FACULTY OF SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTING
2024/2025 ACADEMIC SESSION
FIRST SEMESTER LECTURE MATERIAL
COURSE CODE: CSC 112 CREDIT UNIT: 2 UNITS
COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
DURATION: 2 HOURS CLASS CODE: gkjpo6z LECTURE MATERIAL – WEEK 7

Data Communication
 Transferring data over a transmission medium between two or more devices, systems, or
places is known as data communication.
 computing and telecommunications depend heavily on this data transmission, which
makes a variety of applications conceivable, including email, video chatting, the Internet,
and many more things.

Components of Data Communication

A communication system is made up of the following components:

1. Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be transmitted from one person

to another. It could be a text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.

1. Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It can be a computer, mobile,
telephone, laptop, video camera, or workstation, etc.

1. Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be a computer, telephone mobile,

workstation, etc.

1. Transmission Medium / Communication Channels: Communication channels are the

medium that connect two or more workstations. Workstations can be connected by either
wired media or wireless media.

1. Set of rules (Protocol): When someone sends the data (The sender), it should be
understandable to the receiver also otherwise it is meaningless. For example, Sonali sends
a message to Chetan. If Sonali writes in Hindi and Chetan cannot understand Hindi, it is a
meaningless conversation.
Therefore, there are some set of rules (protocols) that is followed by every computer connected
to the internet and they are:

 TCP(Transmission Control Protocol): It is responsible for dividing messages into

packets on the source computer and reassembling the received packet at the destination or
recipient computer. It also makes sure that the packets have the information about the
source of the message data, the destination of the message data, the sequence in which
the message data should be re-assembled, and checks if the message has been sent
correctly to the specific destination.

 IP(Internet Protocol): Do You ever wonder how computer determines which packet
belongs to which device. What happens if the message you sent to your friend is received
by your father? Scary Right. Well! IP is responsible for handling the address of the
destination computer so that each packet is sent to its proper destination.

Type of data communication

As we know that data communication is communication in which we can send or receive data
from one device to another. The data communication is divided into three types:

1. Simplex Communication: It is one-way communication or we can say that

unidirectional communication in which one device only receives and another device only
sends data and devices uses their entire capacity in transmission. For example, IoT,
entering data using a keyboard, listening music using a speaker, etc.

1. Half Duplex communication: It is a two-way communication, or we can say that it is a

bidirectional communication in which both the devices can send and receive data but not
at the same time. When one device is sending data then another device is only receiving
and vice-versa. For example, walkie-talkie.
 1. Full-duplex communication: It is a two-way communication or we can say that it is a
bidirectional communication in which both the devices can send and receive data at the
same time. For example, mobile phones, landlines, etc.

Communication Channels
Communication channels are the medium that connects two or more workstations. Workstations
can be connected by either wired media or wireless media. It is also known as a transmission
medium. The transmission medium or channel is a link that carries messages between two or
more devices. We can group the communication media into two categories:

 Guided media transmission

 Unguided media transmission

1. Guided Media: In this transmission medium, the physical link is created using wires or
cables between two or more computers or devices, and then the data is transmitted using these
cables in terms of signals. Guided media transmission of the following types:

1. Twisted pair cable: It is the most common form of wire used in communication. In a twisted-
pair cable, two identical wires are wrapped together in a double helix. The twisting of the wire
reduces the crosstalk. It is known as the leaking of a signal from one wire to another due to
which signal can corrupt and can cause network errors. The twisting protects the wire from
internal crosstalk as well as external forms of signal interference. Types of Twisted Pair Cable :

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): It is used in computers and telephones widely. As the
name suggests, there is no external shielding so it does not protects from external
interference. It is cheaper than STP.

 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): It offers greater protection from crosstalk due to shield.
Due to shielding, it protects from external interference. It is heavier and costlier as
compare to UTP.

2. Coaxial Cable: It consists of a solid wire core that is surrounded by one or more foil or wire
shields. The inner core of the coaxial cable carries the signal and the outer shield provides the
ground. It is widely used for television signals and also used by large corporations in building
security systems. Data transmission of this cable is better but expensive as compared to twisted
pair.

3. Optical fibers: Optical fiber is an important technology. It transmits large amounts of data at
very high speeds due to which it is widely used in internet cables. It carries data as a light that
travels inside a thin glass fiber. The fiber optic cable is made up of three pieces:

1. Core: Core is the piece through which light travels. It is generally created using glass or
plastic.
 1. Cladding: It is the covering of the core and reflects the light back to the core.

1. Sheath: It is the protective covering that protects fiber cable from the environment.

2. Unguided Media: The unguided transmission media is a transmission mode in which the
signals are propagated from one device to another device wirelessly. Signals can wave through
the air, water, or vacuum. It is generally used to transmit signals in all directions. Unguided
Media is further divided into various parts :

1. Microwave: Microwave offers communication without the use of cables. Microwave signals
are just like radio and television signals. It is used in long-distance communication. Microwave
transmission consists of a transmitter, receiver, and atmosphere. In microwave communication,
there are parabolic antennas that are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another antenna.
The higher the tower, the greater the range.

2. Radio wave: When communication is carried out by radio frequencies, then it is termed radio
waves transmission. It offers mobility. It is consists of the transmitter and the receiver. Both use
antennas to radiate and capture the radio signal.

3. Infrared: It is short-distance communication and can pass through any object. It is generally
used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, etc.

Conclusion of Data Communication

A key component of modern technology, data transmission reduces the flow of information
between networks, systems, and devices. To guarantee that data is sent exactly, quickly, and
securely, it uses a variety of techniques and protocols.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

What is a network topology?

A network topology is the physical and logical arrangement of nodes and connections in a
network. Nodes usually include devices such as switches, routers and software with switch and
router features. Network topologies are often represented as a graph.

Network topologies describe the arrangement of networks and the relative location of traffic
flows. Administrators can use network topology diagrams to determine the best placements for
each node and the optimal path for traffic flow. With a well-defined and planned-out network
topology, an organization can more easily locate faults and fix issues, improving its data transfer
efficiency.

Network geometry can be defined as the physical topology and the logical topology. Network
topology diagrams are shown with devices depicted as network nodes and the connections
between them as lines. The type of network topology differs depending on how the network
needs to be arranged.

Why is network topology important?

Network topology plays a major role in how a network functions. Namely, the topology has a
direct effect on network functionality. Choosing the right topology can help increase
performance, as a properly chosen and maintained network topology increases energy efficiency
and data transfer rates.

A well-defined network topology makes it easier for network admins to locate faults,
troubleshoot issues and to allocate network resources. Diagrams are an important reference point
in helping to diagnose network issues, as they can represent physical and logical layouts.

What are the types of network topologies?

Network topologies are categorized as either a physical network topology or logical network
topology. The physical topology of a network is the physical layout of nodes and connections.
Connections include the lines in diagrams that connect nodes, such as Ethernet or Digital
Subscriber Line wires, fiber optics and microwaves. Logical network topologies define how a
network is set up, including which nodes connect and how, as well as the pattern of data
transfers.

There are several types of topologies. For example, physical topologies include the following:
 Bus network. In the bus network topology, every node is connected in series along a
single cable. This arrangement is found today primarily in cable broadband distribution
networks.
 Star network. In the star network topology, a central device connects to all other nodes
through a central hub. Switched local area networks based on Ethernet switches and most
wired home and office networks have a physical star topology.
 Ring network. In the ring network topology, the nodes are connected in a closed-loop
configuration. Some rings pass data in one direction only, while others are capable of
transmission in both directions. These bidirectional ring networks are more resilient than
bus networks since traffic can reach a node by moving in either direction. Metro networks
based on Synchronous Optical Network technology are the primary example of ring
networks.
 Mesh network. The mesh network topology links nodes with connections so that
multiple paths between at least some points of the network are available. A network is
considered to be fully meshed if all nodes are directly connected to all other nodes and
partially meshed if only some nodes have multiple connections to others. Meshing
multiple paths increases resiliency but also increases cost. However, more space is
needed for dedicated links.
 Tree network. The tree network topology consists of one root node, and all other nodes
are connected in a hierarchy. The topology itself is connected in a star configuration.
Many larger Ethernet switch networks, including data center networks, are configured as
trees.
 Hybrid network. The hybrid network topology is any combination of two or more
topologies. Hybrid topologies typically provide exceptional flexibility, as they can
accommodate a number of setups. For example, different departments in the same
organization may opt for personalized network topologies that are more adaptable to their
network needs.
MESH
NETWORK PROTOCOLS
Network protocols are a set of rules that are responsible for the communication of data between
various devices in the network. These protocols define guidelines and conventions for
transmitting and receiving data, ensuring efficient and reliable data communication.

What is Network Protocol?

A network protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication between different devices in
the network. It determines what is being communicated, how it is being communicated, and
when it is being communicated. It permits connected devices to communicate with each other,
irrespective of internal and structural differences.

How do Network Protocols Work?

It is essential to understand how devices communicate over a network by recognizing network
protocols. The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI), the most widely used model, illustrates how
computer systems interact with one another over a network. The communication mechanism
between two network devices is shown by seven different layers in the OSI model. Every layer in
the OSI model works based on different network protocols. At every layer, one or more protocols
are there for network communication. To enable network-to-network connections, the Internet
Protocol (IP), for instance, routes data by controlling information like the source and destination
addresses of data packets. It is known as a network layer protocol.

Types of Network Protocols

In most cases, communication across a network like the Internet uses the OSI model. The OSI
model has a total of seven layers. Secured connections, network management, and network
communication are the three main tasks that the network protocol performs. The purpose of
protocols is to link different devices.

The protocols can be broadly classified into three major categories:

 Network Communication

 Network Management

 Network Security

1. Network Communication
Communication protocols are really important for the functioning of a network. They are so
crucial that it is not possible to have computer networks without them. These protocols formally
set out the rules and formats through which data is transferred. These protocols handle syntax,
semantics, error detection, synchronization, and authentication. Below mentioned are some
network communication protocol:

Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTP)

It is a layer 7 protocol that is designed for transferring a hypertext between two or more systems.
HTTP works on a client-server model, most of the data sharing over the web is done through
using HTTP.

Transmission Control Protocol(TCP)

TCP layouts a reliable stream delivery by using sequenced acknowledgment. It is a connection-

oriented protocol i.e., it establishes a connection between applications before sending any data. It
is used for communicating over a network. It has many applications such as emails, FTP,
streaming media, etc.

User Datagram Protocol(UDP)

It is a connectionless protocol that lay-out a basic but unreliable message service. It adds no flow
control, reliability, or error-recovery functions. UPD is functional in cases where reliability is not
required. It is used when we want faster transmission, for multicasting and broadcasting
connections, etc.

Border Gateway Protocol(BGP)

BGP is a routing protocol that controls how packets pass through the router in an independent
system one or more networks run by a single organization and connect to different networks. It
connects the endpoints of a LAN with other LANs and it also connects endpoints in different
LANs to one another.

Address Resolution Protocol(ARP)

ARP is a protocol that helps in mapping logical addresses to the physical addresses
acknowledged in a local network. For mapping and maintaining a correlation between these
logical and physical addresses a table known as ARP cache is used.

Internet Protocol(IP)

It is a protocol through which data is sent from one host to another over the internet. It is used for
addressing and routing data packets so that they can reach their destination.

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol(DHCP)

it’s a protocol for network management and it’s used for the method of automating the process of
configuring devices on IP networks. A DHCP server automatically assigns an IP address and
various other configurational changes to devices on a network so they can communicate with
other IP networks. it also allows devices to use various services such as NTP, DNS, or any other
protocol based on TCP or UDP.

2. Network Management
These protocols assist in describing the procedures and policies that are used in monitoring,
maintaining, and managing the computer network. These protocols also help in communicating
these requirements across the network to ensure stable communication. Network management
protocols can also be used for troubleshooting connections between a host and a client.

Internet Control Message Protocol(ICMP)

It is a layer 3 protocol that is used by network devices to forward operational information and
error messages. ICMP is used for reporting congestions, network errors, diagnostic purposes, and
timeouts.

Simple Network Management Protocol(SNMP)

It is a layer 7 protocol that is used for managing nodes on an IP network. There are three main
components in the SNMP protocol i.e., SNMP agent, SNMP manager, and managed device.
SNMP agent has the local knowledge of management details, it translates those details into a
form that is compatible with the SNMP manager. The manager presents data acquired from
SNMP agents, thus helping in monitoring network glitches, and network performance, and
troubleshooting them.

Gopher

It is a type of file retrieval protocol that provides downloadable files with some description for
easy management, retrieving, and searching of files. All the files are arranged on a remote
computer in a stratified manner. Gopher is an old protocol and it is not much used nowadays.

File Transfer Protocol(FTP)

FTP is a Client/server protocol that is used for moving files to or from a host computer, it allows
users to download files, programs, web pages, and other things that are available on other
services.

Post Office Protocol(POP3)

It is a protocol that a local mail client uses to get email messages from a remote email server
over a TCP/IP connection. Email servers hosted by ISPs also use the POP3 protocol to hold and
receive emails intended for their users. Eventually, these users will use email client software to
look at their mailbox on the remote server and to download their emails. After the email client
downloads the emails, they are generally deleted from the servers.
Telnet

It is a protocol that allows the user to connect to a remote computer program and to use it i.e., it
is designed for remote connectivity. Telnet creates a connection between a host machine and a
remote endpoint to enable a remote session.

3. Network Security
These protocols secure the data in passage over a network. These protocols also determine how
the network secures data from any unauthorized attempts to extract or review data. These
protocols make sure that no unauthorized devices, users, or services can access the network data.
Primarily, these protocols depend on encryption to secure data.

Secure Socket Layer(SSL)

It is a network security protocol mainly used for protecting sensitive data and securing internet
connections. SSL allows both server-to-server and client-to-server communication. All the data
transferred through SSL is encrypted thus stopping any unauthorized person from accessing it.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTPS)

It is the secured version of HTTP. this protocol ensures secure communication between two
computers where one sends the request through the browser and the other fetches the data from
the web server.

Transport Layer Security(TLS)

It is a security protocol designed for data security and privacy over the internet, its functionality
is encryption, checking the integrity of data i.e., whether it has been tampered with or not, and
authentication. It is generally used for encrypted communication between servers and web apps,
like a web browser loading a website, it can also be used for encryption of messages, emails, and
VoIP.

Some Other Protocols

Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP)

 ICMP protocol is used to retrieve message from the mail server. By using ICMP mail
user can view and manage mails on his system.

Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)

 SIP is used in video, voice, and messaging application. This protocol is used to initiating,
Managing, Terminating the session between two users while they are communicating.
Real-Time Transport Protocol (RTP)

 This protocol is used to forward audio, video over IP network. This protocol is used with
SIP protocol to send audio, video at real-time.

Rout Access Protocol (RAP)

 RAP is used in network management. It helps to user for accessing the nearest router for
communication. RAP is less efficient as compared to SNMP.

Point To Point Tunnelling Protocol (PPTP)

 It is used to implement VPN ( Virtual Private Network ). PPTP protocol append PPP
frame in IP datagram for transmission through IP based network.

Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)

 TFTP is the simplified version of FTP. TFTP is also used to transfer file over internet

Resource Location Protocol (RLP)

 RLP is used to assign the resource such as server, printer, or other devices over the
internet to the user. It is used to locate the resource to the client for broadcast query.

LOCAL AREA NETWORK

 A local area network (LAN) is a collection of devices connected in one physical location,
such as a building, office, or home.
 A LAN can be small or large, ranging from a home network with one user to an
enterprise network with thousands of users and devices in an office or school.
 Regardless of size, a LAN's single defining characteristic is that it connects devices that
are in a single, limited area. In contrast, a wide area network (WAN) or metropolitan area
network (MAN) covers larger geographic areas. Some WANs and MANs connect many
LANs together.

What's in a LAN?

A LAN comprises cables, access points, switches, routers, and other components that enable
devices to connect to internal servers, web servers, and other LANs via wide area networks.
The rise of virtualization has also fueled the development of virtual LANs, which enable network
administrators to logically group network nodes and partition their networks without a need for
major infrastructure changes.

For example, in an office with multiple departments, such as accounting, IT support, and
administration, each department's computers could be logically connected to the same switch but
segmented to behave as if they are separate.

Benefits

The advantages of a LAN are the same as those for any group of devices networked together.
The devices can use a single Internet connection, share files with one another, print to shared
printers, and be accessed and even controlled by one another.

LANs were developed in the 1960s for use by colleges, universities, and research facilities (such
as NASA), primarily to connect computers to other computers. It wasn't until the development of
Ethernet technology (1973, at Xerox PARC), its commercialization (1980), and its
standardization (1983) that LANs started to be used widely.

While the benefits of having devices connected to a network have always been well understood,
it wasn't until the wide deployment of Wi-Fi technology that LANs became commonplace in
nearly every type of environment. Today, not only do businesses and schools use LANs, but also
restaurants, coffee shops, stores, and homes.

Wireless connectivity has also greatly expanded the types of devices that can be connected to a
LAN. Now, nearly everything imaginable can be "connected," from PCs, printers, and phones to
smart TVs, stereos, speakers, lighting, thermostats, window shades, door locks, security cameras-
-and even coffeemakers, refrigerators, and toys.

The benefits of using LAN

LANs enable devices to connect, transmit and receive information between them. The benefits of
LAN technologies include the following:

 Centralized access to resources. A LAN enables access to centralized applications

residing on servers, as well as resource sharing, including software and printers. For
example, an organization can incorporate a single licensed program to be used by any
device on the same LAN to save costs and provide easy accessibility.
 Efficient communication. A LAN provides effective communication between devices,
enabling users to send and receive messages and data easily. Additionally, data stored on
the server can be accessed by LAN users at any time, encouraging seamless
collaboration.
 Shared internet connection. A LAN enables multiple devices on a LAN to share a
single internet connection.
 Data protection. It's easy to configure security protocols and tools to prevent LAN users
from unwanted access, resulting in a secure networking system. Furthermore, LAN
 enables easy control and maintenance of the entire network, ensuring a safe and
controlled environment for data sharing and communication.
 Fast communication. A LAN provides a high data transfer rate. For example, Fast
Ethernet offers a speed of 100 megabits per second, whereas Gigabit Ethernet often
reaches a speed of 1,000 Mbps.

Types of LANs

Types of LAN
LANs can come with various underlying architectures, each with its own characteristics and
capabilities. Common LAN architecture types include the following.

Peer-to-peer

A peer-to-peer LAN directly connects two devices -- generally, workstations or PCs -- together
using an Ethernet cable. There's generally no hierarchy between the devices.

Client-server

A client-server LAN consists of multiple endpoints and servers that are connected to a LAN
switch. The switch directs communication streams between the multiple connected devices.

Ethernet

Ethernet is the most widely used LAN architecture. It specifies the network speed, MAC
mechanism, cable types and network interface adapters utilized on the network. It is widely used
in both wired and wireless networks.

Token ring

Token ring is a LAN architecture that has traditionally been utilized, but it's less prevalent now. It
uses tokens to control network access and operates at a speed of 100 Mbps.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a switching network architecture that uses 53-octet cells
to transport data. It can be used in LANs and has been recognized for its capacity to handle
multimedia traffic. ATM LAN emulation enables the development of VLANs over an ATM
backbone.
In general, there are two types of LANs: client/server LANs and peer-to-peer LANs.

A client/server LAN consists of several devices (the clients) connected to a central server. The
server manages file storage, application access, device access, and network traffic. A client can
be any connected device that runs or accesses applications or the Internet. The clients connect to
the server either with cables or through wireless connections.

Typically, suites of applications can be kept on the LAN server. Users can access databases,
email, document sharing, printing, and other services through applications running on the LAN
server, with read and write access maintained by a network or IT administrator. Most midsize to
large business, government, research, and education networks are client/server-based LANs.

A peer-to-peer LAN doesn't have a central server and cannot handle heavy workloads like a
client/server LAN can, and so they're typically smaller. On a peer-to-peer LAN, each device
shares equally in the functioning of the network. The devices share resources and data through
wired or wireless connections to a switch or router. Most home networks are peer-to-peer.