particular location can change from day to day or

even within a few minutes. If you speak of how rainy it was this morning or how hot it

was yesterday, you are speaking about the weather. Climate refers to the general

atmospheric characteristics expected to prevail in a particular place. We learn about

the climate of an area by studying weather patterns in that area over a 30-35 year

period. It is important for Geography students to know the difference between

weather and climate.

The Elements of the Weather

There are a number of elements which make up the weather. They are:

Temperature: This refers to how hot or cold the atmosphere is. It is measured in

degrees Celsius or degrees Fahrenheit. Temperature is measured using a

thermometer. When discussing the temperature of various areas, it is important to

understand the following terms:

●​ Diurnal temperature range: This is the difference between the highest and
lowest temperatures in a day. It is also known as the daily temperature range.
●​ Annual temperature range: This is the difference between the average
temperature of the hottest and coldest months in the year.
Sunshine: Sunshine is the term used to refer to direct sunlight. It is measured in

hours. The instrument used to determine the amount of sunshine experienced in an

area in a day is a Campbell Stokes Sunshine Recorder (seen below).

In the photo above, notice the card which is under the glass sphere. The sphere

focuses the rays of the Sun onto a point on this card, burning a small hole at that

point. As the Sun moves across the sky its rays are focused on different parts of the

card. At the end of the day, the card can be examined to determine the amount of

sunshine the area experienced on that day. An entire day of sunshine will create one

long, unbroken burn on the card. A day with many cloudy periods will create several

small burns with spaces in between them. The spaces represent periods when there

was no direct sunlight.

Precipitation: This term refers to the various ways in which water falls from the

atmosphere to the ground. This includes rain, snow and hail. Rainfall is measured in

millimeters using a rain gauge. The amount of precipitation that an area receives has

a major impact on the vegetation and soil in that area. Some areas receive very little
precipitation while others receive very much. In some areas rainfall is seasonal,

while in others it rains throughout the year.

Pressure: This refers to the weight of the atmosphere pressing down on the Earth’s

surface. It is measured in millibars (mb). The instrument used to measure

atmospheric pressure is the barometer. Low pressure is associated with rising air,

which often results in cloud formation and rainfall. High pressure is associated with

descending air and fair weather.

Winds: Winds blow from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. We are

concerned with two aspects of wind; its direction and its speed.

Wind direction is measured using a wind vane or wind sock. As the wind blows,

these instruments turn to indicate wind directon. Winds are named according to the

direction that they blow from. For instance, an easterly wind is a wind which blows

from the east.

Wind speed is measured using an anemometer. A commonly used type is the cup

anemometer. It is composed of three cups mounted on horizontal arms which are

attached to a vertical shaft. When the wind blows, it causes the cups to spin around

which causes the shaft to turn. The faster the wind blows, the faster the cups spin

and the faster the shaft turns. A device connected to the shaft gives the wind speed

in miles or kilometers per hour.

Humidity: This term refers to the moisture in the atmosphere. Absolute humidity is

a measure of the total amount of moisture in the air. However, the amount of

moisture that air can hold depends on its temperature. Relative humidity is the

amount of water in the atmosphere given as a percentage of the total amount of

water that the air can hold at that temperature. Therefore, relative humidity of 75%

indicates that the air is currently holding 75% of the total amount of water that it can

hold at that particular temperature. Relative humidity is measured using a

hygrometer.
Clouds: Clouds form when water vapour condenses in the atmosphere. When air

rises, it cools. A rising current of air is called an updraught (also spelled updraft). As

the air cools, its ability to hold moisture is reduced. The water vapour in the rising air

condenses, forming clouds. When discussing clouds, we are concerned with cloud

cover and cloud type.

Cloud cover: The amount of the sky that is obscured by clouds is known as cloud

cover. Cloud cover is measured in oktas (eighths). One okta of cloud cover means

that one eighth of the sky is obscured by clouds. Four oktas of cloud cover means

that half the sky is obscured by clouds. Eight oktas of cloud cover means the entire

visible sky is obscured by clouds. The human eye is used to judge cloud cover.

Cloud type: There are many types of clouds. Clouds are named according to their

appearance. The three basic cloud types are cirrus, cumulus and stratus.

●​ Cirrus clouds: These clouds form high in the atmosphere where they are
blown into thin, feathery formations by high level winds.
●​ Cumulus clouds: The word cumulus means “heap” or “pile”. Cumulus clouds
are puffy looking clouds formed when water vapour condenses as a result of
strong updraughts. They look like floating heaps of cotton.
●​ Stratus clouds: These clouds are formed in layers. A stratus cloud looks like a
sheet of cloud.
Many other types of cloud display features of more than one of the basic cloud types.

For instance a cirrostratus cloud displays features of cirrus as well as stratus

clouds. They are high level,thin, feathery clouds formed in layers. It is important to

note that the prefix “alto” is used to describe mid level clouds and the terms

“nimbo” or “nimbus” are used to describe clouds that produce rain. Therefore,

altocumulus clouds are mid-level cumulus clouds and nimbostratus clouds are

stratus clouds that produce rain.

A distinct type of cloud is the cumulonimbus cloud. This type of cloud forms when

very strong updraughts rise high into the atmosphere forming very tall clouds. The
top of this type of cloud may spread out, giving the cloud an anvil shape.

Cumulonimbus clouds produce heavy rain and thunderstorms. The diagram below

shows various cloud types as well as the altitudes at which they form. Click to

enlarge the image.

Anticyclones

An anticylone (also known as a high pressure system) is a large area of high

atmospheric pressure. Anticyclones may be thousands of kilometers in diameter.

The pressure within an anticyclone is 1000 millibars or more. Light winds circulate

around the central area of high pressure in a clockwise direction in the northern

hemisphere. Within the anticyclone air is descending.

Air descends in an anticyclone.

As the air descends, it is compressed and warmed. These conditions are not suitable

for cloud formation. Therefore, anticyclones are associated with long periods of
sunny or fair weather with few or no clouds and no rainfall. There is usually a light

wind. These conditions generally persist for several days or even a few weeks. In the

photo below, the large, cloudless, oval shaped area is an anticyclone.

An anticyclone off the southern coast of Australia. (Photo by NASA)

During the northern hemisphere winter, anticyclones form over North America and

these may extend over parts of the northern Caribbean. During the northern

hemisphere summer, an anticyclone develops over the mid-Atlantic and may extend

over parts of the Caribbean.

Cold Fronts
When air remains relatively stagnant over an area for some time, it takes on the

temperature and moisture characteristics of the area. Therefore, air which remains

stagnant over a cold and dry area will become cold and dry. Air which remains

stagnant over the sea or ocean in the tropics will become warm and moist. A body of

air which has similar temperature and moisture characteristics throughout is known

as an air mass.

Over time, air masses may move out of the areas over which they develop. As they

do so, they encounter other air masses with different characteristics. When two air

masses with different characteristics meet, they do not readily mix. There is usually a

sharp or well defined boundary between the two air masses. This boundary is known

as a front. There are different types of fronts such as warm fronts and cold fronts.

Warm fronts occur when a warm air mass moves into a region of colder air. Cold

fronts occur when a cold air mass moves into a region of warm air.

Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone

The trade winds meet (or converge) in the zone of low pressure in equatorial

regions. This zone is called the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).

Atmospheric conditions in the ITCZ are very unstable. There are strong currents of

rising air known as updraughts. As the air rises, the moisture within it condenses,

clouds form and it rains. The unstable conditions in the ITCZ make equatorial

regions some of the wettest in the world. These areas often experience heavy rainfall

and thunderstorms.
 In this photo, the ITCZ can be seen as a band of clouds over equatorial regions (photo by NASA)

The ITCZ is a very large feature which circles the globe. It affects many tropical

areas around the world including territories in the southern Caribbean. The ITCZ is

not stationary. It moves north of the equator during the northern hemisphere

summer, bringing heavy rain to Trinidad and Tobago and Grenada. It then moves

south, crossing the Equator and moving into the southern hemisphere. The ITCZ

reaches its most southerly point during the northern hemisphere winter,bringing

heavy rain to Brazil. The ITCZ crosses Guyana as it travels to the north and then
again as it moves south, giving this country two periods of heavy rainfall each year.

The map below shows the northernmost and southernmost positions of the ITCZ.

Tropical Waves

Tropical waves are troughs of low pressure which occur in tropical areas. According

to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) a trough is “an

elongated area of low pressure, usually not associated with a closed circulation”.

Tropical waves develop from atmospheric disturbances as far away as eastern

Africa. They then move toward the west travelling across the African continent and

over the Atlantic Ocean. They are carried along by the prevailing easterly winds

known as the trade winds.

Tropical waves are very large systems. Travelling at about 20 – 30 km per hour, the

entire system may take up to four days to cross a particular location. To the west of a

tropical wave, air is descending and the weather is fair. Wind blows from the

north-east. As the trough of the wave passes over an area, the atmosphere becomes

unstable and there are strong updraughts (rising currents of air). Cumulonimbus

clouds form, resulting in heavy rain and thunderstorms. To the east of the wave, the

wind blows from the south-east.

There are about 60 – 65 tropical waves in a typical year. They are especially

common from April to November, when a new wave leaves the African coast every 2

– 4 days. Under certain conditions, a tropical wave may develop into a hurricane.

Hurricanes
Hurricanes are powerful cyclonic (rotating) storms with maximum sustained winds of

74 miles per hour (119 km per hour) or higher. In the Pacific, they are called

typhoons while in the Indian ocean they are known as cyclones. Hurricanes develop

over warm seas and oceans from atmospheric disturbances such as tropical

waves. In order for a hurricane to develop, the surface temperature of the sea or

ocean must be at least 27 degrees Celsius (80 degrees Fahrenheit).

If conditions are favourable, an atmospheric disturbance can strengthen into a

tropical depression. A tropical depression is an area of low pressure (about

1005-1010 mb) with a closed circulation. This means that winds spiral in towards

this area of low pressure. The maximum sustained wind speed in a tropical

depression is 38 miles per hour (62 km per hour).

A tropical depression may develop into a tropical storm under the right conditions.

Sustained winds must be at least 39 miles per hour (63 km per hour) in order for a

system to be classified as a tropical storm. The atmospheric pressure in a tropical

storm is usually between 990 mb and 1000 mb. When a system becomes a tropical

storm, it is given a name from a predetermined list. Storms are named in

alphabetical order. The first storm of the year is given a name which starts with “A”,

the second one gets a name which starts with “B” and so on.

If conditions continue to be favourable, a tropical storm will continue to strengthen. It

becomes a hurricane when sustained winds reach 74 miles per hour (119 km per

hour). Hurricanes may continue to strengthen and achieve sustained wind speeds

much higher than this. Atmospheric pressure within a hurricane is less than 990 mb.

Atmospheric pressure drops as the hurricane strengthens. The lowest pressure ever

recorded for an Atlantic hurricane is 882 mb. It was recorded during the peak

intensity of Hurricane Wilma in October 2005. At this point, Hurricane Wilma was a

category 5 hurricane with sustained winds near 175 miles per hour (281 km per

hour). The video below shows how hurricanes form.

Hurricanes are classified into five categories according to the Saffir – Simpson

Hurricane Wind Scale. The classification is as follows:

Category 1: Hurricanes with sustained winds of 74-95 mph or 119 – 153 km per

hour.

Category 2: Hurricanes with sustained winds of 96-110 mph or 154 – 177 km per

hour.

Category 3: Hurricanes with sustained winds of 111-129 mph or 178 – 208 km per

hour.

Category 4: Hurricanes with sustained winds of 130-156 mph or 209 – 251 km per

hour.

Category 5: Hurricanes with sustained winds of 157 mph (252 km per hour) or

higher.

For more information on the Saffir – Simpson Scale click here. Be sure to check out

the animation near the bottom of the page.

Structure of a Hurricane

A mature hurricane is roughly circular in shape and may be hundreds of miles

across. The entire feature rotates around a relatively calm center which is known as

the eye of the hurricane. In the northern hemisphere, hurricanes rotate in an

anti-clockwise direction. Rain bands containing massive cumulonimbus clouds spiral

in toward the eye. These clouds form as a result of the strong updraughts (rising air

currents) within the hurricane. The rain bands are capable of producing the very

heavy rainfall associated with hurricanes.

Strong winds spiral in towards the eye. Wind speed increases toward the center of

the hurricane. The strongest winds occur in a part of the hurricane which is known as
the eyewall. The eyewall is the part of the hurricane immediately surrounding the

eye. Winds spiral into the eyewall and then they spiral upward toward the top of the

hurricane. At the top of the hurricane, winds spiral outward in a clockwise direction.

At the center of a hurricane is the eye. The eye of a hurricane is the “hole” in the

middle of the hurricane. A typical hurricane has an eye which is about 20 – 40 miles

(32 – 64km) across. Conditions within the eye are relatively calm. Winds are light

and there is little or no rain. Within the eye, air is descending. The sky may be clear.

As the eye of a hurricane passes over an area, people who don’t know better may

think the hurricane has passed. The structure of a hurricane can be seen in the

diagram below.

The structure of a hurricane

The Movement of a Hurricane

hour. In the northern hemisphere, they tend to curve toward the north-west. They

tend to curve toward the south-west in the southern hemisphere. However, some

hurricanes do not follow this general pattern of movement. In 1999, Hurricane Lenny

developed in the Caribbean Sea and headed east, crossing the Leeward Islands and

heading out into the Atlantic. Lenny is remembered as a hurricane which spent its

entire lifespan heading the wrong way.

Before a hurricane makes landfall, the weather may be calm. Humidity is high. Wind

speed and cloud cover increase as the hurricane approaches. When a hurricane

makes landfall, the area experiences very strong winds. Often, there is very heavy

rainfall. Winds are strongest in the eyewall. As the eye of the hurricane passes over

an area, the wind dies down. It may even stop raining. Once the eye has passed,

strong winds start blowing again. This time the winds blow in the opposite direction.

As the eye moves away from an area, the wind speed decreases.

Warm seas and oceans are the source of a hurricane’s energy. As long as a

hurricane remains over a warm tropical sea or ocean it can continue to sustain itself

by “sucking up” warm, moist air. However, when a hurricane makes landfall or moves

over cold water, it is cut off from its energy source and it begins to weaken. The

video below shows how Hurricane Katrina developed and then dissipated after

making landfall in Louisiana.

While over a tropical sea or ocean, a hurricane may be weakened by what is known

as “wind shear”. Wind shear occurs when high level winds blow in a different

direction (or at a different speed) from winds near the surface.