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Spider
Spiders (order Araneae) are air-breathing arthropods that have eight
legs and chelicerae with fangs that inject venom. They are the largest order
Spiders
of arachnids and rank seventh in total species diversity among all other Temporal range: Pennsylvanian –
orders of organisms.[2] Spiders are found worldwide on every continent Holocene, 319–0 Ma
except for Antarctica, and have become established in nearly every habitat
PreЄ Є OS D C P T J K Pg N
with the exceptions of air and sea colonization. As of November 2015, at
least 45,700 spider species, and 113 families have been recorded by
taxonomists.[1] However, there has been dissension within the scientific
community as to how all these families should be classified, as evidenced
by the over 20 different classifications that have been proposed since
1900.[3]

Anatomically, spiders differ from other arthropods in that the usual body
segments are fused into two tagmata, the cephalothorax and abdomen, and
joined by a small, cylindrical pedicel. Unlike insects, spiders do not have
antennae. In all except the most primitive group, the Mesothelae, spiders
have the most centralized nervous systems of all arthropods, as all their
ganglia are fused into one mass in the cephalothorax. Unlike most
arthropods, spiders have no extensor muscles in their limbs and instead
extend them by hydraulic pressure.

Their abdomens bear appendages that have been modified into spinnerets
that extrude silk from up to six types of glands. Spider webs vary widely in
size, shape and the amount of sticky thread used. It now appears that the An assortment of different spiders.
spiral orb web may be one of the earliest forms, and spiders that produce
Scientific classification
tangled cobwebs are more abundant and diverse than orb-web spiders.
Spider-like arachnids with silk-producing spigots appeared in the Kingdom: Animalia
Devonian period about 386 million years ago, but these animals apparently Phylum: Arthropoda
lacked spinnerets. True spiders have been found in Carboniferous rocks
Subphylum: Chelicerata
from 318 to 299 million years ago, and are very similar to the most
primitive surviving suborder, the Mesothelae. The main groups of modern Class: Arachnida
spiders, Mygalomorphae and Araneomorphae, first appeared in the
Order: Araneae
Triassic period, before 200 million years ago.
Clerck, 1757
A herbivorous species, Bagheera kiplingi, was described in 2008,[4] but all Suborders
other known species are predators, mostly preying on insects and on other
spiders, although a few large species also take birds and lizards. It is Mesothelae
estimated that the world's 25 million tons of spiders kill 400–800 million Opisthothelae
tons of prey per year.[5] Spiders use a wide range of strategies to capture See Spider taxonomy.
prey: trapping it in sticky webs, lassoing it with sticky bolas, mimicking the
prey to avoid detection, or running it down. Most detect prey mainly by Diversity[1]
sensing vibrations, but the active hunters have acute vision, and hunters of 113 families, c. 46,000 species
the genus Portia show signs of intelligence in their choice of tactics and
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ability to develop new ones. Spiders' guts are too narrow to take solids, and they liquefy their food by flooding it with
digestive enzymes. They also grind food with the bases of their pedipalps, as arachnids do not have the mandibles that
crustaceans and insects have.

Male spiders identify themselves by a variety of complex courtship rituals to avoid being eaten by the females. Males of
most species survive a few matings, limited mainly by their short life spans. Females weave silk egg-cases, each of which
may contain hundreds of eggs. Females of many species care for their young, for example by carrying them around or by
sharing food with them. A minority of species are social, building communal webs that may house anywhere from a few to
50,000 individuals. Social behavior ranges from precarious toleration, as in the widow spiders, to co-operative hunting
and food-sharing. Although most spiders live for at most two years, tarantulas and other mygalomorph spiders can live up
to 25 years in captivity.

While the venom of a few species is dangerous to humans, scientists are now researching the use of spider venom in
medicine and as non-polluting pesticides. Spider silk provides a combination of lightness, strength and elasticity that is
superior to that of synthetic materials, and spider silk genes have been inserted into mammals and plants to see if these
can be used as silk factories. As a result of their wide range of behaviors, spiders have become common symbols in art and
mythology symbolizing various combinations of patience, cruelty and creative powers. An abnormal fear of spiders is
called arachnophobia.

Contents
1 Description
1.1 Body plan
1.2 Circulation and respiration
1.3 Feeding, digestion and excretion
1.4 Central nervous system
1.5 Sense organs
1.5.1 Eyes
1.5.2 Other senses
1.6 Locomotion
1.7 Silk production
1.8 Reproduction and life cycle
1.9 Size
1.10 Coloration
2 Ecology and behavior
2.1 Non-predatory feeding
2.2 Methods of capturing prey
2.3 Defense
2.4 Social spiders
3 Web types
3.1 Orb webs
3.2 Tangleweb spiders (cobweb spiders)
3.3 Other types of webs
4 Evolution
4.1 Fossil record
4.2 Family tree
5 Taxonomy

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5.1 Mesothelae
5.2 Mygalomorphae
5.3 Araneomorphae
6 Spiders and people
6.1 Spider bites
6.2 Benefits to humans
6.3 Arachnophobia
6.4 Spiders in symbolism and culture
7 See also
8 Footnotes
9 Bibliography
10 Further reading
11 External links

Description

Body plan
Spiders are chelicerates and therefore arthropods.[6] As arthropods they have: segmented bodies with jointed limbs, all
covered in a cuticle made of chitin and proteins; heads that are composed of several segments that fuse during the
development of the embryo.[7] Being chelicerates, their bodies consist of two tagmata, sets of segments that serve similar
functions: the foremost one, called the cephalothorax or prosoma, is a complete fusion of the segments that in an insect
would form two separate tagmata, the head and thorax; the rear tagma is called the abdomen or opisthosoma.[6] In
spiders, the cephalothorax and abdomen are connected by a small cylindrical section, the pedicel.[8] The pattern of
segment fusion that forms chelicerates' heads is unique among arthropods, and what would normally be the first head
segment disappears at an early stage of development, so that chelicerates lack the antennae typical of most arthropods. In
fact, chelicerates' only appendages ahead of the mouth are a pair of chelicerae, and they lack anything that would function
directly as "jaws".[7][9] The first appendages behind the mouth are called pedipalps, and serve different functions within
different groups of chelicerates.[6]

Spiders and scorpions are members of one chelicerate group, the arachnids.[9] Scorpions' chelicerae have three sections
and are used in feeding.[10] Spiders' chelicerae have two sections and terminate in fangs that are generally venomous, and
fold away behind the upper sections while not in use. The upper sections generally have thick "beards" that filter solid
lumps out of their food, as spiders can take only liquid food.[8] Scorpions' pedipalps generally form large claws for
capturing prey,[10] while those of spiders are fairly small appendages whose bases also act as an extension of the mouth; in
addition, those of male spiders have enlarged last sections used for sperm transfer.[8]

In spiders, the cephalothorax and abdomen are joined by a small, cylindrical pedicel, which enables the abdomen to move
independently when producing silk. The upper surface of the cephalothorax is covered by a single, convex carapace, while
the underside is covered by two rather flat plates. The abdomen is soft and egg-shaped. It shows no sign of segmentation,
except that the primitive Mesothelae, whose living members are the Liphistiidae, have segmented plates on the upper
surface.[8]

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Palystes castaneus female Nos 1 to 14 as for dorsal aspect

dorsal aspect
15: sternum of prosoma
1: pedipalp 16: pedicel (also called pedicle)
2: trichobothria 17: book lung sac
3: carapace of prosoma (cephalothorax) 18: book lung stigma
4: opisthosoma (abdomen) 19: epigastric fold
5: eyes – AL (anterior lateral) 20: epigyne
AM (anterior median) 21: anterior spinneret
PL (posterior lateral) 22: posterior spinneret
PM (posterior median)
I, II, III, IV = Leg numbers from anterior to posterior
Leg segments:
6: costa
7: trochanter
8: patella
9: tibia
10: metatarsus
11: tarsus
13: claw
14: chelicera

Circulation and respiration

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Like other arthropods, spiders are coelomates in which the coelom is reduced to small areas round the reproductive and
excretory systems. Its place is largely taken by a hemocoel, a cavity that runs most of the length of the body and through
which blood flows. The heart is a tube in the upper part of the body, with a few ostia that act as non-return valves allowing
blood to enter the heart from the hemocoel but prevent it from leaving before it reaches the front end.[11] However, in
spiders, it occupies only the upper part of the abdomen, and blood is discharged into the hemocoel by one artery that
opens at the rear end of the abdomen and by branching arteries that pass through the pedicle and open into several parts
of the cephalothorax. Hence spiders have open circulatory systems.[8] The blood of many spiders that have book lungs
contains the respiratory pigment hemocyanin to make oxygen transport more efficient.[9]

Spiders have developed several different respiratory anatomies, based on book lungs, a tracheal system, or both.
Mygalomorph and Mesothelae spiders have two pairs of book lungs filled with haemolymph, where openings on the
ventral surface of the abdomen allow air to enter and diffuse oxygen. This is also the case for some basal araneomorph
spiders, like the family Hypochilidae, but the remaining members of this group have just the anterior pair of book lungs
intact while the posterior pair of breathing organs are partly or fully modified into tracheae, through which oxygen is
diffused into the haemolymph or directly to the tissue and organs.[8] The trachea system has most likely evolved in small
ancestors to help resist desiccation.[9] The trachea were originally connected to the surroundings through a pair of
openings called spiracles, but in the majority of spiders this pair of spiracles has fused into a single one in the middle, and
moved backwards close to the spinnerets.[8] Spiders that have tracheae generally have higher metabolic rates and better
water conservation.[12] Spiders are ectotherms, so environmental temperatures affect their activity.[13]

Feeding, digestion and excretion

Uniquely among chelicerates, the final sections of spiders' chelicerae are fangs, and the great majority of spiders can use
them to inject venom into prey from venom glands in the roots of the chelicerae.[8] The families Uloboridae and
Holarchaeidae, and some Liphistiidae spiders, have lost their venom glands, and kill their prey with silk instead.[14] Like
most arachnids, including scorpions,[9] spiders have a narrow gut that can only cope with liquid food and spiders have two
sets of filters to keep solids out.[8] They use one of two different systems of external digestion. Some pump digestive
enzymes from the midgut into the prey and then suck the liquified tissues of the prey into the gut, eventually leaving
behind the empty husk of the prey. Others grind the prey to pulp using the chelicerae and the bases of the pedipalps, while
flooding it with enzymes; in these species, the chelicerae and the bases of the pedipalps form a preoral cavity that holds the
food they are processing.[8]

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The stomach in the cephalothorax acts as a pump that sends the food deeper
into the digestive system. The mid gut bears many digestive ceca,
compartments with no other exit, that extract nutrients from the food; most
are in the abdomen, which is dominated by the digestive system, but a few are
found in the cephalothorax.[8]

Most spiders convert nitrogenous waste products into uric acid, which can be
excreted as a dry material. Malphigian tubules ("little tubes") extract these
wastes from the blood in the hemocoel and dump them into the cloacal
chamber, from which they are expelled through the anus.[8] Production of uric
acid and its removal via Malphigian tubules are a water-conserving feature that
Cheiracanthium punctorium,
has evolved independently in several arthropod lineages that can live far away
displaying fangs
from water,[15] for example the tubules of insects and arachnids develop from
completely different parts of the embryo.[9] However, a few primitive spiders,
the sub-order Mesothelae and infra-order Mygalomorphae, retain the ancestral arthropod nephridia ("little kidneys"),[8]
which use large amounts of water to excrete nitrogenous waste products as ammonia.[15]

Central nervous system

The basic arthropod central nervous system consists of a pair of nerve cords running below the gut, with paired ganglia as
local control centers in all segments; a brain formed by fusion of the ganglia for the head segments ahead of and behind
the mouth, so that the esophagus is encircled by this conglomeration of ganglia.[16] Except for the primitive Mesothelae, of
which the Liphistiidae are the sole surviving family, spiders have the much more centralized nervous system that is typical
of arachnids: all the ganglia of all segments behind the esophagus are fused, so that the cephalothorax is largely filled with
nervous tissue and there are no ganglia in the abdomen;[8][9][16] in the Mesothelae, the ganglia of the abdomen and the rear
part of the cephalothorax remain unfused.[12]

Despite the relatively small central nervous system, some spiders (like Portia) exhibit complex behaviour, including the
ability to use a trial-and-error approach.[17][18]

Sense organs

Eyes
Spiders have primarily four pairs of eyes on the top-front area of the cephalothorax, arranged in patterns that vary from
one family to another.[8] The principal pair at the front are of the type called pigment-cup ocelli ("little eyes"), which in
most arthropods are only capable of detecting the direction from which light is coming, using the shadow cast by the walls
of the cup. However, in spiders these eyes are capable of forming images.[19][20] The other pairs, called secondary eyes, are
thought to be derived from the compound eyes of the ancestral chelicerates, but no longer have the separate facets typical
of compound eyes. Unlike the principal eyes, in many spiders these secondary eyes detect light reflected from a reflective
tapetum lucidum, and wolf spiders can be spotted by torch light reflected from the tapeta. On the other hand, jumping
spiders' secondary eyes have no tapeta.[8]

Other differences between the principal and secondary eyes are that the latter have rhabdomeres that point away from
incoming light, just like in vertebrates, while the arrangement is the opposite in the former. The principal eyes are also the
only ones with eye muscles, allowing them to move the retina. Having no muscles, the secondary eyes are immobile.[21]

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Some jumping spiders' visual acuity exceeds by a factor of ten that of

dragonflies, which have by far the best vision among insects; in fact the
human eye is only about five times sharper than a jumping spider's. They
achieve this by a telephoto-like series of lenses, a four-layer retina and the
ability to swivel their eyes and integrate images from different stages in the
scan. The downside is that the scanning and integrating processes are
relatively slow.[17]

There are spiders with a reduced number of eyes, of these those with six-
eyes are the most numerous and are missing a pair of eyes on the anterior This jumping spider's main ocelli
(center pair) are very acute. The outer
median line,[22] others species have four-eyes and some just two. Cave
pair are "secondary eyes" and there are
dwelling species have no eyes, or possess vestigial eyes incapable of sight.
other pairs of secondary eyes on the
sides and top of its head.[19]
Other senses
As with other arthropods, spiders' cuticles would block out information about the outside world, except that they are
penetrated by many sensors or connections from sensors to the nervous system. In fact, spiders and other arthropods have
modified their cuticles into elaborate arrays of sensors. Various touch sensors, mostly bristles called setae, respond to
different levels of force, from strong contact to very weak air currents. Chemical sensors provide equivalents of taste and
smell, often by means of setae.[19] Pedipalps carry a large number of such setae sensitive to contact chemicals and air-
borne smells, such as female pheromones.[23] Spiders also have in the joints of their limbs slit sensillae that detect forces
and vibrations. In web-building spiders, all these mechanical and chemical sensors are more important than the eyes,
while the eyes are most important to spiders that hunt actively.[8]

Like most arthropods, spiders lack balance and acceleration sensors and rely on their eyes to tell them which way is up.
Arthropods' proprioceptors, sensors that report the force exerted by muscles and the degree of bending in the body and
joints, are well understood. On the other hand, little is known about what other internal sensors spiders or other
arthropods may have.[19]

Locomotion
Each of the eight legs of a spider consists of seven distinct parts. The part
closest to and attaching the leg to the cephalothorax is the coxa; the next
segment is the short trochanter that works as a hinge for the following long
segment, the femur; next is the spider's knee, the patella, which acts as the
hinge for the tibia; the metatarsus is next, and it connects the tibia to the tarsus
(which may be thought of as a foot of sorts); the tarsus ends in a claw made up
of either two or three points, depending on the family to which the spider
belongs. Although all arthropods use muscles attached to the inside of the
exoskeleton to flex their limbs, spiders and a few other groups still use Image of a spider leg: 1–coxa; 2–
hydraulic pressure to extend them, a system inherited from their pre- trochanter; 3–femur; 4–patella; 5–
arthropod ancestors.[24] The only extensor muscles in spider legs are located in tibia; 6–metatarsus; 7–tarsus; 8–
the three hip joints (bordering the coxa and the trochanter).[25] As a result, a claws
spider with a punctured cephalothorax cannot extend its legs, and the legs of
dead spiders curl up.[8] Spiders can generate pressures up to eight times their

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resting level to extend their legs,[26] and jumping spiders can jump up to 50 times their own length by suddenly increasing
the blood pressure in the third or fourth pair of legs.[8] Although larger spiders use hydraulics to straighten their legs,
unlike smaller jumping spiders they depend on their flexor muscles to generate the propulsive force for their jumps.[25]

Most spiders that hunt actively, rather than relying on webs, have dense tufts of fine hairs between the paired claws at the
tips of their legs. These tufts, known as scopulae, consist of bristles whose ends are split into as many as 1,000 branches,
and enable spiders with scopulae to walk up vertical glass and upside down on ceilings. It appears that scopulae get their
grip from contact with extremely thin layers of water on surfaces.[8] Spiders, like most other arachnids, keep at least four
legs on the surface while walking or running.[27]

Silk production
The abdomen has no appendages except those that have been modified to form
one to four (usually three) pairs of short, movable spinnerets, which emit silk.
Each spinneret has many spigots, each of which is connected to one silk gland.
There are at least six types of silk gland, each producing a different type of
silk.[8]

Silk is mainly composed of a protein very similar to that used in insect silk. It is
initially a liquid, and hardens not by exposure to air but as a result of being
drawn out, which changes the internal structure of the protein.[28] It is similar
in tensile strength to nylon and biological materials such as chitin, collagen
and cellulose, but is much more elastic. In other words, it can stretch much
further before breaking or losing shape.[8]

Some spiders have a cribellum, a modified spinneret with up to 40,000

spigots, each of which produces a single very fine fiber. The fibers are pulled
out by the calamistrum, a comb-like set of bristles on the jointed tip of the
cribellum, and combined into a composite woolly thread that is very effective
in snagging the bristles of insects. The earliest spiders had cribella, which An orb weaver producing silk from
produced the first silk capable of capturing insects, before spiders developed its spinnerets

silk coated with sticky droplets. However, most modern groups of spiders have
lost the cribellum.[8]

Tarantulas also have silk glands in their feet.[29]

Even species that do not build webs to catch prey use silk in several ways: as wrappers for sperm and for fertilized eggs; as
a "safety rope"; for nest-building; and as "parachutes" by the young of some species.[8]

Reproduction and life cycle

Spiders reproduce sexually and fertilization is internal but indirect, in other words the sperm is not inserted into the
female's body by the male's genitals but by an intermediate stage. Unlike many land-living arthropods,[30] male spiders do
not produce ready-made spermatophores (packages of sperm), but spin small sperm webs on to which they ejaculate and
then transfer the sperm to special syringe-like structures, palpal bulbs or palpal organs, borne on the tips of the pedipalps
of mature males. When a male detects signs of a female nearby he checks whether she is of the same species and whether
she is ready to mate; for example in species that produce webs or "safety ropes", the male can identify the species and sex
of these objects by "smell".[8]

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Spiders generally use elaborate courtship rituals to prevent the large females
from eating the small males before fertilization, except where the male is so
much smaller that he is not worth eating. In web-weaving species, precise
patterns of vibrations in the web are a major part of the rituals, while patterns
of touches on the female's body are important in many spiders that hunt
actively, and may "hypnotize" the female. Gestures and dances by the male are
important for jumping spiders, which have excellent eyesight. If courtship is
Mating behaviour of Neriene radiata
successful, the male injects his sperm from the palpal bulbs into the female's
genital opening, known as the epigyne, on the underside of her abdomen.
Female's reproductive tracts vary from simple tubes to systems that include seminal
receptacles in which females store sperm and release it when they are ready.[8] Because
the sperm is stored in the epigyne, the eggs are not fertilized while inside the female,
but during oviposition when the stored sperm is released from its chamber. The only
one exception is a spider from Israel, Harpactea sadistica, which has evolved traumatic
insemination. In this species the male will penetrate its pedipalps through the female's
body wall and inject his sperm directly into her ovaries, where the embryos inside the
fertilized eggs will start to develop before being laid.[31]

Males of the genus Tidarren amputate one of their palps before maturation and enter
adult life with one palp only. The palps are 20% of male's body mass in this species, and
detaching one of the two improves mobility. In the Yemeni species Tidarren argo, the
remaining palp is then torn off by the female. The separated palp remains attached to
the female's epigynum for about four hours and apparently continues to function The tiny male of the Golden
orb weaver (Nephila
independently. In the meantime, the female feeds on the palpless male.[32] In over 60%
clavipes) (near the top of
of cases, the female of the Australian redback spider kills and eats the male after it the leaf) is protected from
inserts its second palp into the female's genital opening; in fact, the males co-operate by the female by his producing
trying to impale themselves on the females' fangs. Observation shows that most male the right vibrations in the
redbacks never get an opportunity to mate, and the "lucky" ones increase the likely web, and may be too small
number of offspring by ensuring that the females are well-fed.[33] However, males of to be worth eating.

most species survive a few matings, limited mainly by their short life spans. Some even
live for a while in their mates' webs.[34]

Orange spider egg Gasteracantha Wolf spider carrying its young on its
sac hanging from mammosa abdomen
ceiling spiderlings next to
their eggs capsule

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Females lay up to 3,000 eggs in one or more silk egg sacs,[8] which maintain a fairly constant humidity level.[34] In some
species, the females die afterwards, but females of other species protect the sacs by attaching them to their webs, hiding
them in nests, carrying them in the chelicerae or attaching them to the spinnerets and dragging them along.[8]

Baby spiders pass all their larval stages inside the egg and hatch as spiderlings, very small and sexually immature but
similar in shape to adults. Some spiders care for their young, for example a wolf spider's brood cling to rough bristles on
the mother's back,[8] and females of some species respond to the "begging" behaviour of their young by giving them their
prey, provided it is no longer struggling, or even regurgitate food.[34]

Like other arthropods, spiders have to molt to grow as their cuticle ("skin") cannot stretch.[35] In some species males mate
with newly molted females, which are too weak to be dangerous to the males.[34] Most spiders live for only one to two
years, although some tarantulas can live in captivity for over 20 years.[8][36]

Size
Spiders occur in a large range of sizes. The smallest, Patu digua from
Colombia, are less than 0.37 mm (0.015 in) in body length. The largest and
heaviest spiders occur among tarantulas, which can have body lengths up to
90 mm (3.5 in) and leg spans up to 250 mm (9.8 in).[37]

Coloration
Only three classes of pigment (ommochromes, bilins and guanine) have been
identified in spiders, although other pigments have been detected but not yet
characterized. Melanins, carotenoids and pterins, very common in other
animals, are apparently absent. In some species, the exocuticle of the legs and
prosoma is modified by a tanning process, resulting in brown coloration.[38]
Bilins are found, for example, in Micrommata virescens, resulting in its green
color. Guanine is responsible for the white markings of the European garden
spider Araneus diadematus. It is in many species accumulated in specialized
cells called guanocytes. In genera such as Tetragnatha, Leucauge, Argyrodes
or Theridiosoma, guanine creates their silvery appearance. While guanine is Goliath birdeater (Theraphosa
blondi), the largest spider
originally an end-product of protein metabolism, its excretion can be blocked
in spiders, leading to an increase in its storage.[38] Structural colors occur in
some species, which are the result of the diffraction, scattering or interference of light, for example by modified setae or
scales. The white prosoma of Argiope results from hairs reflecting the light, Lycosa and Josa both have areas of modified
cuticle that act as light reflectors.[38]

Ecology and behavior

Non-predatory feeding
Although spiders are generally regarded as predatory, the jumping spider Bagheera kiplingi gets over 90% of its food from
fairly solid plant material produced by acacias as part of a mutually beneficial relationship with a species of ant.[39]

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Juveniles of some spiders in the families Anyphaenidae, Corinnidae,

Clubionidae, Thomisidae and Salticidae feed on plant nectar. Laboratory
studies show that they do so deliberately and over extended periods, and
periodically clean themselves while feeding. These spiders also prefer sugar
solutions to plain water, which indicates that they are seeking nutrients. Since
many spiders are nocturnal, the extent of nectar consumption by spiders may
have been underestimated. Nectar contains amino acids, lipids, vitamins and
minerals in addition to sugars, and studies have shown that other spider
species live longer when nectar is available. Feeding on nectar avoids the risks A jumping spider seen in Chennai.

of struggles with prey, and the costs of producing venom and digestive
enzymes.[40]

Various species are known to feed on dead arthropods (scavenging), web silk, and their own shed exoskeletons. Pollen
caught in webs may also be eaten, and studies have shown that young spiders have a better chance of survival if they have
the opportunity to eat pollen. In captivity, several spider species are also known to feed on bananas, marmalade, milk, egg
yolk and sausages.[40]

Methods of capturing prey

The best-known method of prey capture is by means of sticky webs. Varying
placement of webs allows different species of spider to trap different insects in
the same area, for example flat horizontal webs trap insects that fly up from
vegetation underneath while flat vertical webs trap insects in horizontal flight.
Web-building spiders have poor vision, but are extremely sensitive to
vibrations.[8]

Females of the water spider Argyroneta aquatica build underwater "diving

bell" webs that they fill with air and use for digesting prey, molting, mating and
raising offspring. They live almost entirely within the bells, darting out to catch
prey animals that touch the bell or the threads that anchor it.[41] A few spiders
use the surfaces of lakes and ponds as "webs", detecting trapped insects by the
vibrations that these cause while struggling.[8]

Net-casting spiders weave only small webs, but then manipulate them to trap
prey. Those of the genus Hyptiotes and the family Theridiosomatidae stretch The Phonognatha graeffei or leaf-
their webs and then release them when prey strike them, but do not actively curling spider's web serves both as
move their webs. Those of the family Deinopidae weave even smaller webs, a trap and as a way of making its
home in a leaf.
hold them outstretched between their first two pairs of legs, and lunge and
push the webs as much as twice their own body length to trap prey, and this
move may increase the webs' area by a factor of up to ten. Experiments have
shown that Deinopis spinosus has two different techniques for trapping prey: backwards strikes to catch flying insects,
whose vibrations it detects; and forward strikes to catch ground-walking prey that it sees. These two techniques have also
been observed in other deinopids. Walking insects form most of the prey of most deinopids, but one population of
Deinopis subrufa appears to live mainly on tipulid flies that they catch with the backwards strike.[42]

Mature female bolas spiders of the genus Mastophora build "webs" that consist of only a single "trapeze line", which they
patrol. They also construct a bolas made of a single thread, tipped with a large ball of very wet sticky silk. They emit
chemicals that resemble the pheromones of moths, and then swing the bolas at the moths. Although they miss on about
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50% of strikes, they catch about the same weight of insects per night as web-weaving spiders of similar size. The spiders
eat the bolas if they have not made a kill in about 30 minutes, rest for a while, and then make new bolas.[43][44] Juveniles
and adult males are much smaller and do not make bolas. Instead they release different pheromones that attract moth
flies, and catch them with their front pairs of legs.[45]

The primitive Liphistiidae, the "trapdoor spiders" of the family Ctenizidae and
many tarantulas are ambush predators that lurk in burrows, often closed by
trapdoors and often surrounded by networks of silk threads that alert these
spiders to the presence of prey.[12] Other ambush predators do without such
aids, including many crab spiders,[8] and a few species that prey on bees, which
see ultraviolet, can adjust their ultraviolet reflectance to match the flowers in
which they are lurking.[38] Wolf spiders, jumping spiders, fishing spiders and
some crab spiders capture prey by chasing it, and rely mainly on vision to
A trapdoor spider in the genus
locate prey.[8]
Cyclocosmia, an ambush predator
Some jumping spiders of the genus
Portia hunt other spiders in ways that
seem intelligent,[17] outflanking their victims or luring them from their webs.
Laboratory studies show that Portia's instinctive tactics are only starting points
for a trial-and-error approach from which these spiders learn very quickly how to
overcome new prey species.[46] However, they seem to be relatively slow
"thinkers", which is not surprising, as their brains are vastly smaller than those of
mammalian predators.[17]
Portia uses both webs and
Ant-mimicking spiders face several
cunning, versatile tactics to
challenges: they generally develop
overcome prey.[46]
slimmer abdomens and false "waists"
in the cephalothorax to mimic the
three distinct regions (tagmata) of an ant's body; they wave the first pair of legs
in front of their heads to mimic antennae, which spiders lack, and to conceal
the fact that they have eight legs rather than six; they develop large color
An ant-mimicking jumping spider patches round one pair of eyes to disguise the fact that they generally have
eight simple eyes, while ants have two compound eyes; they cover their bodies
with reflective hairs to resemble the shiny bodies of ants. In some spider
species, males and females mimic different ant species, as female spiders are usually much larger than males. Ant-
mimicking spiders also modify their behavior to resemble that of the target species of ant; for example, many adopt a zig-
zag pattern of movement, ant-mimicking jumping spiders avoid jumping, and spiders of the genus Synemosyna walk on
the outer edges of leaves in the same way as Pseudomyrmex. Ant-mimicry in many spiders and other arthropods may be
for protection from predators that hunt by sight, including birds, lizards and spiders. However, several ant-mimicking
spiders prey either on ants or on the ants' "livestock", such as aphids. When at rest, the ant-mimicking crab spider
Amyciaea does not closely resemble Oecophylla, but while hunting it imitates the behavior of a dying ant to attract worker
ants. After a kill, some ant-mimicking spiders hold their victims between themselves and large groups of ants to avoid
being attacked.[47]

Defense

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There is strong evidence that spiders' coloration is camouflage that helps them
to evade their major predators, birds and parasitic wasps, both of which have
good color vision. Many spider species are colored so as to merge with their
most common backgrounds, and some have disruptive coloration, stripes and
blotches that break up their outlines. In a few species, such as the Hawaiian
happy-face spider, Theridion grallator, several coloration schemes are present
in a ratio that appears to remain constant, and this may make it more difficult
for predators to recognize the species. Most spiders are insufficiently
dangerous or unpleasant-tasting for warning coloration to offer much benefit.
However, a few species with powerful venoms, large jaws or irritant hairs have
Threat display by a Sydney funnel-
patches of warning colors, and some actively display these colors when
web spider (Atrax robustus).
threatened.[38][48]

Many of the family Theraphosidae, which includes tarantulas and baboon

spiders, have urticating hairs on their abdomens and use their legs to flick them at attackers. These hairs are fine setae
(bristles) with fragile bases and a row of barbs on the tip. The barbs cause intense irritation but there is no evidence that
they carry any kind of venom.[49] A few defend themselves against wasps by including networks of very robust threads in
their webs, giving the spider time to flee while the wasps are struggling with the obstacles.[50] The golden wheeling spider,
Carparachne aureoflava, of the Namibian desert escapes parasitic wasps by flipping onto its side and cartwheeling down
sand dunes.[51]

Social spiders
A few spider species that build webs live together in large colonies and show social behavior, although not as complex as in
social insects. Anelosimus eximius (in the family Theridiidae) can form colonies of up to 50,000 individuals.[52] The genus
Anelosimus has a strong tendency towards sociality: all known American species are social, and species in Madagascar are
at least somewhat social.[53] Members of other species in the same family but several different genera have independently
developed social behavior. For example, although Theridion nigroannulatum belongs to a genus with no other social
species, T. nigroannulatum build colonies that may contain several thousand individuals that co-operate in prey capture
and share food.[54] Other communal spiders include several Philoponella species (family Uloboridae), Agelena consociata
(family Agelenidae) and Mallos gregalis (family Dictynidae).[55] Social predatory spiders need to defend their prey against
kleptoparasites ("thieves"), and larger colonies are more successful in this.[56] The herbivorous spider Bagheera kiplingi
lives in small colonies which help to protect eggs and spiderlings.[39] Even widow spiders (genus Latrodectus), which are
notoriously cannibalistic, have formed small colonies in captivity, sharing webs and feeding together.[57]

Web types
There is no consistent relationship between the classification of spiders and the types of web they build: species in the
same genus may build very similar or significantly different webs. Nor is there much correspondence between spiders'
classification and the chemical composition of their silks. Convergent evolution in web construction, in other words use of
similar techniques by remotely related species, is rampant. Orb web designs and the spinning behaviors that produce them
are the best understood. The basic radial-then-spiral sequence visible in orb webs and the sense of direction required to
build them may have been inherited from the common ancestors of most spider groups.[58] However, the majority of
spiders build non-orb webs. It used to be thought that the sticky orb web was an evolutionary innovation resulting in the
diversification of the Orbiculariae. Now, however, it appears that non-orb spiders are a sub-group that evolved from orb-

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web spiders, and non-orb spiders have over 40% more species and are four
times as abundant as orb-web spiders. Their greater success may be because
sphecid wasps, which are often the dominant predators of spiders, much prefer
to attack spiders that have flat webs.[59]

Orb webs
About half the potential prey that hit orb webs escape. A web has to perform
three functions: intercepting the prey (intersection), absorbing its momentum The large orb web of Araneus
diadematus (European garden
without breaking (stopping), and trapping the prey by entangling it or sticking
spider).
to it (retention). No single design is best for all prey. For example: wider
spacing of lines will increase the web's area and hence its ability to intercept
prey, but reduce its stopping power and retention; closer spacing, larger sticky
droplets and thicker lines would improve retention, but would make it easier
for potential prey to see and avoid the web, at least during the day. However,
there are no consistent differences between orb webs built for use during the
day and those built for use at night. In fact, there is no simple relationship
between orb web design features and the prey they capture, as each orb-
weaving species takes a wide range of prey.[58]

The hubs of orb webs, where the spiders lurk, are usually above the center, as
the spiders can move downwards faster than upwards. If there is an obvious
direction in which the spider can retreat to avoid its own predators, the hub is
usually offset towards that direction.[58]

Horizontal orb webs are fairly common, despite being less effective at
intercepting and retaining prey and more vulnerable to damage by rain and Nephila clavata, a golden orb
falling debris. Various researchers have suggested that horizontal webs offer weaver
compensating advantages, such as reduced vulnerability to wind damage;
reduced visibility to prey flying upwards, because of the back-lighting from the
sky; enabling oscillations to catch insects in slow horizontal flight. However, there is no single explanation for the common
use of horizontal orb webs.[58]

Spiders often attach highly visible silk bands, called decorations or stabilimenta, to their webs. Field research suggests that
webs with more decorative bands captured more prey per hour.[60] However, a laboratory study showed that spiders
reduce the building of these decorations if they sense the presence of predators.[61]

There are several unusual variants of orb web, many of them convergently evolved, including: attachment of lines to the
surface of water, possibly to trap insects in or on the surface; webs with twigs through their centers, possibly to hide the
spiders from predators; "ladder-like" webs that appear most effective in catching moths. However, the significance of
many variations is unclear.[58]

In 1973, Skylab 3 took two orb-web spiders into space to test their web-spinning capabilities in zero gravity. At first, both
produced rather sloppy webs, but they adapted quickly.[62]

Tangleweb spiders (cobweb spiders)

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Members of the family Theridiidae weave irregular, tangled, three-dimensional webs,

popularly known as cobwebs. There seems to be an evolutionary trend towards a reduction
in the amount of sticky silk used, leading to its total absence in some species. The
construction of cobwebs is less stereotyped than that of orb-webs, and may take several
days.[59]

Other types of webs A funnel web.

The Linyphiidae generally make horizontal but uneven sheets, with tangles of stopping
threads above. Insects that hit the stopping threads fall onto the sheet or are shaken onto it by the spider, and are held by
sticky threads on the sheet until the spider can attack from below.[63]

Evolution

Fossil record
Although the fossil record of spiders is considered poor,[64] almost 1000 species have been
described from fossils.[65] Because spiders' bodies are quite soft, the vast majority of fossil
spiders have been found preserved in amber.[65] The oldest known amber that contains
fossil arthropods dates from 130 million years ago in the Early Cretaceous period. In
addition to preserving spiders' anatomy in very fine detail, pieces of amber show spiders
mating, killing prey, producing silk and possibly caring for their young. In a few cases,
Spider preserved in amber has preserved spiders' egg sacs and webs, occasionally with prey attached;[66] the
amber oldest fossil web found so far is 100 million years old.[67] Earlier spider fossils come from a
few lagerstätten, places where conditions were exceptionally suited to preserving fairly soft
tissues.[66]

The oldest known exclusively terrestrial arachnid is the trigonotarbid Palaeotarbus jerami,
from about 420 million years ago in the Silurian period, and had a triangular
cephalothorax and segmented abdomen, as well as eight legs and a pair of pedipalps.[68]
Attercopus fimbriunguis, from 386 million years ago in the Devonian period, bears the
earliest known silk-producing spigots, and was therefore hailed as a spider at the time of
its discovery.[69] However, these spigots may have been mounted on the underside of the
abdomen rather than on spinnerets, which are modified appendages and whose mobility is

Palaeotarbus jerami, a important in the building of webs. Hence Attercopus and the similar Permian arachnid
trigonotarbid and the Permarachne may not have been true spiders, and probably used silk for lining nests or
oldest known exclusively producing egg-cases rather than for building webs.[70] The largest known fossil spider as of
terrestrial arachnid 2011 is the araneid Nephila jurassica, from about 165 million years ago, recorded from
Daohuogo, Inner Mongolia in China.[71] Its body length is almost 25 mm, (i.e., almost one
inch).

Several Carboniferous spiders were members of the Mesothelae, a primitive group now represented only by the
Liphistiidae.[69] The mesothelid Paleothele montceauensis, from the Late Carboniferous over 299 million years ago, had
five spinnerets.[72] Although the Permian period 299 to 251 million years ago saw rapid diversification of flying insects,
there are very few fossil spiders from this period.[69]

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The main groups of modern spiders, Mygalomorphae and Araneomorphae, first appear in the Triassic well before
200 million years ago. Some Triassic mygalomorphs appear to be members of the family Hexathelidae, whose modern
members include the notorious Sydney funnel-web spider, and their spinnerets appear adapted for building funnel-shaped
webs to catch jumping insects. Araneomorphae account for the great majority of modern spiders, including those that
weave the familiar orb-shaped webs. The Jurassic and Cretaceous periods provide a large number of fossil spiders,
including representatives of many modern families.[69]

Family tree
It is now agreed that spiders
Xiphosura (horseshoe crabs)
(Araneae) are monophyletic
(i.e., members of a group of
Eurypterida†
organisms that form a clade,
consisting of a last common Chasmataspidida†
ancestor and all of its
descendants).[74] There has been Scorpiones
debate about what their closest
evolutionary relatives are, and Opiliones (harvestmen)
how all of these evolved from
the ancestral chelicerates, which Pseudoscorpiones
were marine animals. The
Solifugae (sun spiders)
cladogram on the right is based
on J. W. Shultz' analysis (2007).
Palpigradi (microwhip scorpions)
Other views include proposals Chelicerata
that: scorpions are more closely
Trigonotarbida†
related to the extinct marine
scorpion-like eurypterids than Arachnida
Araneae (spiders)
to spiders; spiders and
Amblypygi are a monophyletic Haptopoda†
group. The appearance of
several multi-way branchings in Amblypygi (whip spiders)
the tree on the right shows that
there are still uncertainties Thelyphonida (whip scorpions)
about relationships between the
Schizomida
groups involved.[74]

Arachnids lack some features of Ricinulei (hooded tickspiders)

other chelicerates, including
backward-pointing mouths and Anactinotrichida
gnathobases ("jaw bases") at the
Acariformes (mites)
bases of their legs;[74] both of
these features are part of the
Shultz (2007)'s evolutionary family tree of arachnids[73] – † marks extinct groups.
ancestral arthropod feeding
system.[75] Instead, they have mouths that point forwards and downwards, and all have some means of breathing air.[74]
Spiders (Araneae) are distinguished from other arachnid groups by several characteristics, including spinnerets and, in
males, pedipalps that are specially adapted for sperm transfer.[76]

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Taxonomy
Spiders are divided into two suborders, Mesothelae and Opisthothelae, of which the latter contains two infraorders,
Mygalomorphae and Araneomorphae. Nearly 46,000 living species of spiders (order Araneae) have been identified and
are currently grouped into about 114 families and about 4,000 genera by arachnologists.[1]

Spider diversity[1][76] Features

(numbers are approximate)

Segmented
Ganglia Striking
plates on
Suborder/Infraorder Species Genera Families
top of
in Spinnerets[77] direction
abdomen of fangs[8]
abdomen[77]
Four pairs, in
some species
Mesothelae 87 5 1 Yes Yes one pair fused, Downwards
under middle of and
abdomen forwards
Opisthothelae:
2,600 300 15 One, two or
Mygalomorphae
Only in some three pairs
No From sides
Opisthothelae: fossils under rear of
37,000 3,400 93 abdomen to center,
Araneomorphae
like pincers

Mesothelae
The only living members of the primitive Mesothelae are the family Liphistiidae, found
only in Southeast Asia, China, and Japan.[76] Most of the Liphistiidae construct silk-lined
burrows with thin trapdoors, although some species of the genus Liphistius build
camouflaged silk tubes with a second trapdoor as an emergency exit. Members of the genus
Liphistius run silk "tripwires" outwards from their tunnels to help them detect

Ryuthela sasakii, a approaching prey, while those of genus Heptathela do not and instead rely on their built-in
member of the vibration sensors.[79] Spiders of the genus Heptathela have no venom glands although they
Liphistiidae[78] do have venom gland outlets on the fang tip.[80]

The extinct families Arthrolycosidae, found in Carboniferous and Permian rocks, and
Arthromygalidae, so far found only in Carboniferous rocks, have been classified as members of the Mesothelae.[81]

Mygalomorphae
The Mygalomorphae, which first appeared in the Triassic period,[69] are generally heavily built and hairy, with large,
robust chelicerae and fangs.[76] Well-known examples include tarantulas, ctenizid trapdoor spiders and the Australasian
funnel-web spiders.[8] Most spend the majority of their time in burrows, and some run silk tripwires out from these, but a
few build webs to capture prey. However, mygalomorphs cannot produce the pirifom silk that the Araneomorphae use as
instant adhesive to glue silk to surfaces or to other strands of silk, and this makes web construction more difficult for
mygalomorphs. Since mygalomorphs rarely "balloon" by using air currents for transport, their populations often form
clumps.[76] In addition to arthropods, mygalomorphs are capable of preying on frogs, small mammals, lizards, and
snails.[82]

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Araneomorphae
In addition to accounting for over 90% of
spider species, the Araneomorphae, also known
as the "true spiders", include orb-web spiders,
the cursorial wolf spiders, and jumping
spiders,[76] as well as the only known
herbivorous spider, Bagheera kiplingi.[39] They
are distinguished by having fangs that oppose
each other and cross in a pinching action, in
A Mexican red-kneed tarantula
contrast to the Mygalomorphae, which have Brachypelma smithi
fangs that are nearly parallel in alignment.[83]
Leucauge venusta, an
orb-web spider

Spiders and people

Spider bites
Although spiders are widely feared, only a few species are dangerous to
people.[85] Spiders will only bite humans in self-defense, and few produce
worse effects than a mosquito bite or bee-sting.[86] Most of those with
medically serious bites, such as recluse spiders and widow spiders, would
rather flee and bite only when trapped, although this can easily arise by
accident.[87][88] Funnel web spiders' defensive tactics include fang display and
their venom, although they rarely inject much, has resulted in 13 known
human deaths over 50 years.[89] They have been deemed to be the world's most
dangerous spiders on clinical and venom toxicity grounds,[85] though this claim
has also been attributed to the Brazilian wandering spider, due to much more
frequent accidents.[90]
All symptoms associated with toxic
There were about 100 reliably reported deaths from spider bites in the 20th
spider bites[84]
century,[91] compared to about 1,500 from jellyfish stings.[92] Many alleged
cases of spider bites may represent incorrect diagnoses,[93] which would make
it more difficult to check the effectiveness of treatments for genuine bites.[94]

Benefits to humans
Spider venoms may be a less polluting alternative to conventional pesticides, as they are deadly to insects but the great
majority are harmless to vertebrates. Australian funnel web spiders are a promising source, as most of the world's insect
pests have had no opportunity to develop any immunity to their venom, and funnel web spiders thrive in captivity and are
easy to "milk". It may be possible to target specific pests by engineering genes for the production of spider toxins into
viruses that infect species such as cotton bollworms.[95]

The Ch'ol Maya use a beverage created from the tarantula species Brachypelma vagans for the treatment of a condition
they term 'tarantula wind', the symptoms of which include chest pain, asthma and coughing.[96]

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Possible medical uses for spider venoms are being investigated, for the
treatment of cardiac arrhythmia,[97] Alzheimer's disease,[98] strokes,[99] and
erectile dysfunction.[100] The peptide GsMtx-4, found in the venom of
Brachypelma vagans, is being researched to determine whether or not it could
effectively be used for the treatment of cardiac arrhythmia, muscular
dystrophy or glioma.[101] Because spider silk is both light and very strong,
attempts are being made to produce it in goats' milk and in the leaves of plants,
by means of genetic engineering.[102][103]
Cooked tarantula spiders are
Spiders can also be used as food. Cooked tarantula spiders are considered a considered a delicacy in Cambodia.
delicacy in Cambodia,[104] and by the Piaroa Indians of southern Venezuela –
provided the highly irritant hairs, the spiders' main defense system, are
removed first.[105]

Arachnophobia
Arachnophobia is a specific phobia—it is the abnormal fear of spiders or anything reminiscent of spiders, such as webs or
spider-like shapes. It is one of the most common specific phobias,[106][107] and some statistics show that 50% of women
and 10% of men show symptoms.[108] It may be an exaggerated form of an instinctive response that helped early humans
to survive,[109] or a cultural phenomenon that is most common in predominantly European societies.[110]

Spiders in symbolism and culture

Spiders have been the focus of stories and mythologies of various cultures for
centuries.[111] They have symbolized patience due to their hunting technique of
setting webs and waiting for prey, as well as mischief and malice due to their
venomous bites.[112] The Italian tarantella is a dance to rid the young woman of
the lustful effects of a spider bite.

Web-spinning also caused the association of the spider with creation myths, as
they seem to have the ability to produce their own worlds.[113] Dreamcatchers
are depictions of spiderwebs. The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped
This Moche ceramic depicts a
nature.[114] They placed emphasis on animals and often depicted spiders in
spider, and dates from around 300
their art.[115]
CE.

See also
Glossary of spider terms
List of endangered spiders
Identifying spiders
Spider diversity
Arachnidism
Toxins
List of animals that produce silk

Footnotes
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History Museum Bern. Retrieved 2016-12-19.
2. Sebastin PA & Peter KV (eds.). (2009) Spiders of India (https://books.google.com/books?id=9oVHO-3ZGx4C&printse
c=frontcover). Universities Press/Orient Blackswan. ISBN 978-81-7371-641-6
3. Foelix, Rainer F. (1996). Biology of Spiders. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 3. ISBN 0-19-509593-6.
4. Meehan, Christopher J.; Olson, Eric J.; Reudink, Matthew W.; Kyser, T. Kurt; Curry, Robert L. (2009). "Herbivory in a
spider through exploitation of an ant–plant mutualism". Current Biology. 19 (19): R892–93. PMID 19825348 (https://w
ww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19825348). doi:10.1016/j.cub.2009.08.049 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2009.08.04
9).
5. Nyffeler, Martin; Birkhofer, Klaus (14 March 2017). "An estimated 400–800 million tons of prey are annually killed by
the global spider community" (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00114-017-1440-1). The Science of Nature.
104 (30). doi:10.1007/s00114-017-1440-1 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00114-017-1440-1). Retrieved 16 March
2017.
6. Ruppert, 554–55
7. Ruppert, 518–22
8. Ruppert, 571–84
9. Ruppert, 559–64
10. Ruppert, 565–69
11. Ruppert, 527–28
12. Coddington, J. A. & Levi, H. W. (1991). "Systematics and Evolution of Spiders (Araneae)". Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 22:
565–92. doi:10.1146/annurev.es.22.110191.003025 (https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.es.22.110191.003025).
13. Barghusen, L. E.; Claussen, D. L.; Anderson, M. S.; Bailer, A. J. (1 February 1997). "The effects of temperature on
the web-building behaviour of the common house spider, Achaearanea tepidariorum". Functional Ecology. 11 (1): 4–
10. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2435.1997.00040.x (https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1365-2435.1997.00040.x).
14. Spiders-Arañas – Dr. Sam Thelin (http://drsamchapala.com/wp/?page_id=27)
15. Ruppert, 529–30
16. Ruppert, 531–32
17. Harland, D. P. & Jackson, R. R. (2000). " "Eight-legged cats" and how they see – a review of recent research on
jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae)" (http://www.cogs.susx.ac.uk/ccnr/Papers/Downloads/Harland_Cimb2000.pdf)
(PDF). Cimbebasia. 16: 231–40. Retrieved 2008-10-11.
18. Wilcox, R. Stimson; Jackson, Robert R. (1998). "Cognitive Abilities of Araneophagic Jumping Spiders" (https://books.
google.com/books?id=504iRS01AK0C&pg=PA411&dq=%22portia+fimbriata%22+%22sri+lanka%22+#v=onepage&q
=%22portia%20fimbriata%22%20%22sri%20lanka%22&f=false). In Balda, Russell P.; Pepperberg, Irene M.; Kamil,
Alan C. Animal cognition in nature: the convergence of psychology and biology in laboratory and field. Academic
Press. ISBN 978-0-12-077030-4. Retrieved 2016-05-08.
19. Ruppert, 532–37
20. Ruppert, 578–80
21. A Spider’s World: Senses and Behavior (https://books.google.com/books?id=KiD4CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA133&dq=%22A
nother+difference;+the+principal+eyes+are+everted+eyes%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjG8uu4r6fSAhVhMJoKH
ZU2C-QQ6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=%22Another%20difference%3B%20the%20principal%20eyes%20are%20evert
ed%20eyes%22&f=false)
22. Deeleman-Reinhold (2001), p. 27.
23. http://news.discovery.com/animals/spider-detect-movement-senses-111025.htm
24. Barnes, R. S. K., Calow, P., Olive, P., Golding, D., and Spicer, J. (2001). "Invertebrates with Legs: the Arthropods and
Similar Groups". The Invertebrates: A Synthesis (https://books.google.com/books?id=TBMsbe9efPgC&pg=PA168).
Blackwell Publishing. p. 168. ISBN 0-632-04761-5.

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25. Weihmann, Tom; Günther, Michael; Blickhan, Reinhard (2012-02-15). "Hydraulic Leg Extension Is Not Necessarily the
Main Drive in Large Spiders" (http://jeb.biologists.org/content/215/4/578). The Journal of Experimental Biology. 215
(4): 578–83. ISSN 0022-0949 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0022-0949). doi:10.1242/jeb.054585 (https://doi.org/10.1
242%2Fjeb.054585). Retrieved 2012-05-21.
26. Parry, D. A. & Brown, R. H. J. (1959). "The Hydraulic Mechanism of the Spider Leg" (http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/reprin
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Bibliography
Deeleman-Reinhold, Christa L. (2001). Forest Spiders of South East Asia: With a Revision of the Sac and Ground
Spiders. Brill Publishers. ISBN 9004119590.
Ruppert, E.E.; Fox, R.S.; Barnes, R.D. (2004). Invertebrate Zoology (7th ed.). Brooks / Cole. ISBN 0-03-025982-7.

Further reading
Bilger, Burkhard (5 March 2007). "Spider Woman" (http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/03/05/070305fa_fact_bil
ger). The New Yorker. A Reporter at Large (column): 66–73.
Bristowe, W. S. (1976). The World of Spiders. Taplinger Publishing Company. ISBN 0-8008-8598-8.
OCLC 256272177 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/256272177).
Crompton, John (1950). The Life of the Spider. New York: Mentor. OCLC 1979220 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/197
9220).
Hillyard, Paul (1994). The Book of the Spider: From Arachnophobia to the Love of Spiders. New York: Random
House. ISBN 0-679-40881-9. OCLC 35231232 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/35231232).
Kaston, B.J.; Kaston, Elizabeth (1953). How to Know the Spiders; Pictured-Keys for Determining the More Common
Spiders, with Suggestions for Collecting and Studying Them (1st ed.). Dubuque, Iowa: W. C. Brown Company.
OCLC 628203833 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/628203833).
Main, Barbara York (1975). Spiders. Sydney: Collins. ISBN 0-00-211443-7. OCLC 123151744 (https://www.worldcat.o
rg/oclc/123151744).
Wise, David A. (1993). Spiders in Ecological Webs. Cambridge studies in ecology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0-521-32547-1. OCLC 25833874 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/25833874).

External links
Spiders (https://dmoztools.net/Science/Biology/Flora_and_Fauna/Animalia/Arthropoda/Arachnida/Araneae) at DMOZ
Picture story about the jumping spider Aelurillus v-insignitus (http://www.naturbildarchiv-guenter.de/index.php?id=234
3&L=1)
New Mexico State University "The Spiders of the Arid Southwest" (http://aces.nmsu.edu/academics/spiders/)
Online Videos of Jumping Spiders (Salticids) and other arachnids (http://www.rkwalton.com/jump.html)
list of field guides to spiders (http://media.library.uiuc.edu/cgi/b/bib/bix-idx?type=simple&c=bix&sid=54d8a20e4f1eb5f
2de074bad4caba7ae&Submit=search&sort=title&q1=spiders&rgn1=Entire+record), from the International Field
Guides database
Spider hunts (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=78mYtPHRqpk) on YouTube

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