Geography

Weather and Climate

 Weather: Momentary state of the atmosphere; changes rapidly (day-to-day).

 Climate: Long-term average of weather conditions (observed over 50+ years).
 Monsoon Climate: India's climate is predominantly monsoonal, with seasonal wind
direction reversals. This is the dominant climate across South and Southeast Asia.

2. Unity and Diversity in Indian Climate

 Despite a common monsoon climate, India shows regional climate diversity:

o Kerala and Tamil Nadu: Hot and humid.
o North India: Seasonal extremes with hot summers and cold winters.
 Temperature Variations:
o Rajasthan (summer: 55°C) vs. Leh (winter: -45°C).
o Coastal regions like Kerala have minimal day-night temperature variation.
o Inland regions like Rajasthan experience drastic day-night temperature shifts.
 Precipitation Variations:
o Heavy rainfall in Cherrapunji and Mawsynram (over 1,080 cm annually).
o Arid regions like Jaisalmer receive less than 9 cm annually.

3. Factors Determining Indian Climate

 Latitude: India's position spans tropical and temperate zones, leading to varied
climates.
 Himalayas: Act as a barrier against cold northern winds and trap monsoon moisture.
 Land-Water Distribution: Coastal regions have milder climates; interiors experience
extremes.
 Distance from the Sea: Coastal areas enjoy moderate temperatures; interiors face
greater temperature extremes.
 Altitude: Higher altitudes are cooler. Example: Darjeeling vs. Agra on the same
latitude.
 Relief: Influences rainfall patterns, with windward slopes receiving heavy rain and
leeward slopes staying dry.

4. The Nature of Indian Monsoon

 Monsoon Dynamics:
o Influenced by the heating of land and sea, pressure differences, and wind
patterns.
o Involves the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), which shifts
seasonally.
 Onset of Monsoon: Begins in early June in Kerala, progressing northwards.
 Breaks in Monsoon: Temporary dry periods within the rainy season.
 Retreating Monsoon: Post-monsoon season with northeast winds.
5. The Rhythm of Seasons

 Cold Weather Season (November-February): Coldest in North India.

 Hot Weather Season (March-May): High temperatures, intense heat in the interiors.
 Southwest Monsoon Season (June-September): Main rainy season.
 Retreating Monsoon Season (October-November): Withdrawal of rains, dry
conditions in the north and rain in Tamil Nadu.

6. Monsoon Variability

 El Niño: Affects global weather, including Indian monsoons, leading to droughts or

heavy rains.
 Factors Influencing Monsoons: Pressure differences, wind patterns, ocean currents,
and jet streams.

Weather, Winds, and Monsoons in India

1. Winter Winds and Pressure Patterns:

o Light winds (3-5 km/hr) blow outward due to a low-pressure gradient.
o Topography influences wind direction: westerly/northwesterly in the Ganga
Valley, northerly in the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta, and northeasterly over the
Bay of Bengal.
2. Winter Weather:
o Cyclonic depressions from the Mediterranean bring occasional rain to
northwestern India, helping with rabi crops.
o Rainfall decreases from west to east in the plains and north to south in the
mountains.
3. Winter Rainfall Exceptions:
o Weak cyclones bring light rain to Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, and western Uttar
Pradesh.
o Some rainfall in central India, northern Peninsula, and northeastern regions
(Arunachal Pradesh, Assam).
4. Summer Weather:
o High temperatures dominate north India from March to June, with
temperatures often reaching 48°C.
o In southern India, coastal areas have mild summers due to the ocean’s
moderating effect. Temperatures remain between 26°C and 32°C.
5. Local Summer Storms:
o Pre-monsoon showers in Kerala (Mango Showers) and Nor'westers in Assam
and Bengal provide early rains for crops.
o The 'Loo' is a hot, dry wind blowing in the northern plains, causing
discomfort.
6. Southwest Monsoon Season:
o Begins in June, bringing abundant rain after crossing the equator.
o Monsoon splits into two branches:
 Arabian Sea Branch: Causes heavy rainfall on the Western Ghats;
eastern regions receive less due to rain-shadow effects.
 Bay of Bengal Branch: Brings rain to eastern and northern India, with
Mawsynram (in Meghalaya) receiving the highest global rainfall.
 7. Retreating Monsoon:
o Occurs in October and November, with the monsoon retreating southwards.
o Brings rain to southern Peninsula, with tropical cyclones often affecting the
east coast.
8. Rainfall Distribution:
o High rainfall in the Western Ghats, northeast hills, and sub-Himalayan areas.
o Medium rainfall in eastern India and parts of central India.
o Low rainfall in Rajasthan, western Uttar Pradesh, and Deccan Plateau.
o Some regions, particularly Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Maharashtra,
receive very little rain.
9. Monsoons and Economy:
o Monsoons are vital for agriculture, supporting crops across the country.
o Monsoon variability can lead to droughts or floods.
o Winter rains support rabi crops, while sudden heavy rains can cause soil
erosion.
10. Global Warming:
o Increasing global temperatures are linked to greenhouse gases like carbon
dioxide and methane.
o Predicted impacts include rising sea levels, shifting agricultural patterns, and
more frequent flooding.

Drainage System Overview

1. Drainage refers to the flow of water through well-defined channels. A network of

such channels is called a drainage system.
2. The drainage pattern of an area depends on factors like geological age, rock type,
topography, slope, and water flow.

Drainage Patterns

1. Dendritic: Resembles tree branches, common in northern plains.

2. Radial: Rivers flow outward from a central point, like those from the Amarkantak
range.
3. Trellis: Tributaries flow parallel with right-angle intersections, seen in regions with
alternating resistant and non-resistant rock layers.
4. Centripetal: Rivers flow towards a central point, often a lake or basin.

River and Drainage Concepts

1. Catchment Area: Region where a river collects water.

2. Drainage Basin: Area drained by a river and its tributaries.
3. Watershed: Boundary between drainage basins.
4. River Basins vs. Watersheds: River basins are larger areas, while watersheds are
smaller and are subdivisions of basins.

Indian Drainage Division

1. Based on orientation to the sea:

 o Arabian Sea drainage (23%): Includes rivers like the Indus, Narmada, and
Tapi.
o Bay of Bengal drainage (77%): Includes the Ganga, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi,
and Krishna.
2. Based on watershed size:
o Major Basins: Over 20,000 sq. km (e.g., Ganga, Brahmaputra).
o Medium Basins: 2,000-20,000 sq. km.
o Minor Basins: Less than 2,000 sq. km.

Classification of Indian Drainage

1. Himalayan Drainage: Includes rivers like the Ganga, Indus, and Brahmaputra. These
are perennial and fed by snowmelt and rain, forming features like gorges and valleys.
2. Peninsular Drainage: Primarily fed by rain; older than Himalayan rivers with
mature, well-defined channels.

Himalayan River Systems

1. Indus System: Originates from Tibet; flows through India and Pakistan. Important
tributaries include Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Satluj.
o Indus: One of the largest river systems; flows 2,880 km.
o Jhelum: Originates at Verinag, Kashmir.
o Chenab: Formed by Chandra and Bhaga rivers.
o Ravi: Rises in the Kullu hills.
o Beas: Originates from Beas Kund.
o Satluj: Originates near Mansarovar Lake, Tibet.

Evolution of Himalayan Drainage

 Geologists suggest a historical river called Indo-Brahma existed and later split due to
geological changes, forming the present-day Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra river
systems.

River Systems in India

1. The Indus River System

 The Indus River originates in Tibet and flows through India only in Jammu and
Kashmir before heading to Pakistan.
 Important tributaries:
o Jhelum: Originates from Verinag, flows through Srinagar, joins Chenab in
Pakistan.
o Chenab: Largest tributary, formed by Chandra and Bhaga rivers in Himachal
Pradesh.
o Ravi: Starts west of Rohtang Pass, flows through Chamba valley, joins
Chenab.
o Beas: Originates from Beas Kund, flows through Kullu valley, joins Satluj
near Harike.
 o Satluj: Originates in Tibet, flows through Shipki La, important for Bhakra
Nangal project.

2. The Ganga River System

 Ganga is a culturally significant and major river in India.

o Begins as Bhagirathi from Gangotri glacier, Uttarakhand; meets Alaknanda at
Devprayag.
o Flows southeast through Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal.
 Key tributaries:
o Yamuna: Originates from Yamunotri glacier, meets Ganga at Prayag.
o Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi: Significant left-bank tributaries, contributing to
Ganga’s water flow.
o Son: Major right-bank tributary.

3. The Brahmaputra River System

 Originates from the Chemayungdung glacier, Tibet, known as Tsangpo there.

o Enters India through Arunachal Pradesh as the Siang, becomes Brahmaputra
in Assam.
o Known for flooding due to heavy rainfall in its catchment.
o Flows into Bangladesh and merges with the Padma, discharging into the Bay
of Bengal.

4. The Peninsular Drainage System

 Older than the Himalayan system with fixed courses and non-perennial rivers.
o Most rivers flow eastward into the Bay of Bengal except the Narmada and
Tapi.
 Important rivers:
o Mahanadi: Rises in Chhattisgarh, flows through Odisha.
o Godavari: Largest peninsular river, known as Dakshin Ganga.
o Krishna: Rises near Mahabaleshwar, flows through Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana.
o Kaveri: Originates in Brahmagiri hills, Karnataka; has a steady flow due to
rainfall in both monsoon seasons.
o Narmada and Tapi: Flow westward through rift valleys, lack significant
alluvial deposits.

5. Challenges in River Water Management

 Issues include uneven distribution, seasonal variability, and pollution.

 Floods in one region while droughts in another highlight poor water management.
 Solutions discussed include inter-basin water transfer and pollution control efforts like
"Namami Gange" and "Ganga Action Plan."

Chapter 2

The Earth's History and Forces Shaping It

  The Earth is estimated to be 4,600 million years old.
 Changes in the Earth’s landforms are due to endogenic (internal) and exogenic
(external) forces.
 These forces, including Plate Tectonics, have shaped the Earth’s surface.
 The Indian Plate, which was originally to the south of the equator, continues to move
northward, affecting the Indian subcontinent’s geology and geography.

Geological Divisions of India

India can be divided into three main geological regions based on variations in geological
structure:

1. Peninsular Block
2. The Himalayas and Other Peninsular Mountains
3. Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain

The Peninsular Block

 Bounded by the Aravalli Range, Yamuna, Ganga, and the Rajmahal Hills.
 Formed of ancient rocks, primarily gneisses and granites.
 Notable geological features include rift valleys (like Narmada and Tapi) and residual
mountains (Aravalli, Nallamala).
 Rivers are generally shallow with gentle slopes; many east-flowing rivers form
significant deltas.

The Himalayas and Other Peninsular Mountains

 Young and geologically active, resulting in features like folds, faults, and thrust
plains.
 Characterized by fast-flowing rivers, gorges, and V-shaped valleys.

Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain

 Formed by the alluvial deposits from rivers like the Indus, Ganga, and
Brahmaputra.
 Extends 3,200 km east to west, with a depth of alluvium deposits ranging from 1,000
to 2,000 meters.
 Contains features like the Bhabar, Tarai, and Alluvial Plains (Khadar and Bhangar).
 Supports fertile soil ideal for agriculture.

Physiographic Divisions of India

Based on physical features, India is divided into six regions:

1. Northern and Northeastern Mountains: Includes the Himalayas and Northeastern

Hills.
o Acts as a barrier, affecting climate, drainage, and culture.
2. Northern Plain: Created by alluvial deposits from major rivers.
o Includes zones like the Bhabar, Tarai, and Alluvial Plains.
 3. Peninsular Plateau: Elevated region with diverse relief.
o Consists of the Deccan Plateau, Central Highlands, and Northeastern
Plateau.
o Features include tors, block mountains, and rift valleys.
4. Indian Desert: Arid region with sand dunes and low rainfall.
o Divided into northern and southern slopes, characterized by ephemeral
rivers.
5. Coastal Plains: Divided into the Western and Eastern Coastal Plains.
o Western plains are narrow and submerged, while eastern plains are wider with
fertile deltas.
6. Islands: Includes the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal and the
Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea.

Important Features and Notable Regions

 Western Ghats: High elevation, continuous mountain range with rich biodiversity.
 Eastern Ghats: Discontinuous, lower elevation, and heavily eroded.
 Central Highlands: Consist of denuded hills and fertile plateaus.
 Northeastern Plateau: Known for its mineral wealth and heavy rainfall.

Rivers and Drainage

 The Peninsular region has rivers flowing eastward into the Bay of Bengal (Mahanadi,
Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri) and westward into the Arabian Sea.
 The Northern Plains are dominated by rivers creating fertile soil, ideal for
agriculture.
 River deltas are prominent in the east, while the west coast lacks deltas.

Impact of Tectonics and Geomorphology

 India's geography is influenced by continuous tectonic activity, with seismic zones

like the Bhima fault.
 Peninsular plateau features have undergone upliftment, submergence, and faulting
over time.

India location

Standard Time in India

 Standard Meridian of India is at 82°30' E, set in multiples of 7°30' of longitude.

 Indian Standard Time (IST) is 5 hours 30 minutes ahead of Greenwich Mean Time
(GMT).
 Countries like the USA have multiple time zones due to a wide east-to-west extent.

Size and Geographical Diversity of India

 India's Area: 3.28 million sq. km, which is 2.4% of the world's land area, making it
the 7th largest country globally.
 Geographic Features:
 o North: Lofty Himalayas.
o Rivers: Major rivers include the Ganga, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Krishna,
Godavari, and Kaveri.
o Forested Hills: Found in the northeast and south.
o Deserts: The Marusthali region in Rajasthan.

Indian Subcontinent and Physical Barriers

 India's geography is framed by:

o North: Himalayas.
o Northwest: Hindukush and Sulaiman Ranges.
o Northeast: Purvachal Hills.
o South: Indian Ocean.
 The region is known as the Indian Subcontinent, including Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan,
Bangladesh, and India.
 Mountain passes like the Khyber, Bolan, Shipkila, Nathula, and Bomdila have
allowed limited cross-border interaction.

India's Coastline and Islands

 Coastline: 6,100 km on the mainland and a total of 7,517 km including island groups.
 Islands:
o Andaman and Nicobar in the Bay of Bengal.
o Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea.

India's Maritime and Geographical Position

 Located in the south-central part of Asia, bordered by the Indian Ocean.

 The maritime position has facilitated trade and interaction through sea and air routes.

India and Its Neighbours

 Neighbouring Countries: Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and

Myanmar.
 Island neighbours include Sri Lanka (separated by the Gulf of Mannar and Palk
Strait) and Maldives.

Modern Connectivity and Interaction

 Physical barriers no longer hinder interaction; advancements in transport,

technology, and communication have overcome these obstacles.