Discover Mechanical Engineering

Review

Defects and remedies in casting processes: a combinatorial approach

between manual and digital optimization technique for enhanced
quality casting
Anayet Ullah Patwari1 · Shah Alam Bhuiyan1 · Khandaker Noman2 · Wasib Ul Navid1

Received: 27 April 2024 / Accepted: 26 September 2024

© The Author(s) 2024  OPEN

Abstract
This review paper provides a comprehensive investigation on problems encountered in casting practices, integrating
insights from diverse research areas within the field of sand casting along with the most probable and effective remedies
of those problems. The study revolves around three main themes: the optimization of sand-casting processes, the selec-
tion of binders for sand-casting, and the transformative impact of artificial intelligence (AI) and advanced control systems
in foundry and steel casting processes. Our paper also highlights the significance of both digital and manual optimization
techniques in sand casting processes, emphasizing the transformative impact of AI technologies like Artificial Neural
Networks (ANN), Fuzzy Logic, and Genetic Algorithms for enhancing efficiency, accuracy, and automation. These digital
methods enable data-driven decision-making and continuous process improvement, leading to higher quality and
reduced defects. Meanwhile, manual optimization, relying on the expertise and adaptability of foundry professionals,
complements digital approaches by providing hands-on problem-solving and flexibility in complex scenarios. Manual
optimization in sand casting involves hands-on activities that leverage the expertise and experience of foundry workers.
Examples include adjusting the mold packing density to ensure uniformity, tuning the sand mixture composition for
optimal mold strength and permeability, use of the binders to enhance the ratio of sand mixtures and placing sprues
and risers to control metal flow and minimize defects. Together, these approaches enhance casting quality, reduce costs,
promote sustainability, and maintain industry competitiveness, offering a comprehensive framework for modernizing
sand casting. The main objective of this study is to offer a comprehensive understanding of how these areas converge to
reshape and elevate the quality, efficiency, and sustainability of casting processes. The first section explores the optimiza-
tion of sand-casting processes, that focus on critical factors such as mold types, molding sand composition, and process
parameters. By identifying common grounds, including the influence of mold type on mechanical properties and the
optimization of molding sand composition for reduced defects, this segment provides practical insights for achieving
high-quality sand castings. The second section explores the choice of binder for sand molding, combining research from
different studies that examined different natural and synthetic binders. Key findings, such as the optimization of binder
content for specific casting requirements and the potential of natural binders as eco-friendly alternatives, offer guidance
for practitioners seeking to enhance sand mold properties and overall casting quality. The third and final part explores
the application of AI and advanced control systems in foundry and steel casting. The review highlights the transformative
impact of AI techniques, including neural networks, fuzzy logic, genetic algorithms, and particle swarm optimization.
These AI-driven approaches optimize customer order management, enhance supply chain efficiency, and improve green
sand properties, contributing to the realization of Industry 4.0 concepts in casting processes.

* Anayet Ullah Patwari, apatwari@iut-dhaka.edu | 1Islamic University of Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 2Northwestern Polytechnical
University, Xi’an, China.

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Keywords Sand-casting · Artificial intelligence · Casting defects · Optimization · Binders

1 Introduction

Sand casting process as shown in Fig. 1 is a versatile and widely employed metal casting process that involves the
production of desired metal shapes through the use of molds made from specially prepared sand. This manufacturing
method begins with the production of a pattern, a replica of the desired object, which is then placed within a molding
box filled with compacted sand. Once the pattern is removed, the resulting cavity serves as the mold for molten metal
to be poured, solidifying into the final cast product.
Sand casting stands out for its adaptability to a diverse range of alloys, sizes, and complexities, making it a fundamental
and cost-effective technique in the production of a wide array of industrial components, from simple to highly complex
designs as shown in the flow diagram in Fig. 2. However, the efficiency and quality of sand casting are often hindered
by defects that arise during the intricate interplay of materials, methods, and environmental factors. This review paper
embarks on a comprehensive exploration of sand-casting defects such as surface imperfections, internal inconsistencies,
or structural weaknesses and their remedies, emphasizing the optimization techniques that improve the conventional
casting process.
The flowchart shown in Fig. 3 outlines the sequential progression of this review paper from abstract to conclusion
in a comprehensive way. Beginning with the abstract, traversing through the introduction, problem statement, and
literature review and integrating it with a fusion of qualitative and quantitative research, this review paper explores the
segmented similarities of methodology, and culminates in a cohesive conclusion. Each step unveils a layer of insight,
providing a systematic and integrated approach to understanding sand-casting research.

2 Literature review

Using a detailed analysis of five major areas—defect minimization through physical experiments, statistical methods,
artificial intelligence integration, process parameter optimization, and additive casting process optimization—this lit-
erature review section has been designed: eight on statistical optimization and design of experiments (DOE), seventeen
on artificial intelligence and process parameter optimization, and twenty-six on defect minimization and additive inclu-
sion as shown in Fig. 4. This thorough synopsis paves the way for an in-depth investigation of approaches focused on
defect fixation, use of the binders, and artificial intelligence integration in the methodology part that follow, providing
insightful information about the development of sand-casting techniques.

Fig. 1  Sand casting process Pouring cup

Cast metal in cavity

Riser Core

Downsprue Cope

Parting line
Runner

Flask
Drag

Mold

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Fig. 2  Flow diagram of the overall sand-casting process

Fig. 3  Flow diagram of the

review paper design

2.1 Optimization of casting processes and inclusion of additives

The optimization of sand mold process parameters in aluminum alloy sand casting using a Design of Experiment (DoE)
technique is covered in the paper by Mohiuddin et al. [1]. Even though the research offers insightful information, a closer
look reveals several methodological issues and concerns. First, careful examination of the study’s Design of Experiment
(DoE) technique is necessary. It is admirable that parameters like Grain Fineness Number (GFN), Clay Content, Moisture
Content, and Number of Ramming were picked; on the other hand, the 13% moisture content level looks excessive
and could be harmful to the casting process. Furthermore, there are concerns regarding the validity of the conclusions
reached because the study lacked a strong statistical analysis to identify meaningful variations in the output response
responses.
The research conducted by Pons Murguía et al. [2] focuses on optimizing grey cast pump impeller castings through
Response Surface Methodology (RSM). Examining key factors such as clay percentage, moisture percentage, and mold
hardness using Box-Behnken Design of Experiments (DOE), the study identified clay percentage and mold hardness
as pivotal in reducing blow-hole defects. Through 15 experimental runs and ANOVA analysis, the optimal settings

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Fig. 4  Topic considered in the literature review section

significantly lowered defect percentages, achieving a 96% defect-free rate. The response surface quadratic model vali-
dated these results, showcasing a numerical optimization success, reducing defect percentages to approximately 1.63%.
The methodology outlined in the main paper presents a foundational framework for optimizing grey cast pump impel-
ler castings but lacks sufficient detail in certain key aspects. While the use of Pareto analysis and Ishikawa diagrams to
identify defects and key parameters affecting quality is commendable, the paper could benefit from further elaboration
on the specific criteria and methods used for data analysis. Additionally, while the experimental setup and procedure
are described, details regarding the type of clay used, equipment calibration, randomization procedures, and control
measures are missing, which could enhance transparency and reproducibility. Similarly, while the use of a Box-Behnken
DOE is mentioned, additional information about the design matrix and rationale behind it would improve clarity and
replicability. Overall, by providing more comprehensive details in these areas, the methodology could strengthen the
rigor and reliability of the study’s findings.
To maximize the production of grey cast pump impeller castings, statistical analyses and experimental findings utiliz-
ing the Box-Behnken design of experiments (DOE) are presented in detail in the results section. But it appears that the
essential analysis component is missing. Although the ANOVA results show that mold hardness and clay % are important
variables in reducing casting defects, there hasn’t been much talk about how these results should be interpreted. Further
investigation into the reasons behind the notable impact of these parameters and their interplay with other variables may
yield insightful information. The depth of study would also be improved by additional interpretation of the numerical
optimization results, especially with reference to the best parameter choices and their real-world applications for quality
enhancement. Furthermore, a critical analysis of the shortcomings and possible causes of inaccuracy would be benefi-
cial for the discussion around the model’s validation and the confirmation trials. All things considered, adding a more
comprehensive critical analysis might improve the study’s conclusions and enhance how the findings are interpreted.
Mahesh et al. [3] studied an experimental investigation focusing on optimizing the sand-casting process for Aluminum
356 alloy. Employing a Taguchi experimental design, the study examines the influence of vent hole angle and diameter on
casting hardness. Minitab 17.0 software analyzes the L9 trials, revealing the optimal combination as a vent hole angle of
90° and a vent hole diameter of 3 mm. Regression analysis validates these findings, presenting a predictive equation for
hardness. Microstructure analysis demonstrates improvements in mechanical properties with the addition of strontium.
This research not only enhances the understanding of crucial parameters in aluminum casting but also contributes to

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ongoing advancements in foundry technology, showcasing the potential benefits of combining centrifugal casting with
electromagnetic shifting.
Anwar et al. [4] synthesized a comprehensive study on foundry sands and binders, employing diverse methods
to assess flowability and mold quality. Utilizing six different sands and three binders, the study employs Hall flow,
Hausner Ratio, and Angle of Repose tests to evaluate flowability. Results highlight CB 1450 and zircon as superior in
flowability. Mold quality analysis, including bending strength, LOI, and permeability tests, reveals MSS as the binder
yielding the highest strength, and zircon demonstrating superior strength with MSS. The study not only contributes a
comparative understanding of foundry materials but also provides a valuable reference for optimizing metal casting
processes with considerations for quality and environmental impact. Though it emerges as an interesting approach,
it falls short in conducting casting trials. In a study conducted by Ge et al. [5] it was shown that how the coefficient
of restitution (COR) affects the flow of granular sand, especially when it comes to core-making procedures in the
foundry industry and in doing so, several test trials were conducted. They investigated the effects of particle wetness,
impact velocity, and grain size on COR (Co-efficient of restitution), which represents the energy dissipation in particle
impacts, using a mix of two-fluid modelling (TFM) and practical free-fall tests. The study emphasizes the important
variations in COR between wet and dry sand, highlighting the impact of wetting conditions on the dynamics of
granular flow. Furthermore, their results imply that COR is affected by elements like impact velocity and grain size,
which has consequences for core-making process design and optimization.
Khandelwal et al. [6] conducted a study at the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, focusing on optimizing
chemically bonded sand mold properties for metal casting. Utilizing a Taguchi design of experiments with an L9
orthogonal array, the study investigates the influence of sand grain size, binder content, and curing time on com-
pression strength, shear strength, core hardness, and shrinkage. Results reveal that higher binder content and longer
curing times enhance mechanical properties, while finer sand grain size has an inverse effect. Empirical relations and
an optimization model, validated against experimental data, provide a systematic approach for foundries to tailor
molding parameters, ensuring the production of high-quality metal castings with improved precision and reliability.
Aribo et al. [7] encapsulated a study investigating the enhancement of foundry molding sand properties using rice
husk and corn cob ashes as additives to locally sourced silica sand. Employing materials from Nigeria, the research
methodically explores varying percentages of these agricultural by-products, analyzing their impact on properties
such as permeability, compression strength, shear strength, and moisture content. Results reveal that while the addi-
tion of rice husk and corn cob ashes decreases moisture content and alters permeability, it substantially enhances
dry compression and shear strength, presenting an eco-friendly and cost-effective solution for improving the quality
of foundry sands in Nigeria.
Desai et al. [8] focused on optimizing green sand molding properties through additive selection and moisture con-
tent adjustment. Applying Design of Experiments (DOE) principles and Taguchi’s Quality Loss Function, the research
systematically explores the influence of additives like coconut shell, fly ash, and tamarind powder, alongside moisture
content. Statistical analyses reveal the significant impact of these factors on compression strength, shear strength,
and permeability number. Taguchi optimization identifies tamarind powder as the optimal additive, with specific
recommendations for achieving optimal green sand properties. This approach offers practical insights for the foundry
industry, enhancing casting quality and minimizing societal losses associated with manufacturing variations.
Eze et al. [9] encapsulated a study investigating the foundry qualities and applications of locally sourced synthetic
sand mixtures in Nigeria. Utilizing dredged sand bonded with fireclay and Ogharaki clay, the researchers conducted
comprehensive laboratory tests, including Atterberg limits, compressive strength, permeability, and the shatter
index. Optimal green strength was achieved at 8% binder content and 3.5–4.0% moisture, showcasing suitability
for steel and general-purpose casting. The study highlights the potential of these cost-effective, locally available
materials, offering an eco-friendly solution for foundry applications and reducing dependence on imported materi-
als like bentonite.
Srinivasa Rao et al. [10] provided insights into the enhancement of green sand molding properties through the incor-
poration of molasses and fly ash. Experimental findings reveal a notable increase in green compression strength, dry
compression strength, and permeability with the specified additive proportions. For instance, a combination of 2.25%
molasses and 15% fly ash results in a green compression strength of 185 kPa and a permeability value of 260 (mmWs). By
comparing these outcomes with traditional green sand, the review emphasizes the potential of these environmentally
friendly additives to optimize green sand molds, offering improvements in mechanical properties for enhanced foundry
applications.

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(a) (b)

Fig. 5  Relationship between dry compressive strength and moisture content for various percentages of fireclay (a) and (b) Ogharaki clay
binder [8]

The graphs of dry compressive strength against moisture content for various clay binders’ concentrations are displayed
in Fig. 5. The amount of binder and moisture content in the mixtures both raise the dry strength.
Sahoo et al. [11] explored the influence of additives (camphor powder, coconut shell ash, and their combination)
on green sand molds for foundry applications. By varying additive content from 0.5% to 3.5%, the study investigates
permeability and green compression strength. Results indicate that adding 1% of additives, particularly camphor
powder, significantly enhances permeability, with camphor powder exhibiting the highest value of 231. Conversely,
coconut shell ash, among the additives, contributes to the highest green compression strength. The study recom-
mends a balanced approach, combining camphor powder and coconut shell ash in the 1–2% range, offering optimal
permeability and green strength for improved casting quality.
Sadarang et al. [12] investigated the impact of binder and moisture content on river bed green sand molds, aim-
ing to provide a sustainable alternative to silica sand in the green sand mold casting process. By utilizing river bed
sand, bentonite clay, and coal dust, the researchers varied the compositions and conducted experiments. Results
revealed that higher moisture content improved mold compatibility, while increased bentonite clay percentages
enhanced shear strength. The optimum combination was found to be 10% bentonite clay and 7% moisture content,
achieving 52% compatibility and the highest shear strength of 0.56 kg/cm 2. Comparative analysis with silica sand
molds showed promising similarities, suggesting river bed sand’s potential as an eco-friendly and cost-effective
alternative in green sand casting.
Ayoola et al. [13] systematically investigated the influence of various mould types on the mechanical properties
of 6063 aluminum alloy castings. Employing CO2 process, metal mould, cement-bonded sand mould, and naturally
bonded sand mold, the researchers conducted comprehensive mechanical tests, including hardness, tensile strength,
and impact resistance. The results demonstrate that mould type significantly impacts the mechanical properties,
with variations in hardness, tensile strength, and impact resistance observed across different mould materials. The
study emphasizes the critical role of factors like heat transfer rates and microstructural characteristics in shaping the
mechanical properties of cast aluminum alloy, providing valuable insights for optimizing the casting process and
achieving desired material characteristics.
Saikaew et al.’s [14] research on optimizing molding sand composition for iron castings, employing a mixture
experimental design and response surface methodology, revealed significant insights. By varying bentonite and
water content, they identified the optimal proportion (93.3% recycled molding sand, 5% bentonite, and 1.7% water),
resulting in improved green compression strength (53,090 N/m2) and permeability (30 A.F.S). This systematic approach

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not only reduced casting defects but also enhanced the overall quality of iron castings, emphasizing the critical role
of molding sand composition in foundry manufacturing. The study’s methodologies offer a valuable framework for
optimizing foundry processes, contributing to advancements in the field.
Five commercial paraffin waxes were examined for their thermophysical characteristics by Ukrainczyk et al. [15]
The study assessed the suitability of these paraffin waxes as phase transition materials for latent heat thermal energy
storage through experimental examination.
The research plan to ascertain the compressive test using various binder compositions is depicted in Fig. 11. Fly ash
and bentonite are used as the binder. The study discovered that the compressive strength of the sand mold was impacted
by the addition of fly ash to the molding sand mixture [16].
The study process defines as shown in Fig. 12, wherein the samples of molding sand were mixed with different propor-
tions of volcanic ash as a binder, specifically 5%, 10%, and 15%. We measured the compressive and shear strengths of
each mixture. The molding sand, which contained 81% molding sand, 15% volcanic ash, and 4% water, had the maximum
compressive strength, as seen in Fig. 14. The molding sand I, which was made up of 91% molding sand, 5% volcanic ash,
and 4% water, had the lowest compressive strength [17].
The subsequent study employed a blend of fly ash and bentonite as a binder in the manufacturing of sand molds.
Fly ash was added to the mixture in this study at 2%, 4%, and 6%. [18]. The purpose of this study was to look into the
mixtures’ permeability and compressive strength. These are the test results that were obtained. According to Fig. 14, the
molding sand containing 6% fly ash had the highest permeability, whereas the sand containing 4% fly ash had the lowest.
The two types of binding materials employed in the research—Portland cement and bentonite—are shown in Fig. 13,
which illustrates the study technique for creating molding sand binders made using these ingredients. The molding sand
specimens underwent tensile, shear, and compressive tests. These studies discovered that the compressive strength,
shear strength, and tensile strength of the molding sand combination were impacted by the addition of a bentonite
and Portland cement mixture [19].
The study conducted Heine et al. [20] provides valuable insights into the principles governing the relationship between
sand properties and the performance of green sand processing systems in foundries. Through an extensive investiga-
tion, they establish correlations between parameters such as compatibility efficiency, green strength efficiency, and the
percentage of methylene blue (MB) clay, highlighting the importance of these factors in controlling the quality of sand
molds for casting production. Their research emphasizes the significance of managing the clay content, moisture level,
and sand dilution to achieve uniform green sand properties and consistent casting quality. By proposing parameters
for monitoring process performance and developing a computer program for analysis and control, the authors offer
a systematic approach to optimizing green sand molding processes. This work lays the foundation for enhancing the
efficiency and stability of green sand systems, ultimately contributing to improved casting quality and manufacturing
productivity in foundry operations.
An experiment was conducted in the foundry lab of our university under the supervision of Professor Anayet Ullah
Patwari on the effects of vibration on the mechanical properties in sand casting process using organic process [21]. In that
experiment, the microstructure of the cast-product was analyzed and examined. The grain structure under two different
conditions was examined to identify potential reasons for observed improvements. A Scan Electron Microscope (VEGA
3 TESCAN) was employed to capture microscopic images of samples with and without vibration. Figure 6 presents the
scan images that demonstrate the micro-structure evaluation of both sample specimens. The results show that products
cast with vibration exhibit a more uniform grain structure compared to those cast without vibration.

2.2 Minimization of casting defects with physical experiments

Singh et al.’s [22] research on minimizing casting defects in foundries using Taguchi’s method is a pivotal contribution
to improving casting quality. Through a comprehensive literature review, they established the effectiveness of Taguchi’s
approach in optimizing manufacturing processes. The methodology involved experiments in a cast iron component
foundry, specifically focusing on check valves PN 10. Utilizing an L9 orthogonal array, they varied parameters like pour-
ing temperature, permeability, sand particle size, and mold hardness. The study successfully reduced casting defects by
1.25%, showcasing the practical application of Taguchi’s method to enhance the quality of castings in foundry processes.
In this study conducted by Chokkalingam et al. [23] on automobile casting defect analysis, a systematic defect diagnos-
tic approach was employed, involving steps such as data collection, Pareto chart analysis, and cause-and-effect diagram
creation. The major defect identified was "mold crush," traced back to core misalignment during the pasting process.
The root cause analysis led to the selection of producing cores as a single piece as the best solution. Implementation of

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Fig. 6  Microstructure analysis (a) with vibration and (b) without vibration

this solution resulted in a significant reduction of total rejection rates from 28 to 4%, demonstrating the efficacy of the
method in identifying and remedying casting defects in a medium-scale foundry.
In the study conducted by Jadhav et al. [24] on addressing cold shut defects in automobile cylinder blocks, the appli-
cation of the Seven Basic Tools of Quality, including check sheets, Pareto analysis, Ishikawa diagrams, and control charts,
proved instrumental. The analysis revealed that controlling alloy composition and pouring temperature were key factors
in mitigating cold shut defects. Through brainstorming sessions and systematic trials, the study identified optimum
ranges for silicon and phosphorus percentages, as well as pouring temperatures, leading to a 50% reduction in cold shut
defects in the produced cylinder blocks. This research underscores the effectiveness of quality control methodologies in
defect reduction in casting processes.
In the study conducted by Wadekar et al. [25] on gravity die casting for manufacturing complex metal components,
the authors employed computer-aided simulations to address casting defects such as air entrapment, porosity, and
shrinkage. The simulations, using a two-dimensional example of a compressor housing, facilitated the analysis of molten
metal flow. The flow analysis, ranging from 0.7 to 1 kg/s in a 5 mm thin wall casting, aimed to identify optimal die-casting
parameters. The outcomes of the simulations guided corrective measures, leading to improved die-casting processes. The
study emphasizes the importance of simulations in defect prediction and process optimization for gravity die casting.
Jashi et al. [26] studied on metal casting defects and defect reduction, the authors employed Pareto analysis and
Cause and Effect Diagrams to identify and analyze the major defects affecting an automotive component manufactur-
ing foundry. Manual metal casting operations were found to contribute to defects such as mold shifting, crushing, lower
surface finish, shrinkage, porosity, cold shut, and extra material. The systematic application of these tools allowed for the
categorization of defects, prioritization based on occurrence, and the identification of root causes. Remedial measures,
including automation and process adjustments, were suggested to significantly reduce defects and improve overall
productivity and product quality.
In the study by Khade et al. [27] on brake disc casting, the authors addressed the challenge of lower casting yield
resulting from an over-designed gating system. They proposed a systematic approach involving the redesign of gating
components using gating rules, theoretical knowledge, and casting simulation. Through 3D CAD modeling and simula-
tions using AutoCAST-X flow plus, various gating systems were analyzed. The selected modified gating design as shown
in Fig. 7 demonstrated an enhanced yield of 7%, reducing metal consumption by 8 kg per mold box. This approach offers
a cost-effective solution to achieve sound casting, higher productivity, and increased profitability through optimized
gating system design.

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Fig. 7  3 D CAD model of cast-

ing with initial gating system
[24]

The case study performed by Sirianukul et al. [28] applies the DMAIC methodology to address the high defect rate of
resins in the jewelry manufacturing modeling department. Through data collection forms, observations, interviews, and
historical data, eight root causes are identified, focusing on the categories of methods and manpower. The proposed
solutions include implementing a new Job Card Model design, fostering collaboration among departments, establishing
standard specifications, adding work instructions, and setting additional criteria for Key Performance Indicators (KPIs).
The DMAIC methodology proves effective in reducing the defect rate, with specific outcomes such as improved resin
printing percentages and significant cost savings for the company. The literature review highlights DMAIC as a successful
Six Sigma approach for quality improvement, emphasizing its application in problem-solving, resource elimination, and
cost reduction. The study suggests future research to explore production processes further for enhanced benefits such as
flexible capacity, waste elimination, continuous improvement, and increased efficiency. Shell mold casting, a prevalent
metal casting process, involves creating a thin, hardened shell of sand and thermosetting resin binder.
Because of its high production rates and affordability, sand casting was emphasized by Sunanda et al. [29] as being
important in the manufacturing of metal. They did, however, highlight the difficulties brought on by casting flaws in the
procedure, especially when producing pulleys. With an emphasis on medium carbon steel and sand mold material, the
study used Procast Simulation software for mold filling and solidification analysis and Creo software for creating solid
models. The authors emphasized the significance of resolving casting faults, blaming inadequate gating and feeding
system design for 90% of them. The whole process for producing the cast product is given in the following Fig. 8.
Mohan et al. [30] talked about the many casting process stages that are involved as well as the vital function found-
ries play in global production. They emphasized how problems including mold shifting, crushing, lower surface polish,
shrinkage, porosity, cold shut, and excess material are affected by manual operations. In today’s competitive climate, the
study emphasized the need for reduced production costs, enhanced efficiency, and defect-free operations.
A review of the application of ultrasonic testing (UT) to the characterization of casting materials, particularly nodular
cast iron, was carried out by Kamble et al. [31]. The goal of the study was to evaluate UT’s capabilities while taking ben-
efits and drawbacks into account and classifying techniques according to their inherent qualities and intended uses.
The authors concluded that using velocity and attenuation data to determine the nodularity status of casting materials
using UT is a useful quality control technique.
Desai et al. [32] emphasized the significance of lowering casting defects while focusing on the application of cast-
ing simulation for yield improvement. To provide a virtual understanding of the casting process, including mold filling,
solidification, and cooling, the article emphasized the use of casting simulation approaches. The authors noted the
importance of casting simulation but underlined the requirement for skilled workers to use it.
Kabnure et al. [33] discussed the difficulties foundries encounter in manufacturing premium car parts. They talked
about the application of computerized solidification simulation and casting modeling, with a focus on the finite volume
and finite difference methods (FVM). The study focused on ductile iron and the shell molding process for flange manu-
facture, with the goal of optimizing casting gating systems to assure maximum yield as shown in Fig. 9.
Using tests and simulations, Khan and Sheikh [34] introduced a novel method for evaluating the quality of ductile
iron castings. They emphasized the application of X-ray imaging, hardness testing, and tensile testing in conjunction
with MAGMASoft to optimize mold design and reduce porosity. The study came to the conclusion that almost faultless

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Fig. 8  Procedure to enhance

casting design [26]

castings with mechanical qualities comparable to their sound equivalents can be produced through simulation-based
mold design optimization.
Kavad et al. [35] investigated the usage of click2cast software to forecast porosity loss during casting. In order to con-
firm that simulation software can accurately estimate porosity, the study compared simulation results with experimental

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Fig. 9  Generalized methodol-

ogy for casting simulation [30]

results for a material known as spheroidal graphite iron. The benefit of forecasting porosity ahead of production to
improve industry results was stressed by the authors.
Naik and Patil [36] offered a thorough analysis of process optimization methods for reducing casting flaws. Com-
mon problems include flash, shrinkage, porosity, sand inclusions, shrinkage in the mold, and poor surface quality were
addressed. The study emphasized the necessity for enhanced procedures considering the intricate relationships between
numerous casting process parameters.
To reduce faults, Gaware and Mahalle [37] investigated casting flaws, offered fixes, and used casting simulation soft-
ware. The study emphasized how defects including shrinkage, blowholes, pinholes, sand inclusion, and sand burning
may be identified and simulated using simulation tools, such as AutoCAST-X and ProCast&SOLIDCast.
Kadam and Kamble [38] talked about how the metal casting industries are always under pressure and how the
casting process is prone to defects. They underlined the importance of simulation-based techniques, especially the
use of AutoCAST simulation software, in risering solution optimization for improved casting yield and quality.
Prajapati et al. [39] concentrated on using Fish-bone diagrams and the casting simulation program ADSTEFAN
to achieve accurate and flawless casting at the lowest possible production cost. Using computer-assisted casting
simulation, the study proposed a new gating system design to overcome shrinkage issues in hand-cast wheels. The
shrinkage porosity was significantly reduced, and the yield was enhanced, according to the results.
Olawale et al. [40] examined the applications and manufacturing methods of ductile cast irons, highlighting their
advantages—low casting costs and design flexibility—as well as their mechanical qualities that are comparable to
those of steel. The study emphasized how crucial it is to comprehend processing methods to successfully convert
gray cast iron to ductile iron.
Gondkar and Inamdar [41] highlighted the necessity of casting process optimization while introducing a method-
ology for the identification of casting flaws. They emphasized the benefits of solidification and casting simulation in
terms of defect prediction and reduction. The report provided actual work in addition to simulation procedures and
described the development of Autocast, a casting simulation program, by IITB as shown in Fig. 10.

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Fig. 10  Major stages in cast-

ing simulation and optimiza-
tion [38]

Shaha and Yadav [42] investigated a methodical strategy to reduce blow holes in cylinder head sand casting. found
blow holes to be the main flaws on the rocker face of a single cylinder head. To identify the primary cause of blow
holes, Pareto Analysis was used together with several quality control instruments, including Defect Location, Kaizen
Improvement Principle, Brainstorming Session, Why-why Analysis, Corrective Actions, and Preventive Measures. The
implementation of recommended practices such as cleaning central vents and applying wet green sand to central
gas vents led to an increase in productivity of 8.60%, a decrease in blow hole rejection of 5.93%, and a reduction in
overall revenue loss of Rs. 2,76,642.108.
Assfaw and Kassie et al. [43] examined gas traps and shrinkage as examples of steel casting flaws. To reduce these
flaws, four process parameters were chosen: the deoxidant, pouring temperature, mold permeability, and the binder
ratio. Using Taguchi optimization techniques, nine experiments were carried out, and the de-oxidant amount, pouring
temperature, mold permeability, and sand binder ratio were shown to be crucial parameters for defect minimization.
Sheth et al. [44] examined casting flaws such as cold shut, sand drop, fin, blow holes, and rough surface. To solve
these problems, Six Sigma statistical methods and lean manufacturing were put into practice. emphasized staff
education and training, innovative production techniques, and cultural transformation as ways to improve organi-
zational quality.

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Sharma et al. [45] maintained the tractor axle support by casting trumpet housings. redressed flaws such as cracks,
sand burning, fin, sand drop, cold shut, misrun, shrinkage, and gas porosity. reduced blow hole rejection to 1.92%
from 4.54%, saving Rs. 3,10,800 overall, and decreased sand drop to 0.81% from 1.74%, saving Rs. 1,11,000. These
savings were achieved by optimizing the production process with the use of quality control instruments.
Dabade and Bhedasgaonkar [46] to optimize the green sand factors impacting the casting surface, they used the
Taguchi approach with an L18 array. Mold filling and solidification were simulated, and rejection decreased from
roughly 10% to roughly 3.59%.
Jadhav et al. [47] optimized shell molding parameters using the Taguchi method and a L9 array, bringing the
percentage of sand-related faults down from 3.2% to a maximum of 1.5%. It is advised to use experimental design
to minimize rejection owing to flaws.

2.3 Optimization of sand‑casting DOE and statistical approaches

Kumar et al. [48] studied on the VAEPC (Vacuum-Assisted Evaporative Pattern Casting) process for Al-7%Si alloy castings
demonstrates a thorough exploration of crucial process parameters affecting solidification time. Using Response Sur-
face Methodology (RSM), the researchers established a quadratic regression model correlating parameters like degree
of vacuum, pouring temperature, grain fineness number, amplitude, and time of vibration with solidification time. The
ANOVA analysis confirmed the model’s statistical significance, and the fitting of the regression model to observed data
allows for reliable predictions. This comprehensive approach provides a valuable foundation for optimizing the VAEPC
process, facilitating better control over solidification time and enhancing the overall quality of castings. To identify the
process parameters that affect the quality of the castings produced by the EPC process, an Ishikawa cause-effect diagram
was constructed, as shown in Fig. 11.
Deepak and Dhingra [49] attempted to improve the caliber of bicycle rims, they carried out a case study in the bicy-
cle business. Reducing blow holes and sand drops with the use of high-quality tools like the Pareto chart and fishbone
diagram resulted in savings of Rs. 3,10,800 and Rs. 1,11,000, respectively.
Kamble et al. [50] highlighted the significance of defect identification and treatment knowledge when reviewing sand
casting problems in a medium-sized foundry. emphasized the necessity of ongoing parameter monitoring and control
at every level of manufacturing.

Fig. 11  Ishikawa cause effect

diagram of VAEPC process [45]

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(a) (b)
Fig. 12  Two stages of application of the ANN-based system: a building the approximation model by training the network on existent data,
and (b) evaluation of the approximate response by the trained neural network [54]

Ramachander et al. [51] examined casting flaws in relation to Indian requirements for cast iron in foundries. Empha-
sized the significance of operational procedures, molten metal quality, sand quality, and environmental factors. Some
contemporary procedures and methods for producing high-quality castings.
Jamkar et al. [52] reduced the impact of sources of variation and maximize design parameters, they applied the Tagu-
chi approach to green sand casting. highlighted how effective it is at obtaining nearly ideal design parameters using a
small number of precise testing sets.
Panchiwala et al. [53] provided an overview of the different types of casting defects in the foundry sector and talked
about methods and tools for enhancing productivity and quality. These included the Six Sigma DMAIC method, seven
quality control tools, DOE, Taguchi method, method study, TQM, TQC, just-in-time, and casting simulation techniques.
Nimbulkar et al. [54] investigated gating system design to locate the final casting solidifying area and remove flaws.
30% fewer feeding-related faults were reported thanks to modeling and suggested gating system changes.
Chokkalingam et al. [55] investigated mold crush faults in the casting process of an automotive transfer case. By using
Pareto analysis, they determined that mold crush, or surface indentation, was a significant issue. This flaw was traced
back to a mismatch in the core while pasting. The use of a single core and the removal of the alignment and pasting
procedures were suggested as remedies.

2.4 Optimization of casting processes with artificial intelligence

Patil et al. [56] examined how Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) could be used to improve the casting process. They
emphasized the difficulties the sector faces in eliminating defects by using trial and error techniques. The study covered
the advantages of ANN over alternative methods as well as important concerns about using neural networks to solve
real-world industrial challenges.
To enhance the steel production process, especially in continuous casting, Gresovnik et al. [57] used Artificial Neural
Networks (ANN). The method was eventually expanded for several uses after it was first developed for the synthesis
of carbon nanomaterials. Neural network-based approximation has been used as shown in Fig. 12 Using this method,
the approximated response approximation is evaluated in two distinct phases. During the training phase, the sampled
response—which can be measured or computed using a numerical model—is used to train the network. The trained
network is utilized to calculate the approximate response at any value of the input parameters during the approxima-
tion stage.
Zheng et al. [58] investigated the use of artificial neural networks in the optimization of high-pressure die-casting
process parameters. The authors identified characteristics that contribute to the process’s complexity and underscored
the significance of optimizing parameters such as injection velocity, pouring temperature, and mold temperature. The
trained network performed exceptionally well at forecasting.
Vosniakos et al. [59] focused on artificial neural network metamodels for precision casting process planning. They
aimed to optimize precision casting using computer simulation and "what if" scenarios. The researchers presented a
series of feed-forward artificial neural network (ANN) models to achieve generalization beyond the specifically simulated
product.

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Chandran et al. [60] investigated the optimization of process parameters to reduce casting defects and discovered
ways to reduce defects such sand drop, sand blow holes, scabs, and pinholes. He optimized using the Taguchi method,
taking into account the following factors: mold hardness, sand practical size (AFS), moisture content (%), and green
strength (g/cm2). Through his investigation, he determined the ideal circumstances for the chosen parameters to be as
follows: Sand Particle Size (AFS)—level 1—50 Moisture (%)—level 2–3.8 Green Strength (g/cm2)—level 2–1400, Mold
Hardness (Nu): 3–75 levels.
Guharaja et al. [61] examined the different green sand-casting process parameters. In order to obtain the best quality
attributes of the spheroidal graphite (SG) cast iron rigid coupling castings, they tried to find the ideal parameters for the
green sand-casting method. In the end, they determined that the four most important factors were permeability, mois-
ture content, mold hardness, and green strength. Using Taguchi’s optimization approach, the influence of the chosen
process parameters and its effect on various levels on casting defects were optimized.
A neural network was used to estimate porosity problems in high pressure die casting by Kumar et al. [62]. The research
aimed to further the understanding and modelling of faults generation in HPDC machines currently in use. Using a neural
network model of an HPDC machine, they performed traditional die casting tests and contrasted the results with our
existing knowledge of how porosity forms. They discovered several discrepancies from earlier die casting research. They
determined that additional research is necessary as a result of the disagreements with earlier findings.
A BP-neural network predictive model for the plastic injection molding process was created by Sadeghi et al. [63]. A
neural network model that takes into account important process variables and variations in material grade has been
developed to forecast the quality or soundness of the injected plastic pieces. After the network was trained, its function-
ality was examined using multiple datasets obtained from Eltex A3300 simulations, among other sources.
Yarlagadda et al. [64] conducted research on neural network systems for the prediction of process parameter in
pressure diecasting. They created an artificial intelligence neural network system to produce the pressure die casting

Fig. 13  Two stage neural

network system [61]

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Fig. 14  Structure of the crack-detection neural network [63]

method’s process parameters. For this approach, they employed the Levenberg–Mrquardt approximation algorithm as
shown in Fig. 13. A local die casting industry expert’s data is compared with that generated by the network to assess the
accuracy of the developed network.
This comprehensive review on "Artificial Intelligence Applications for Enhanced Casting Processes" conducted by Bala
et al. [65] meticulously analyzes 37 research studies over 15 years, categorizing them based on casting technology and AI
techniques. The paper highlights the crucial role of AI in smart foundries, optimizing customer orders, supply chains, and
decision-making. Across diverse casting processes, including sand casting and pressure die casting, the study reveals the
prevalence of AI techniques such as Artificial Neural Networks (ANN), Genetic Algorithms (GA), Particle Swarm Optimiza-
tion (PSO), Fuzzy Logic (FL), and Adaptive Network-Based Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS). The outcomes underscore AI’s
transformative potential in achieving Industry 4.0 objectives, offering researchers and engineers valuable insights for
future advancements in the casting industry.
The research by Tirian et al. [66] on "Adaptive Control System for Continuous Steel Casting Based on Neural Networks
and Fuzzy Logic" pioneers an advanced approach to crack detection in continuous steel casting as shown in Fig. 14.
Employing a neural system with dynamic serial and spatial networks, the study achieves high accuracy in crack detec-
tion, outperforming traditional methods. The neural system’s outputs trigger a fuzzy decision system, enabling adaptive
control of process parameters such as cooling water flow rate and casting speed. This integrated approach showcases a
practical and effective solution for reducing false alarms, enhancing process safety, and optimizing steel casting quality.

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The research on "BP Neural Network of Continuous Casting Technological Parameters and Secondary Dendrite Arm
Spacing of Spring Steel" by Lihong Jiang et al. [67] introduced a novel application of Back-Propagation (BP) neural net-
works in predicting secondary dendrite arm spacing (SDAS) during continuous steel casting. By utilizing input parameters
such as casting speed, water ratio, and superheat degree, the three-layer BP network accurately predicts the cooling
rate, showcasing minimal errors. Comparative analyses with traditional methods highlight the superior performance
of the BP model, emphasizing its precision in optimizing continuous casting parameters. This study offers a significant
advancement in predicting SDAS, contributing to improved product quality and process efficiency in the steel industry.
The study conducted by Shilpa et al. [68] on optimizing green sand properties for sand casting employs Taguchi’s
L18 orthogonal array and Grey Relational Analysis (GRA). Through 18 experimental runs varying bentonite, coal
powder, dextrin, and water levels, the research reveals the significant influence of bentonite on shear strength,
compression strength, and permeability. The application of GRA and Grey Entropy Method in analyzing the results
provides insights into non-linear effects, guiding the determination of optimal factor levels. This systematic approach
contributes valuable guidance for the foundry industry, offering a pathway to enhance green sand properties and
improve the quality of sand castings.
Chaudhari et al. [69] examined diverse approaches to minimize casting defects in sand casting processes, encom-
passing analyses of gas defects, shrinkage cavities, molding material defects, pouring metal defects, and metallurgical
defects. Researchers employ methods such as Ishikawa diagrams, Pareto charts, Taguchi optimization, computer-
aided simulations, and artificial intelligence to enhance casting quality. The studies underscore the significance of
customized process parameters tailored to individual foundries, demonstrating the potential for substantial defect
reduction and improved overall casting quality.
Hiremath et al. [70] highlighted the significance of addressing casting defects in manufacturing industries, par-
ticularly in the automotive sector. It emphasizes the challenges in achieving defect-free castings and the prevalent
use of trial-and-error methods. Various studies explore advanced techniques, such as casting simulation, design of
experiments, and artificial neural networks, to minimize rejection percentages and enhance casting quality. The
review underscores the importance of a disciplined approach, process optimization, and the role of simulation soft-
ware in predicting and preventing potential defects. Researchers aim to contribute valuable insights for improving
productivity, minimizing rejection rates, and achieving cost-effective casting processes.
This study by Vekariya et al. [71] explores the integration of fuzzy logic analysis and Taguchi’s design of experi-
ments to predict the quality of wax patterns in the investment casting process. Focusing on parameters like linear
shrinkage, surface roughness, and penetration, the research employs trial experiments to validate the fuzzy logic
controller’s predictive capabilities. The findings indicate that fuzzy logic modeling effectively simulates operating
experiments, providing a simple and efficient approach to ensuring robust product quality. The outcomes demon-
strate the potential of fuzzy logic in enhancing the control of wax pattern quality, contributing to the advancement
of the investment casting process.
Mane et al. [72] used artificial neural networks, if–then rules, cause-effect diagrams, and experiment design to conduct
casting fault analysis. categorized faults, offered a three-step process for defect detection, analysis, and correction, and
offered suggestions for accurate identification.
Some comprehensive compilation of key findings derived from recent studies in the field of manufacturing, particularly
focusing on machine learning applications are tabulated in the following Table 1

2.5 Process parameter optimization

This study performed by Iqbal et al. [76] optimized the process by varying the temperature of the metal pattern, holding
time of sand–resin mixture, and final curing time. The method includes coating a metal pattern with a parting agent,
heating it, and pouring fine-grained sand and resin mixture. The resulting shell mold exhibits a smooth internal surface,
facilitating a flawless flow of liquid metal and providing excellent surface finish. With improved dimensional accuracy
and reduced need for further machining, shell mold casting proves advantageous for manufacturing complex parts
with thin sections. The study also discusses considerations, properties, and applications of the process, highlighting its
potential for large batch production due to automation capabilities.
The study by Davis et al. [77] investigated the mechanical properties of helicopter gearbox casings produced through
various casting processes, including controlled solidification investment casting, sand casting, and conventional invest-
ment casting. The controlled solidification investment casting process demonstrates superior strength, ductility, and

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Table 1  Novel literatures on artificial intelligence
References Process Findings
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Kopper and Apelian [73] High-pressure die- Successful application of supervised machine learning in predicting good parts and process scrap. Prediction of ultimate tensile
casting (HPDC) strength achieved through classification of extracted tensile bars. Identification of important features for quality prediction
process
Blondheim [74] Not specified - Influence of misclassified training data on supervised ML bias. Proposal of four elements for defect classification. Impact of data
space overlap on ML model error and CET threshold. Challenges in manufacturing due to classification issues and data limitations.
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Potential entry points and improvements for ML in manufacturing processes

Wilk-Kołodziejczyk et al. [75] Not specified - Proposal and integration of AI model for modifying casting production parameters. Verification through computer simulation and
physical experiment. Highlighting various ML methods for casting process improvement.—Importance of data preparation consid-
ering casting solidification phenomena. Demonstration of feasibility in modeling production parameters with ML and simulation.
Enhancement of algorithm to reduce costs and protect the environment
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Fig. 15  Operational process chart [75]

fatigue resistance, attributed to refined grain size, particle distribution, low porosity, and reduced bifilm formation. Hot
isostatic pressing (HIPping) further enhances fatigue life. Mechanical property scatter is observed between different cast-
ings, suggesting the need for optimized filling system design. The study underscores the benefits of controlled solidifica-
tion investment casting for critical aerospace components, emphasizing improved performance and reduced variability.
The study by Choudhari et al. [78] addressed the challenges of solidification in metal casting, emphasizing the impact
on production cycle time, casting quality, and material yield. Employing simulation software, the researchers focus on
redesigning a component prone to shrinkage defects, causing significant rejection rates and low yield in the foundry.
Through the Gradient Vector Method (GVM), the simulation identifies optimal feeder locations, minimizing shrink-
age defects and improving the feed ability index, representing feeder yield and casting quality. The simulation-based
approach proves more efficient than traditional manual methods, reducing material wastage, energy consumption, and
labor, while providing faster insights for casting optimization at a fraction of the cost of foundry trials.
Shruthi et al. [79] investigated the general modifications in production characteristics that occur in foundries when
they switch from green sand mold processes to shell mold processes. Their analysis emphasized how changes in manu-
facturing techniques have a major effect on profit margins and customer satisfaction.
This study by Ahmad et al. [80] addressed the challenge of designing effective risers in metal casting to mitigate
shrinkage defects. To reduce costly design iterations, the research employs solidification simulation with a focus on
pressure distribution during early casting stages. The finite volume method is utilized to model heat transfer and con-
vective fluid flow, aiming to improve understanding of feeding behavior in aluminum–silicon alloys. The study explores

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the relationship between pressure distribution, shrinkage behavior, and riser size, seeking to enhance the systematic
utilization of casting experiences for more efficient initial designs and reduced production costs.
The research Singh et al. [81] performed focuses on enhancing productivity in small and medium-scale casting indus-
tries by addressing challenges in plant layout and material flow as shown in Fig. 15. The systematic plant layout technique
and the concept of semi-automation in casting processes are employed. The study proposes changes in plant layout,
including a U-shaped line layout, to eliminate backflow issues and reduce overall production time. Additionally, the
implementation of hopper mechanisms in the loading of fasteners in a rotary retort furnace is suggested, leading to a
significant reduction in loading time, improved ergonomics, and overall productivity improvement by solving material
handling and storage problems. The outcomes include reduced production time, manual processes, and effective plant
area utilization.
The paper by Sowa et al. [82] addressed the challenge of shrinkage defects in steel castings by proposing a coupled
mathematical model that considers fluid flow, heat transfer, and solidification during the casting process. The numerical
analysis includes the filling of the mold cavity, convection motions of the alloy liquid phase, and the formation of shrink-
age cavities. By solving the Navier–Stokes equations and the conduction equation with the convection term, the study
predicts the shape and distribution of shrinkage cavities. The model’s outcomes indicate a non-uniform increment of
solid phase, with the riser effectively performing its feeding function, resulting in shrinkage-free regions in the casting.
The proposed model provides insights for optimizing casting parameters to minimize shrinkage defects.
The study by Kumar et al. [83] focused on enhancing the investment casting process for manufacturing a complex-
shaped part, the rotary adapter, requiring high surface finish and stringent dimensional tolerance. The researchers
employed Unigraphics for part and gating system modeling, followed by Pro-CAST software for simulation. Real-time
parameters were inputted, and simulations were conducted to identify and address defects. Different gating systems were
implemented to eliminate defects, and the process was iteratively refined in the software, resulting in efficient defect-
free casting. The study underscores the effectiveness of simulation tools like Pro-CAST in optimizing casting processes,
improving yield, and minimizing defects in intricate components.
The study by Mauder et al. [84] addressed the optimization of the continuous casting process in steel production, a
critical aspect for achieving high-quality steel products. The proposed algorithm employs an original 3D numerical model
of the temperature field, considering heat and mass transfer phenomena, validated by pyrometer measurements. The
optimization algorithm, enhanced by fuzzy logic, iteratively refines input parameters such as casting speed and cooling
rates to achieve desired surface and core temperatures. The algorithm is designed to ensure both high production rates
and product quality. The research demonstrates the effectiveness of the heuristic approach, providing a robust and
adaptable solution for continuous casting optimization, with low computational overhead.
The research by Tavakoli et al. [85] focuses on optimizing casting feeding systems by systematically modifying riser
topology to minimize volume while ensuring defect-free products. The method combines finite-difference analysis of
solidification with evolutionary topology optimization, starting with an over-designed riser layout. The approach proves
efficient, easy to implement, and capable of automating the optimization process. Demonstrative examples showcase
increased casting yield and defect-free designs, emphasizing the method’s effectiveness and potential for integration
into commercial casting simulation packages. The presented evolutionary topology optimization offers a computation-
ally tolerable solution, contrasting with traditional methods that often incur high computational costs.
The literature review by Abed et al. [86] investigated the influence of different casting methods on the solidification
time and mechanical properties of Al-(20–40%) Sn alloys. Experimental results reveal that sand casting exhibits longer
solidification times compared to die casting due to differences in cooling rates. Microstructural analysis shows reticular
tin structures in both Al-20%Sn and Al-40%Sn alloys. The increase in tin content leads to a slight reduction in compres-
sive strength and elastic modulus. Overall, die casting, with faster cooling rates, produces higher-strength castings than
sand castings. The study emphasizes the importance of casting method selection in optimizing material properties.
To achieve design parameters for strength and fatigue performance, Sowden et al. [87] conducted an investigation to
improve casting integrity. They want to guarantee the fabrication of components that adhere to strict quality standards
by utilizing casting simulation software.
Banchhor et al. [88] examined a range of green sand-casting process and product design characteristics. Their research
provided useful information for streamlining the green sand-casting procedure to enhance product quality.
Hebsur et al. [89] assessed potential flaws in a flywheel sand casting by using casting simulation software. The predic-
tion of casting faults made possible by the 3D component model advanced our knowledge of the behavior of solidifica-
tion of molten metal.

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Weldeanenia et al. [90] analyzed sand casting parameters for casting a garbage plate used in sugar plants using CATIA
and ANSYS software. The goal of the mixed research strategy was to guarantee the development of sound castings by
integrating theoretical and experimental methodologies.
With an emphasis on enhancing casting quality, Chen et al. [91] identified the ideal gating technique for sand casting
Al A356 alloy parts. The best process parameters and gating systems were found by the combination of Taguchi tech-
niques, ANOVA, RSM models, and CBQPSO algorithms.
By optimizing the signal to noise ratio and reducing the impact of noise factors, Upadhyaye et al. [92] investigated and
optimized the sand-casting process parameters. They optimized the sand-casting procedure using the Taguchi method.
They considered several crucial factors, including moisture content, sand particle size, green compressive strength, mold
hardness, permeability, pouring temperature, pouring duration, and pressure test. For their experiments, they chose three
distinct levels based on the Taguchi Approach. Major internal flaws such as sand blow holes, pinholes, scabs, mold cracks,
and sand drops were noted. L18 Orthogonal array was employed in the analysis. For each repetition, they compute the
signal to noise ratio and determined what the ideal settings were.
To ensure a comprehensive understanding of the constraints encountered during the study, the following Table 2
presents key findings and limitations identified from some of the experiments cited in this study. These limitations high-
light areas where further research and experimentation are required, as addressing all the aspects outlined here within
a single experiment is beyond the scope of this study.

3 Methodology

In undertaking a thorough examination of the casting manufacturing process related literatures, our methodology
aimed at comprehensively understanding of defects, formulating effective solutions, optimizing various aspects, and
integrating artificial intelligence (AI) for enhanced outcomes. The initial phase identifies and classifies defects across the
manufacturing spectrum, ranging from methoding and tooling to molding, melting and pouring, casting cooling, gat-
ing, runner and riser systems, and inspection of issues. This classification sets the stage for a detailed root cause analysis,
where collaborative efforts with representatives from diverse departments participated in the origins and symptoms
of each defect. Upon gaining insights, our methodology advances to the formulation of robust remedies. Corrective
actions are tailored to address specific root causes, with a keen emphasis on improving process controls and instituting
preventive measures. Simultaneously, different optimization strategies were studied, investigating the impact of process
parameters, material choices, and design considerations on defect reduction and overall casting quality. In addition to
studying the remedies. It was also found from the literatures that binders and additives play an effective role in the cast-
ing process. The quality casting also depends on the appropriate binders and additives for respective casting processes.
So different binder and additive content were studied from the literature. One of the aspects of our approach involves
exploring the integration of artificial intelligence into the casting process. Potential of AI applications were explored,
such as neural networks, machine learning algorithms, and predictive analytics, for real-time monitoring, defect predic-
tion, and process optimization.

3.1 Casting defects and root causes

Irregularities and undesired shapes often arise during the casting process, due to a multitude of contributing factors.
In this part of the paper, different types of defects were discussed encountered in casting process along with their root
causes by reviewing some novel literatures as shown in the following Table 1. Appropriate figures are also given for help-
ing to visualize and have a better understanding of the defects.
The encountered casting defects can be categorized into five primary types, each presenting unique challenges in
the sand-casting process as shown in the following Table 3.

3.2 Remedies to overcome the defects

To address and rectify the casting defects effectively, some effective measures are imperative. Each casting flaw neces-
sitates an appropriate approach for remedy. In this section, a comprehensive Table 4 has been created in order to clas-
sify the remedies with the corresponding defects, ensuring the production of high-quality castings. From controlling

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 Table 2  Key findings and limitations in the cited literature
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Study Key findings Limitations

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Synthetic-sand mixtures with fireclay and Ogharaki clay [8] Optimal binder and moisture content for specific casting Limited scope regarding types of clays investigated; potential
requirements variations in results due to differences in synthetic sand
formulations
Molasses and fly ash [9] Synergistic effect on mechanical properties Specific synergistic effects might not be generalizable; limited
information on long-term stability and environmental
impact
Camphor powder, coconut shell ash, and combinations [10] Camphor powder enhances permeability, coconut shell ash Limited exploration of other organic binders; potential vari-
increases green strength ability in quality and consistency of natural materials
River bed sand, bentonite clay, coal dust [11] River-bed sand as a sustainable alternative to silica sand Focus on river-bed sand limits applicability; environmental
and sourcing concerns not thoroughly addressed
Clay, cassava starch, and plantain peels [1] Promising natural binders Narrow focus on specific natural binders; inconsistent avail-
ability and quality
Molding sand compositions with fly ash [16] Improved specific characteristics of the molding sand Dependency on source and quality of fly ash; long-term per-
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formance and environmental impact not fully explored

Molding sand compositions with volcanic ash [17] Suitability of volcanic ash as a binder Limited availability in certain regions; potential health and
safety concerns
Molding sand compositions with bentonite Portland Synergistic effects on molding sand properties Variability in performance under different conditions; chal-
cement binder [19] lenges in achieving consistent binder ratios and mixing
Phenolic-urethane [93] Significant correlations between sensor data and strength Specific correlations may not apply to all scenarios or sen-
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prediction sor types; limited exploration of other resin-based binder

systems
Furan no-bake sand system Real-time evaluation of mold quality through wireless Limited real-world validation of wireless systems; challenges in
monitoring scaling up and integrating sensor technologies
Cu(II)-triethylenetetramine dye Measurement of cation exchange capacity of greensand Method specificity limits applicability to other binding agents
or compositions; environmental and health concerns
Greensand [94] Repeatability with acceptable test variability Variability in active clay content across different sources; lim-
ited information on prolonged usage and recycling
Disk-shaped specimens for steel casting Improved trial results Focus on specific chemically bonded sand systems; limited
scalability and applicability to different casting geometries
and sizes
Inorganically-bound foundry cores [96] Dependency of storage conditions on gas release Strong dependency on storage conditions; challenges in
maintaining consistent binder content and moisture levels
Silica sand, inorganic binder system Moisture content increases with relative humidity during High sensitivity to storage conditions; potential environmental
storage and health concerns
Aluminum melt (AlSi12), A20 clay-graphite crucible [96] Influence of humidity on gas release timing and amount Limited exploration of other alloys and crucible materials;
specific focus on gas release and moisture content
Various chemically bonded sand systems [95] Different shakeout performances and as-cast surfaces Inconsistencies in performance; limited comparative analysis
with newer or alternative systems
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 Table 3  Various types of defects with appropriate visualization
Type of the defects Classifications Figure of the defects

Gas porosity Blow hole: Large circular cavities formed due to excessive gas in the molten metal

Open hole: Cavities on the surface of the mold

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Pin hole: Very small holes resulting from decreased solubility of hydrogen gas during solidification
Defects due to shrinkage Shrinkage: Formation of cavities due to insufficient molten metal pouring and volumetric contraction
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Swell: Enlargement of the cavity and molten metal pressure

Drops: Cracking on the upper surface, causing sand particles to fall into molten metal

Metal penetration: Undesired metal flow into mold material

Rat tail: Defect in the form of elongated metal projection
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 Table 3  (continued)
Type of the defects Classifications Figure of the defects
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Defects due to pouring of the metals Cold shut: Crossing in mold cavity due to non-intermixing of metal streams

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Misrun: Insufficient filling of molten metal leading to space creation in the mold

Slag inclusion: Presence of impurities in molten metal causing defects

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Metallurgical defects Hot tears or hot cracks: Cracks on the surface due to residual stresses in the cooling process
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Table 4  Sand casting defects, root causes and their remedies

Defect Cause Remedy

Blow holes [39, 46, 57, 86] 1. Excessive moisture in molding sand 1. Control moisture content
2. Rust and moisture on chills 2. Use rust-free chills, chaplet, and clean inserts
3. Properly bake cores
3. Cores not sufficiently baked
4. Ram the mold less hard
4. Excessive use of organic binders 5. Ensure adequate venting
5. Molds not adequately vented
Shrinkage [47, 72, 76] 1. Faulty gating and risering system 1. Ensure proper directional solidification
2. Improper chilling 1. Regulate pouring temperature
2. Control metal composition
Porosity [42, 71] 1. High pouring temperatures
3. Increase flux proportions
2. Gas dissolved in metal charge 4. Ensure effective degassing
3. Less flux used 5. Modify gating and risering
4. Molten metal not properly degassed 6. Adjust moisture and permeability
5. Slow solidification of casting
6. High moisture and low permeability
Misruns [42] 1. Lack of fluidity in molten metal 1. Adjust pouring temperature
2. Faulty design 2. Modify design
3. Modify gating system
3. Faulty gating
Hot tears [42] 1. Lack of collapsibility of core 1. Improve core collapsibility
2. Lack of collapsibility of mold 2. Improve mold collapsibility
3. Modify casting design
3. Faulty design
4. Use proper ramming techniques
4. Hard ramming of mold
Metal penetration [68] 1. Large grain size used 1. Use sand with finer grain size
2. Soft ramming of mold 2. Provide hard ramming
3. Adjust pouring temperature
3. Molding sand or core has low strength
Cold shuts [41, 42] 1. Lack of fluidity in molten metal 1. Adjust pouring temperature
2. Faulty design 2. Modify design
3. Modify gating system
3. Faulty gating
Cuts and washes 1. Low strength of mold and core 1. Improve mold and core strength
2. Lack of binders in facing and core 2. Add more binders to facing and core sand
3. Improve gating
3. Faulty gating
Inclusions [33] 1. Faulty gating 1. Modify gating system
2. Faulty pouring 2. Improve pouring techniques
3. Use superior sand of good strength
3. Inferior molding or core sand
4. Provide hard ramming
4. Soft ramming of mold 5. Handle mold and core with care
5. Rough handling of mold and core
Fusion drops [46, 57] 1. Low refractoriness in molding sand 1. Improve sand refractoriness
2. Faulty gating 2. Modify gating system
3. Use lower pouring temperature
3. Too high pouring temperature
4. Improve facing sand quality
4. Pouring facing sand
Shot metal shift 1. Too low pouring temperature 1. Use proper pouring temperature
2. Excess sulfur content in metal 2. Reduce sulfur content
3. Modify gating system
3. Faulty gating
4. Control moisture in molding sand
4. High moisture content in molding sand
Warpage crushes 1. Defective core boxes producing oversized cores 1. Repair or replace defective core boxes
Rat-tails or 2. Worn-out core prints on patterns producing 2. Repair or replace worn-out core prints
Buckles undersized seals for cores in the mold
Run out, fins and flash spongings 1. Faulty molding 1. Improve molding techniques
2. Defective molding boxes 2. Replace defective molding boxes
3. Ensure weights on mold boxes
3. Use weights on mold boxes

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moisture content to optimizing gating systems, these remedies serve as invaluable solutions in enhancing the overall
casting process.

3.3 Effect of binder content in casting

Making a mold is an essential step in the sand-casting process that needs to be done for every casting. The way that
molding materials are made has an impact on how well sand bonds. The molding sand is compacted to create a sand
mold. Molding sand must meet a number of essential criteria, including permeability—which determines how much
gas in the mold or molten metal can pass through during casting—formability, which is the ability to hold the mold
shape once the molten metal is poured into the mold cavity, and grain-size distribution, which influences both perme-
ability and formability. One method to increase molding sand’s bonding capacity is to add specific binders. Waterglass,
resin, cement, wheat, and other ingredients can all be employed as binders; these compounds can keep their shape and
undoubtedly have an impact on the quality of cast items [87]. Bentonite is the most often used binding ingredient for
sand casting [88, 89]. The best binding strength is produced by bentonite, which also hardens when dry and becomes
flexible when wet [90]. Different types of binder help improve the sand-casting process factor in different aspects. The
factors considered mostly in the sand-casting are strength, stability, permeability reduction, good surface profile of the
product etc. which are described as follows.

1. Strength and stability: Binder content directly impacts the strength and stability of the mold. An optimal binder
content ensures that the sand can withstand the pressure and thermal stress exerted during metal pouring and
solidification. Too little binder may result in a weak mold, leading to defects, while excessive binder can cause dif-
ficulties in mold removal and may lead to gas-related defects.
2. Mold permeability: The permeability of the mold is influenced by the binder content. Higher binder content can
reduce the permeability of the sand mold, affecting the escape of gases produced during metal pouring. Proper
permeability is essential to allow gases to vent, preventing defects such as porosity in the final casting.
3. Collapsibility: Binder content affects the collapsibility of the sand mold after the casting has solidified. Excessive
binder can make the sand difficult to break apart, leading to challenges in the shakeout process. On the other hand,
insufficient binder may result in mold that crumbles too easily.
4. Surface finish: The amount of binder used can impact the surface finish of the casting. Proper binder content con-
tributes to a smooth and consistent surface on the final product. Deviations from the optimal binder content may
lead to surface defects or rough finishes on the casting.

3.3.1 Investigation on several common binders

A comprehensive Table 5 as shown below has been created to show the contribution of most of the commonly used
binders and additives in sand casting with the appropriate outcomes.

3.3.2 Different binders in molding sand compositions and validation by tests (compressive, permeability, hardness, shear,
tensile tests)

Various binders were explored for molding sand compositions, each offering distinct properties and applications. Three
key binders investigated were:

1. Molding sand compositions with fly ash: Fly ash, a byproduct of combustion processes, was incorporated into the
molding sand compositions. The study assessed its impact on properties through tests such as compression, tensile
strength, permeability, and hardness. Results provided insights into the effectiveness of fly ash in enhancing specific
characteristics of the molding sand [16].
2. Molding sand compositions with volcanic ash: Volcanic ash, derived from volcanic eruptions, was used as a binder
in molding sand compositions. The paper investigated its influence on the sand properties through various tests,
including compression, tensile strength, permeability, and hardness. The findings shed light on the suitability of
volcanic ash as a binder in the context of molding sand applications [17].
3. Molding sand compositions with bentonite Portland cement binder: The review explored molding sand compositions
utilizing a binder comprising bentonite and Portland cement as shown in Fig. 13. Different tests, including com-

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Table 5  List of binders and additives and their effects

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Binders investigated Mechanical properties studied Key findings

Synthetic-sand mixtures with fireclay and Ogharaki clay [8]

Green compressive strength, dry compressive strength, Optimal binder and moisture content for specific casting
permeability, shatter index requirements
Molasses and fly ash [9] Green compression strength, dry compression strength, Synergistic effect of molasses and fly ash on mechanical
permeability properties
Camphor powder, coconut shell ash, and combinations [10] Permeability, green compression strength Camphor powder enhances permeability, coconut shell ash
increases green strength
River bed sand, bentonite clay, coal dust [11] Compatibility, shear strength River bed sand as a sustainable alternative to silica sand
Clay, cassava starch, and plantain peels [1] Permeability, green compression strength, shear strength Cassava starch and plantain peels as promising natural bind-
ers
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Table 6  Comparative analysis of compressing strength for 3 different types of Binders

pression, tensile strength, permeability, and hardness, were conducted to evaluate the performance of this specific
binder. The results provided insights into the synergistic effects of bentonite and Portland cement on molding sand
properties [19].

The provided Table 6 presents the compressive strength values extracted from the 3 categorical literatures where 3
different types of binders were used for conducting the experiment: Fly Ash, Volcanic Ash, and Portland Cement.
In the case of Fly Ash, the compressive strength ranges from 10.5 to 14.55, with a notable 11.4% improvement observed
at the 2% inclusion level. This enhancement is attributed to a complete pozzolanic reaction, resulting in strengthened
bonds and a more robust sand mold structure. For Volcanic Ash, the compressive strength increases with higher ash

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Materials used Process Findings

Phenolic-urethane [93] Embedding miniature sensors Significant correlations between sensor data and 24-h trans-
verse strength prediction were established
Furan no-bake sand system Real-time evaluation of mold quality through wireless, Potential for automation of monitoring through machine
sensor-based monitoring learning
Cu(II)-triethylenetetramine dye Adsorption of dye onto greensand and quantification in a Direct measurement of cation exchange capacity (CEC) of
spectrophotometer greensand, allowing for calculation of active clay content or
Discover Mechanical Engineering

number of smectite clay minerals

Greensand [94] Discrimination among various levels of active clay content, Repeatability with acceptable test-to-test variability when
regardless of sodium or calcium bentonite availability in measuring green sand samples with 6 to 12% active clay
silica sand
Disk-shaped specimens Improved steel casting trial
Steel Various chemically bonded sand systems provide different shakeout performances and as-cast surfaces
(2024) 3:39

Chemically bonded sand systems [95]

State-of-the-art 3D macroscope
Inorganically-bound foundry cores [96] Investigation of core gas release and its interactions with Strong dependency of storage humidity and binder content
binder content and storage conditions on gas amount and time of gas release
Silica sand, inorganic binder system Core shooting process, storage in climate cabinet Moisture content increases exponentially with increasing
relative humidity during storage and binder content
Graphite tubes, Loramendi SLC2-25L core shooting machine, Gas permeability measurements, moisture balance tests, Higher binder content increases susceptibility to moisture
induction analysis furnace submersion experiments exposure during storage, allowing cores to absorb more
water
Aluminum melt (AlSi12), A20 clay-graphite crucible, Submersion of sand cylinders in molten aluminum Relative humidity influences the timing and amount of gas
resistance-heated furnace [96] release, with higher humidity leading to earlier and greater
gas release
Kern DBS 60-3 moisture balance, Institute’s Induction Analy- Measurement of water release from cores, gas shock tests Gas release from cores occurs more quickly and abundantly
sis Furnace [97] with higher humidity and binder content, contributing to
potential blowholes in cast parts
Silica sand (H32, Quarzwerke GmbH, Frechen, Germany), Developed test stand, Induction Analysis Furnace (IAF), for Gas release measurements showed mean released gas mass
Two-component inorganic binder (INOTEC EP 4158 and gas release and gas permeability measurements of [insert value], validated by moisture balance; Gas perme-
INOTEC PROMOTOR TC 4500, ASK Chemicals, Hilden, ability measurements validated by comparing with litera-
Germany), Graphite crucibles, Induction heating system ture. Gas permeability measurements showed less scatter
(COBES GmbH, Ettenheim, Germany), Argon purging compared to literature, indicating plausible results
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system, Pyrometers (Optris CTlaser LT CF4 and CTlaser

2MH1 CF4, Optris GmbH, Berlin, Germany), Oxygen sensor
(FCX-TR0025-7-5-Q08-113-000, Angst + Pfister Sensors and
Power AG, Zurich, Switzerland) [98]

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content (10.9–13.3), highlighting the positive influence of volcanic ash on structural integrity. In contrast, Portland
Cement exhibits varying compressive strength values (11.7–17.3), showcasing its effectiveness as a binder but with
fluctuations in performance. Overall, the comparative analysis underscores the distinctive effects of each binder on
compressive strength, providing valuable insights for selecting appropriate materials in molding sand compositions
based on specific performance requirements.
There are some more materials, processes and key findings related to use of different binders are tabulated in the
following Table 7.
Based on the study found from various literature cited in this paper, the cooling rate during sand casting plays a vital
role in determining the final properties of the cast product. The rate at which the material cools can significantly influ-
ence the grain structure, mechanical properties, and overall quality of the casting. For instance, faster cooling rates often
lead to finer grain structures, which can enhance the strength and hardness of the material. Conversely, slower cooling
rates may result in coarser grains, potentially leading to reduced mechanical performance. The review highlights various
materials and their typical cooling rates, emphasizing the importance of controlling this parameter to achieve desired
casting outcomes.

4 Importance of cooling rate

• Microstructure development: The cooling rate affects the microstructure of the metal, influencing grain size and phase
distribution, which in turn affects the mechanical properties of the casting.
• Defect formation: Too rapid cooling can lead to defects such as hot tears, while too slow cooling can cause problems
like porosity or segregation.
• Mechanical properties: Properties such as strength, hardness, and ductility are affected by the cooling rate due to
changes in microstructure.

5 Approximate cooling rates

While exact cooling rates can vary, some general observations are:

• Gray iron: Typically cools at a rate of 0.5–1.5 °C per second. Reference: Foundry Technology by Peter Beeley.
• Aluminum alloys: Can cool at a rate of about 5–20 °C per second, depending on the conditions. Reference: Aluminum
Casting Technology by David E. W. Baird.
• Steel: Cooling rates can be slower, around 0.1 to 1 °C per second, due to its lower thermal conductivity compared to
aluminum. Reference: Steel Casting by Bramble and Brown.

5.1 Integration of artificial intelligence with the casting process

The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) in sand casting represents a transformative approach to address traditional
challenges. AI technologies, including advanced analytics and machine learning, play a crucial role in reducing defects
by analyzing historical data and predicting potential issues. Moreover, AI optimizes sand casting processes by dynami-
cally adjusting parameters in real-time, fostering resource efficiency and sustainability. From the flow diagram as shown
below in Fig. 16, the use of AI in the casting process field can easily be comprehended.
In the first block on the flow diagram, as stated a point named algorithms, the whole sand-casting process is to be
trained with some novel and appropriate algorithms. There are many suitable algorithms that have been found to be
effective in the integrated field of AI and sand casting found after going through several novel literatures as shown in
Table 8. ANN, CNN, fuzzy logic, genetic algorithm are some of the algorithms that showed impressive response in training
with the casting data. The technology’s ability to provide smart decision-making insights enhances the overall quality of
cast products. The goal is the realization of autonomous sand casting, where automated systems, guided by AI, continu-
ously learn and adapt, ushering in an era of precision, efficiency, and defect-free casting.

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Fig. 16  Integration of AI with

casting process

The pie chart shown in Fig. 17 elucidates the prevalence and distribution of diverse artificial intelligence methodolo-
gies. Highlighting the frequency of utilization in scholarly papers, the chart showcases the dominant role of Artificial
Neural Networks alongside other prominent AI algorithms, offering a visual synthesis of the current landscape in the
realm of sand-casting exploration.

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Table 8  Different AI AI methods Role

techniques and their roles
Neural networks (ANN) Transformational impact in foundry industry
Fuzzy logic (FL) In optimizing customer order management
Genetic algorithms Enhancing supply chain efficiency
Particle swarm optimization Expert decision-making and precise machine control
Back-propagation (BP) Predictive capabilities and quality improvements
Grey relational analysis (GRA) Optimization of casting process parameters

Fig. 17  Most used AI algo-

rithms with outstanding
results in distinct papers with
descending order

Best artificial neural network (ANN) method: Based on the reviewed articles, the Multilayer perceptron (MLP) with
backpropagation is often highlighted as the most effective ANN method for sand casting optimization. This method is
praised for its adaptability, ability to model complex relationships, and its widespread application in predicting casting
parameters and outcomes. The MLP’s robust performance in various studies underscores its suitability for a wide range
of optimization tasks in the sand-casting process. To visually represent the process of using a Multilayer Perceptron
(MLP) with backpropagation in sand casting optimization, a flowchart would be an effective choice as shown in Fig. 18.
Genetic algorithm (GA) method: The genetic algorithm (GA) method will be thoroughly explained in the article. GAs is
recognized for their effectiveness in exploring large solution spaces and optimizing complex, nonlinear problems, which
makes them ideal for parameter optimization in sand casting. The explanation will cover how GAs simulates natural
selection to find optimal or near-optimal solutions, their integration with other techniques (such as ANN or ANFIS), and
their application in improving the efficiency and quality of sand-casting processes.
Most used function in ANFIS method: In the ANFIS (Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System) method, the Gaussian
membership function is the most used function. It is favored for its smooth, bell-shaped curve, which allows for a more
accurate and flexible modeling of nonlinear systems. The Gaussian membership function is frequently employed to
enhance the precision of fuzzy inference systems when combined with neural network learning capabilities, making
it a popular choice in the optimization of sand-casting processes.

6 Gaussian membership function

The Gaussian membership function is characterized by its bell-shaped curve, defined mathematically as:

(x − c)2
( )
𝜇(x) = exp − ,
2𝜎 2

where:

• μ(x) is the membership value of x,

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Fig. 18  Flow diagram of MLP

with back-propagation net-
work in sand casting process

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• c is the center of the Gaussian function,

• σ is the standard deviation, which controls the width of the bell curve.

7 Role in sand casting

1. Modeling nonlinear relationships: Sand casting involves complex and nonlinear relationships between process
parameters (e.g., temperature, sand composition, pouring rate) and the quality of the final casting (e.g., defects,
strength). The Gaussian membership function helps model these nonlinear relationships more accurately by provid-
ing a smooth transition between different states.
2. Flexibility and precision: The Gaussian function’s smooth, bell-shaped curve allows for a more flexible and precise
representation of the fuzzy sets used in ANFIS. This is especially useful in sand casting, where slight variations in
process parameters can significantly affect the quality of the casting.
3. Integration with neural networks: ANFIS combines the Gaussian membership function with neural network learning
capabilities. In sand casting, this integration helps in optimizing the process parameters by learning from histori-
cal data. The neural network component adjusts the parameters of the Gaussian functions to minimize errors and
improve predictions related to casting defects and quality.
4. Process optimization: By using Gaussian membership functions, ANFIS can better handle the uncertainty and variabil-
ity inherent in the sand-casting process. This leads to more accurate predictions and optimized process parameters,
resulting in improved casting quality and reduced defects.
5. Enhanced decision making: In sand casting, decision-making involves evaluating various process conditions and
their impact on the final product. The Gaussian membership function helps in creating a more nuanced and effective
decision-making framework by allowing for gradual and smooth adjustments in the fuzzy inference system.

An extended part of this study has been added in this section of the review paper that entails the work of a renowned
casring-expert, Professor Ali Mazehery on various casting process. Professor Ali Mazahery’s extensive research on casting
processes provides significant insights into the optimization and enhancement of aluminum matrix composites (AMCs).
His work delves into various techniques for improving the mechanical properties and performance of these materials,
employing advanced methods such as electromagnetic stirring (EMS), stir casting, squeeze casting, and hybrid opti-
mization algorithms. Notably, Mazahery’s studies explore the effects of nano-scale reinforcements, such as ­Al2O3 and
SiC particles, on the wear resistance, strength, and ductility of aluminum alloys. His innovative approaches, including
the integration of artificial neural networks (ANN) with finite element methods (FEM) and the application of genetic
algorithms (GA) and particle swarm optimization (PSO), highlight the importance of precise processing conditions and
accurate property predictions in enhancing the overall performance of aluminum matrix composites. Through research,
Mazahery has significantly contributed to the understanding and advancement of casting technologies, paving the way
for more effective and efficient industrial applications.

8 Key findings from Mazahery’s works

1. Wear properties enhancement:

• Finding: Nano-scale ceramic particles (e.g., A

­ l2O3) in AMCs significantly improve mechanical properties and wear
resistance.
• Techniques: Compocasting and EMS are effective in distributing reinforcements and refining microstructure [99].

2. Nano-SiC reinforcement:

• Finding: Nano-sized SiC particles enhance tensile strength and Young’s modulus with an optimal addition of 3.5
vol. %.

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• Techniques: Stir casting [100].

3. Optimization of Al–Zn–Mg–Cu alloys:

• Finding: Cu and Zn improve strength, TiB reduces hot tearing. Secondary ageing enhances strength and ductility.
• Techniques: Taguchi experimental design and regression modeling [101].

4. Nano-Al2O3 reinforcement:

• Finding: Nano-Al2O3 improves hardness, UTS, and ductility; uniform reinforcement distribution achieved through
stir casting.
• Techniques: Stir casting at 800 °C [102].

5. Coated B4C particles:

• Finding: TiB2-coated B4C particles enhance hardness and UTS, contribute to grain refinement.
• Techniques: Sol–gel process and squeeze casting [103].

6. Impact properties of Al alloys:

• Finding: High Mg content and slow cooling reduce toughness. High cooling rates refine Si particles, enhancing
impact toughness.
• Techniques: Computer-aided Charpy impact test [104].

7. TiB2-coated B4C particles:

• Finding: TiB2 coating improves particle–matrix bonding and resistance to microcracking.

• Techniques: Squeeze casting [105].

8. ANN and FEM integration:

• Finding: ANN effectively predicts A356 alloy properties based on solidification parameters.
• Techniques: ANN and FEM integration [106].

9. GA, ANN, and FEM integration:

• Finding: GA-ANN-FEM integration optimizes tribological and mechanical properties, though extensive training
is required.
• Techniques: Genetic Algorithm, ANN, and FEM [107].

10. Microstructural prediction with ANN:

• Finding: ANN accurately predicts microstructural parameters using finite element techniques.
• Techniques: ANN with finite element methods [108].

11. Nano-SiC reinforcement:

• Finding: Nano-SiC improves strength, hardness, and ductility, with optimal results at 3.5% SiC.
• Techniques: Stir casting [109].

12. Hybrid optimization (GA and PSO):

• Finding: GA-PSO hybrid algorithm efficiently predicts optimal process conditions.

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• Techniques: Genetic Algorithm, Particle Swarm Optimization, and FEM [110].

13. Microstructure and mechanical properties prediction:

• Finding: Integration of experimental data with simulated microstructures improves accuracy in predicting
mechanical properties.
• Techniques: Finite Element Techniques [111].

14. Gating systems and surface turbulence:

• Finding: Non-pressurized and bottom-gating systems do not fully eliminate surface turbulence; numerical simula-
tions are essential.
• Techniques: Numerical simulations [112].

Limitations:

1. Increased porosity: Observed in higher particle content scenarios (SiC, B4C).

2. Extensive training required: For hybrid optimization methods (GA, ANN, FEM).
3. Turbulence in gating systems: Conventional designs may not fully optimize surface quality.
4. Ductility reduction: Associated with high reinforcement content (e.g., SiC particles).

Similarities with this study:

1. Focus on reinforcement: Both our study and Mazahery’s work emphasize the role of nano-scale reinforcements in
improving mechanical properties.
2. Optimization techniques: Use of advanced optimization techniques such as ANN, FEM, GA, and hybrid algorithms is
common in both areas.
3. Impact of processing conditions: Both explore the effects of processing parameters (e.g., cooling rates, casting meth-
ods) on mechanical properties.
4. Microstructure and mechanical properties: Both address the relationship between microstructure and mechanical
properties, particularly in aluminum matrix composites.
5. Applications in advanced manufacturing: Both sets of research have implications for enhancing performance in
industrial applications, focusing on wear resistance and strength.

9 Conclusion

The complex world of sand casting has been thoroughly examined in this review paper, along with its problems, solu-
tions, and revolutionary technologies that have all contributed to the development of contemporary casting techniques.
The three primary areas of the study include artificial intelligence (AI) integration to transform casting processes, the
importance of binders in molding sand compositions, and the optimization of sand-casting processes.
Optimization of sand-casting processes: The initial focus of this review centered on the optimization of sand-casting
processes. Critical factors such as mold types, molding sand composition, and process parameters were scrutinized,
unveiling practical insights into achieving high-quality sand castings. The paper systematically addressed common
grounds, including the impact of mold types on mechanical properties and the optimization of molding sand composi-
tion to minimize defects. Through this exploration, a foundation was laid for practitioners seeking to elevate the quality,
efficiency, and sustainability of sand casting.
Significance of binders in molding sand compositions: The second aspect focused on binders’ critical function in shap-
ing sand mixtures. The influence of binder content on important characteristics such as strength, stability, permeability,
collapsibility, and surface finish were highlighted in this section. Investigations into well-known binders, such as fly ash,
volcanic ash, and Portland cement, showed that they had different effects on compressive strength. For practitioners
aiming for casting operations excellence, the results provide insightful information about the choice and optimization
of binders for casting requirements.

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Integration of artificial intelligence in casting processes: The incorporation of artificial intelligence (AI) into casting proce-
dures was the last frontier investigated in this review study. Artificial Neural Networks, Fuzzy Logic, Genetic Algorithms,
and other AI technologies demonstrated their revolutionary influence on defect reduction, real-time process optimiza-
tion, and decision-making abilities. Autonomous sand casting, where AI-driven systems constantly learn and adapt, is a
vision of an era of accuracy, productivity, and flawless casting.

– Identification of casting defects:

• The paper identified and categorized the common defects associated with sand casting, such as porosity, shrink-
age, and inclusions. These defects were analyzed in terms of their causes, impact on final product quality, and the
challenges they pose to manufacturers. By understanding these defects, the review underscores the importance
of quality control measures in ensuring defect-free castings.
– Comparison with existing literature:
• The paper compared various studies with the works of notable researchers like Professor Ali Mazahery, identify-
ing both similarities and differences in methodologies and findings. This comparative analysis provided valuable
insights into the evolution of casting techniques and the varying approaches taken by different researchers to
address common challenges in the field.
– Identification of research gaps:
• Through the review, several gaps in the current research were identified. These include the need for more com-
prehensive studies on the long-term effects of AI integration in casting, the environmental impact of sand-casting
processes, and the development of more sustainable and eco-friendly materials. The identification of these gaps
presents opportunities for future research and advancements in the field.
– Implications for future research and industry practice:
• The findings of this review have significant implications for both academic research and industry practices. For
researchers, the identified gaps and emerging trends provide a roadmap for future investigations. For industry
practitioners, the insights into optimization techniques and AI applications offer practical solutions for improving
casting quality and efficiency, potentially leading to a competitive advantage in the market.
In conclusion, this review paper not only identifies and categorizes challenges in the sand-casting domain but offers
practical solutions and cutting-edge insights for the contemporary foundry professional. From the considerations in
sand-casting optimization to the critical role of binders and the game-changing influence of AI, each aspect contrib-
utes to an evolving narrative in the pursuit of excellence in casting processes. As industries embrace these findings, the
potential for enhanced quality, efficiency, and sustainability in sand casting becomes not just theoretical, but a tangible
and achievable reality in the manufacturing landscape. This review paper stands as a comprehensive resource, guiding
both researchers and practitioners towards a future where sand casting thrives as a cornerstone of industrial production.

Author contributions Dr. Anayet Ullah Patwari conceived the study, led the review of existing literature, and developed the conceptual frame-
work for the combinatorial approach, contributing significantly to drafting and revising the manuscript. Shah Alam Bhuiyan conducted a
comprehensive analysis of manual optimization techniques and their integration with digital methods, providing critical insights into the
current state of casting process improvements and contributing to the manuscript’s revision. Dr. Khandaker Noman reviewed digital optimiza-
tion techniques and their application in quality casting, contributing to the synthesis of findings and providing substantial input in drafting
and refining sections related to digital approaches. Wasib Ul Navid coordinated the collection and synthesis of data on defects and remedies
in casting processes, assisting in drafting and revising the manuscript with a focus on integrating the manual and digital optimization tech-
niques. All authors contributed individually to the paper approved the final version of the manuscript.

Data availability No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Declarations
Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests.

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