BE PHYSICS TOPIC DETAIL EXPLANATION

Quantum physics.
Black Body Radiation - Planck's Law

• A black body is an idealized object that absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation, regardless
of frequency or angle. When heated, it emits radiation across a continuous spectrum.

• Classical physics (Rayleigh-Jeans Law) failed to explain the observed black body spectrum,
particularly at high frequencies (the "ultraviolet catastrophe").

• Planck's Law successfully describes the spectral radiance of electromagnetic radiation emitted
by a black body in thermal equilibrium at a definite temperature. Planck proposed that energy is
quantized, meaning it can only exist in discrete packets called quanta or photons. The energy of
a photon is given by: $$\E = hf$$ where:

o E is the energy of the photon

o h is Planck's constant (6.626×10−34J s)

o f is the frequency of the radiation

Planck's law for the spectral radiance B(ν,T) (energy emitted per unit time, per unit solid angle, per unit
area, per unit frequency) is: B(ν,T)=c22hν3ehν/kBT−11 where:

o ν is the frequency

o T is the absolute temperature

o c is the speed of light

o kB is the Boltzmann constant

Energy Distribution Function

• In statistical mechanics, the energy distribution function describes how energy is distributed
among the particles in a system at thermal equilibrium.

• For systems where quantum effects are significant, such as photons in black body radiation or
electrons in a solid, we use quantum statistical distributions like the Bose-Einstein distribution
(for bosons like photons) and the Fermi-Dirac distribution (for fermions like electrons).

• Planck's law is derived using the Bose-Einstein distribution applied to photons. The average
number of photons with frequency ν at temperature T is given by: ⟨n(ν)⟩=ehν/kBT−11
 Multiplying this by the energy of a single photon (hν) and the density of states for photons leads
to Planck's law.

Wave-Particle Duality - de Broglie Matter Waves

• Light, which was long considered a wave, exhibits particle-like properties (e.g., the photoelectric
effect, where photons knock electrons off a metal surface).

• Wave-particle duality states that all matter exhibits both wave-like and particle-like properties.

• De Broglie proposed that particles also have wave-like properties. The wavelength associated
with a particle of momentum p is given by the de Broglie relation: λ=ph=mvh where:

o λ is the de Broglie wavelength

o p is the momentum of the particle

o m is the mass of the particle

o v is the velocity of the particle

Concept of the Wave Function and its Physical Significance

• In quantum mechanics, the state of a physical system is described by a mathematical function

called the wave function, denoted by Ψ (often ψ for time-independent cases).

• The wave function contains all the physically accessible information about the system.

• The physical significance of the wave function is primarily related to its probability
interpretation (Born interpretation):

o The probability of finding a particle in a small volume dV around a point (x,y,z) at time t
is given by ∣Ψ(x,y,z,t)∣2dV.

o Therefore, ∣Ψ(x,y,z,t)∣2 is the probability density.

• For a one-dimensional system, the probability of finding the particle between x and x+dx is
∣Ψ(x,t)∣2dx.

• For the probability interpretation to be consistent, the wave function must be normalized:
∫−∞∞∣Ψ(x,t)∣2dx=1(in 1D) ∫−∞∞∫−∞∞∫−∞∞∣Ψ(x,y,z,t)∣2dxdydz=1(in 3D)

Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle

• The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle states that there are fundamental limits to the precision
with which certain pairs of physical properties of a particle, such as position and momentum,
can be known simultaneously.
 • Mathematically, for position (x) and its corresponding momentum (px), the uncertainty principle
is: ΔxΔpx≥2ℏ where:

o Δx is the uncertainty in position

o Δpx is the uncertainty in momentum

o ℏ=2πh is the reduced Planck constant

• Another important uncertainty relation exists for energy (E) and time (t): ΔEΔt≥2ℏ

• The uncertainty principle is not due to limitations in our measuring instruments but is an
inherent property of quantum systems.

Schrödinger's Wave Equation

• The Schrödinger's wave equation is the fundamental equation of motion in non-relativistic

quantum mechanics. It describes how the quantum state of a physical system changes over time.

o Time-dependent Schrödinger equation: iℏ∂t∂Ψ(x,y,z,t)=H^Ψ(x,y,z,t) where:

▪ i is the imaginary unit

▪ ℏ is the reduced Planck constant

▪ ∂t∂ is the partial derivative with respect to time

▪ Ψ(x,y,z,t) is the time-dependent wave function

▪ H^ is the Hamiltonian operator, which represents the total energy of the system
(H^=T^+V^, where T^ is the kinetic energy operator and V^ is the potential
energy operator).

o Time-independent Schrödinger equation: If the potential energy V does not explicitly

depend on time, we can use the method of separation of variables to write the wave
function as Ψ(x,y,z,t)=ψ(x,y,z)e−iEt/ℏ, where E is the energy of the system. Substituting
this into the time-dependent equation yields the time-independent Schrödinger
equation: H^ψ(x,y,z)=Eψ(x,y,z) or, in one dimension: −2mℏ2dx2d2ψ(x)+V(x)ψ(x)=Eψ(x)
where m is the mass of the particle. The solutions ψ(x) are the stationary states with
definite energy E.

Particle in a One-Dimensional Rigid Box

• Consider a particle of mass m confined to move in one dimension between two impenetrable
walls at x=0 and x=L. The potential energy V(x) is: V(x)={0∞0<x<Lotherwise

• Inside the box (0<x<L), the time-independent Schrödinger equation becomes: −2mℏ2dx2d2ψ(x)
=Eψ(x)
 • The solutions to this equation, satisfying the boundary conditions ψ(0)=0 and ψ(L)=0 (because
the wave function must be zero where the potential is infinite), are: ψn(x)=Asin(Lnπx) where
n=1,2,3,... is a positive integer (the quantum number), and A is the normalization constant.

• The corresponding quantized energy levels are: En=8mL2n2h2=2mL2n2π2ℏ2

Tunneling (Qualitative)

• In classical physics, if a particle encounters a potential energy barrier higher than its total energy,
it will be reflected.

• In quantum mechanics, there is a non-zero probability that a particle can pass through a
potential energy barrier even if its total energy is less than the height of the barrier. This
phenomenon is called quantum tunneling.

• The probability of tunneling depends on the height and width of the barrier, as well as the mass
and energy of the particle. A narrower and lower barrier allows for a higher probability of
tunneling.

• The wave function of the particle does not abruptly go to zero inside the barrier but decays
exponentially. If the barrier is thin enough, the wave function will have a non-zero amplitude on
the other side, indicating a probability of finding the particle there.

Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM)

• The Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) is an instrument used to image surfaces at the
atomic level.

• It relies on the principle of quantum tunneling. A very sharp conducting tip is brought extremely
close (within a few angstroms) to the surface being studied.

• A small voltage is applied between the tip and the surface. Due to the small separation,
electrons can tunnel through the potential barrier (the vacuum gap) between the tip and the
surface.

• The tunneling current is extremely sensitive to the distance between the tip and the surface (it
varies exponentially with the distance).

• By scanning the tip across the surface and measuring the tunneling current (or keeping the
current constant and measuring the height of the tip), a map of the surface topography at the
atomic scale can be obtained.