Course Material

Ordinary Differential Equations

Differential Equation:

A differential equation is an equation involving differential or differential coefficients.

Ordinary differential equations: Differential equations which involve only one independent variable
and differential co-efficients w.r.t it are called Ordinary differential equations.

Partial differential equations: Differential equations which involve two or more independent variable
and partial derivatives w.r.t it are called Partial differential equations.

Exact Differential Equation: A differential equation is called exact differential equation if it is obtained
only by differentiation of its primitive without applying any other operation like addition, subtraction,
elimination etc.
e.g. 𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦𝑑𝑥 = 0

Necessary and Sufficient condition for differential eq. to be exact:

The necessary and sufficient condition for differential eq.
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Mdx+Ndy =0 to be exact is 𝜕𝑦 = 𝜕𝑥 .
Solution of Exact Differential equation:

∫ 𝑀 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐

𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

Integrating Factor: A suitable factor by multiplying with which, the given equation becomes exact is
called integrating factor.
Rules to find Integrating Factor:
1. By Inspection:
i. 𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑(𝑥𝑦)
𝑦𝑑𝑥−𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑥
ii. 𝑦2
= 𝑑 (𝑦)
𝑦𝑑𝑥−𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑥
iii. x2 +𝑦 2
= 𝑑 (tan−1 𝑦)
𝑦𝑑𝑥−𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑥
iv. x2 +𝑦 2
= 𝑑 (log 𝑦)
𝑦𝑑𝑥−𝑥𝑑𝑦
v. xy
= 𝑑(log xy)

2. If the equation Mdx+Ndy =0 is homogenous, then

1
Integrating factor = 𝑀𝑥+𝑁𝑦 , provided 𝑀𝑥 + 𝑁𝑦
3. If the equation Mdx+Ndy =0 is of the form 𝑓(𝑥𝑦)𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑔(𝑥𝑦)𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0, then
1
Integrating factor = 𝑀𝑥−𝑁𝑦 , provided 𝑀𝑥 − 𝑁𝑦
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
−
4. If 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝑁
= 𝑓(𝑥), a function of x only, then I. F. = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
 𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
−
5. If 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
= 𝑔(𝑦), a function of y only, then I. F. = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑔(𝑦)𝑑𝑦
𝑀
6. If equation Mdx+Ndy =0 is of the form
𝑥 𝑎 𝑦 𝑏 (𝑚𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑦) + 𝑥 𝑐 𝑦 𝑑 (𝑝𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑞𝑥𝑑𝑦) = 0,
a, b, c, d, m, n, p, q are constants, then I. F. = 𝑥 ℎ 𝑦 𝑘 , where h and k are obtained from
the equations
𝑎+ℎ+1 𝑏+𝑘+1 𝑐+ℎ+1 𝑑+𝑘+1
= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
𝑚 𝑛 𝑝 𝑞
𝒅𝒚
Equations solvable for p (𝒑 = 𝒅𝒙)

 Let the differential equation be of degree n.

 Factorize the differential equation into the linear factors of the form (𝑝 − 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦))
 Each factor is a differential equation of first order and first degree. Solve them.
 Let the solutions of these factors be
𝑔1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑐) = 0, 𝑔2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑐) = 0, 𝑔3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑐) = 0, … … … … … , 𝑔𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑐) = 0
 Then solution of given equation is given by
𝑔1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑐)𝑔2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑐)𝑔3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑐) … … … … … 𝑔𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑐) = 0

Equations solvable for y

 Write the differential equation in the form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑝) … … … … … (1)

𝑑𝑝
 Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get 𝑝 = 𝐹 (𝑥, 𝑝, 𝑑𝑥 ) … … … … … (2)
𝑑𝑝
 (2) is a differential equation of first order and first degree in 𝑑𝑥
. Solve it.
 Let the solution of (2) be 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑝, 𝑐) = 0 … … … … … (3)
 To obtain the solution of given equation, eliminate p from (1) and (3).
 If it is not possible to eliminate p from (1) and (3), then using (1) and (3), find the values of
y and x in terms of p and c. let these values be
𝑦 = ∅(𝑝, 𝑐) … … … … … (4) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑝) … … … … … (5)
 (4) and (5) simultaneously give solution of given equation.
Equations solvable for x

 Write the differential equation in the form 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦, 𝑝) … … … … … (1)

1 𝑑𝑝
 Differentiating both sides w.r.t. y, we get = 𝐹 (𝑦, 𝑝, ) … … … … … (2)
𝑝 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑝
 (2) is a differential equation of first order and first degree in . Solve it.
𝑑𝑦
 Let the solution of (2) be 𝑔(𝑦, 𝑝, 𝑐) = 0 … … … … … (3)
 To obtain the solution of given equation, eliminate p from (1) and (3).
 If it is not possible to eliminate p from (1) and (3), then using (1) and (3), find the values of
y and x in terms of p and c. let these values be
𝑦 = ∅(𝑝, 𝑐) … … … … … (4) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑝) … … … … … (5)
 (4) and (5) simultaneously give solution of given equation.
 Clairaut’s Equation: An equation of the form 𝑦 = 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑓(𝑝) is called Clairaut’s equation. Its
solution is given by replacing p by c in the given equation.
Equations reducible to Clairaut’s equation:
i. If the equation contains terms of the type 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒 𝑏𝑦 ,
Put 𝑒 ℎ𝑥 = 𝑋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒 ℎ𝑦 = 𝑌, where ℎ = 𝐻. 𝐶. 𝐹. (𝑎, 𝑏).
𝑝𝑦 𝑝𝑦
ii. If the equation is of the form 𝑦 = ( 𝑥 ) 𝑥 2 + 𝑓 ( 𝑥 )
Put 𝑥 2 = 𝑋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 2 = 𝑌.

Formation of a differential equation:-

Q.1 Eliminate the constants from the equation

y  e x ( A cos x  B sin x) and obtain the differential equation.

Sol. y  e x ( A cos x  B sin x ) …………….(1)

Diff.equation (1) w.r.t x

dy
 e x ( A cos x  B sin x)  e x ( A sin x  B cos x) ………………(2)
dx

Again diff.equation (2) w.r.t x

d2y
2
 e x ( A cos x  B sin x)  e x ( A sin x  B cos x)  e x ( A sin x  B cos x)  e x ( A cos x  B sin x)
dx
d 2 y dy
  e x ( A sin x  B cos x)  e x ( A cos x  B sin x) ( fromequation(2))
dx 2 dx

d 2 y dy dy
2
  (  y)  y
dx dx dx

d2y dy
2
2  2y  0
dx dx

Assignment:

Eliminate the arbitrary constants and the differential equations:-

(1) y  cx  c
2

x
(2) y  Ae  Be C
x

x
(3) xy  Ae  Be  x2
x

(4) Find the differential equation of all parabolas whose axes are parallel to y-axis.
(5) Form the differential equation of all circles of radius a.

Solution of differential equations of the first order and first degree:-

1 Variables Separable Form

2 Homogeneous equation
3 Equations Reducible to Homogeneous form
4 Exact differential equation

Variables Separable Form:-

If a differential equation of the first order and first degree
dy f ( x)

dx g ( y )

g ( y )dy  f ( x)dx

 f ( x)dx   g ( y)dy
dy
Q2. Solve x cos x cos y  sin y 0
dx
dy
Sol. x cos x cos y  sin y 0
dx
dy
x cos x cos y   sin y
dx

dy
x cos x   tan y
dx

x cos xdx   tan ydy

 x cos x dx    tan ydy

1 11

x sin x   1. sin xdx  log cos y

x sin x  cos x  log cos y  c

Assignment:-

Solve the following differential equations:-

 dy
(1)  1  x  y  xy
dx
dy
( 2) ( x  y  1) 2 1
dx
dy
(3) xy  1  x  y  xy
dx
( 4) sec 2 x tan ydx  sec 2 y tan xdy  0
dy
(5)  cos( x  y )
dx

Homogeneous equation:-
If a differential equation of the first order and first degree

dy y
 f( ) …………….(1)
dx x

Putting y =vx

dy dv
vx
dx dx

From equation(1)
dv vx
vx  f( )
dx x
dv
vx  f (v )
dx
dv
f (v )  v  x
dx
dv dx

( f (v )  v ) x
dv dx
 ( f (v )  v )   x  C
Q.3 Solve xdy  ydx  x 2  y 2 dx

dy y  x  y
2 2
Sol.  ……………(1)
dx x

Putting y =vx
dy dv
vx
dx dx

From equation(1)
dv vx  x 2  v 2 x 2
vx 
dx x
dv
vx  v  1 v2
dx
dv
x  1 v2
dx
dv dx

1 v2 x
dv dx
 1 v2

x
log( v  1  v 2 )  log( x)  log c
v  1  v 2  cx
y  x 2  y 2  cx 2
Assignment:-

Solve the following differential equations:-

y y y
(1) ( x tan  y sec 2 )dx  x sec 2 dy  0
x x x
(2) ( x  y )dx  ( x  y )dy  0
dy y y
(3)   sin
dx x x
x x
x
(4) (1  e )dx  e (1  )dy  0
y y

y
x x

(5) ye dx  ( xe  y )dy
y y

Equations Reducible to Homogeneous form:-

dy ax  by  c
A differential equation of the form  ' can be reduced to homogeneous form
dx a x  b ' y  c '

a b
When '
 '
a b

Putting x=X+h ,y=Y+k

 dx=dX,dy=dY

dY a( X  h)  b(Y  k )  c
 '
dX a ( X  h)  b ' (Y  k )  c '
dY aX  bY  ah  bk  c
 ' ………….(1)
dX a X  b 'Y  a ' h  b ' k  c '

ah  bk  c  0
a 'h  b'k  c'  0
h k 1
 '  '
bc  b c ca  c a ab  a ' b
' ' '

bc '  b ' c ca '  c ' a

h ' , k 
ab  a ' b ab '  a ' b

From equation (1)

dY aX  bY
 ' which is hom ogenous in X , Y and can be solved by
dX a X  b 'Y

putting Y  vX

State and Prove Necessary and sufficient condition for differential eq. Mdx+Ndy =0 to be exact.

Sol.Statement: The necessary and sufficient condition for differential eq.

𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Mdx+Ndy =0 to be exact is 𝜕𝑦 = 𝜕𝑥 .
Proof: The equation M dx + N dy = 0 will be exact if
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
But 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑢
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
∴ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Equating coefficients of dx and dy, we get
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝑀 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕𝑁 𝜕2𝑢
𝑀= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁 = → = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦
𝜕2𝑢 𝜕 2 𝑢 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
𝐵𝑢𝑡 = → =
𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
 Solve (5x4+3x2y2-2xy3)dx+(2x3y-3x2y2-5y4)dy=0
Sol. Here M=(5x4+3x2y2-2xy3) and N=2x3y-3x2y2-5y4)
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
𝜕𝑦
= 6𝑥 2 𝑦 − 6𝑥𝑦 2 and 𝜕𝑥 = 6𝑥 2 𝑦 − 6𝑥𝑦 2
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Therefore 𝜕𝑦
= 𝜕𝑥
Hence equation is exact.
Solution is given by ∫ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
→ ∫(5𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 3 )𝑑𝑥 + ∫(−5𝑦 4 )𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐 → 𝑥5 + 𝑥3𝑦2 − 𝑥2𝑦3 − 𝑦5 = 𝑐
 Check whether the given equation (1 + x 2 )dy + 2xydx = 0 is exact and obtain the general
solution .
Sol.Here M=2xy and N=(1 + 𝑥 2 )
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
𝜕𝑦
= 2𝑥 and 𝜕𝑥 = 2𝑥
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Therefore = Hence equation is exact.
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Solution is given by ∫ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
→ ∫ 2xy𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 1. 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐 → 𝑥2y + y = 𝑐
 Find the value of a so that the differential equation 𝑥𝑦 3 dx + a𝑥 2 𝑦 2 dy = 0 is exact.
Sol.Here M= 𝑥𝑦 3 and N=a𝑥 2 𝑦 2
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
𝜕𝑦
= 3𝑥𝑦 2 and 𝜕𝑥 = 2𝑎𝑥𝑦 2
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁 yields yields 3
Hence equation is exact if 𝜕𝑦
= 𝜕𝑥
→ 3𝑥𝑦 2 = 2𝑎𝑥𝑦 2 → a=2

 Solve ex(cos y dx-sin y dy)=0 ; y(0)=0

Sol. Here 𝑀 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦and 𝑁 = −𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
= −𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦 and = −𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Therefore 𝜕𝑦
= 𝜕𝑥
Hence equation is exact.
Solution is given by ∫ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
→ ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + ∫(0)𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐 → 𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦 = 𝑐

 Solve (x2-ay)dx=(ax-y2)dy
Sol. Here 𝑀 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑎𝑦 and 𝑁 = 𝑦 2 − 𝑎𝑥
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
𝜕𝑦
= −𝑎 and 𝜕𝑥 = −𝑎
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Therefore = Hence equation is exact.
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Solution is given by ∫ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑥 3 𝑦3
→ ∫(𝑥 2 − 𝑎𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + ∫(𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐 → − 𝑎𝑥𝑦 + =𝑐
3 3

 Solve (sec x tan x tan y-ex)dx+sec x sec2ydy=0

Sol. Here 𝑀 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑥 and 𝑁 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑦
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
𝜕𝑦
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑦 and 𝜕𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑦
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Therefore 𝜕𝑦
= 𝜕𝑥
Hence equation is exact.
Solution is given by ∫ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
→ ∫(𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + ∫(0)𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐 → 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑐

 Solve (x2-4xy-2y2)dx+(y2-4xy-2x2)dy=0
Sol. Here 𝑀 = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑦 2 and 𝑁 = 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑥 2
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
𝜕𝑦
= −4𝑥 − 4𝑦 and 𝜕𝑥 = −4𝑦 − 4𝑥
 𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Therefore 𝜕𝑦
= 𝜕𝑥
Hence equation is exact.
Solution is given by ∫ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑥 3 𝑦3
→ ∫(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + ∫(𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐 → − 2𝑥 2 𝑦 − 2𝑦 2 𝑥 + =𝑐
3 3
 Solve (3x2+6xy2)dx+(6x2y+4y3)dy=0
Sol. Here 𝑀 = 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥𝑦 2 and 𝑁 = 6𝑥 2 𝑦 + 4𝑦 3
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
𝜕𝑦
= 12𝑥𝑦 and 𝜕𝑥 = 12𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Therefore 𝜕𝑦
= 𝜕𝑥
Hence equation is exact.
Solution is given by ∫ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
→ ∫(3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + ∫(4𝑦 3 )𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐 → 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 𝑦 4 = 𝑐

 Solve (x2+y2 –a2 )x dx+(x2-y2 –b2)y dy=0

Sol. Here 𝑀 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 2 𝑥 − 𝑥𝑎2 and 𝑁 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 − 𝑦 𝑏 2
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
𝜕𝑦
= 2𝑥𝑦 and 𝜕𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Therefore 𝜕𝑦
= 𝜕𝑥
Hence equation is exact.
Solution is given by ∫ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑥 4 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑎2 𝑥 2 𝑦 4 𝑦 2 𝑏 2
→ ∫(𝑥 3 + 𝑦 2 𝑥 − 𝑥𝑎2 )𝑑𝑥 + ∫(−𝑦 3 − 𝑦 𝑏 2 )𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐 → + − − −
4 2 2 4 2
=𝑐
 xdy  ydx 
 Solve xdy+ydx+  2 
0
 x y 
2

𝑦 𝑥
Sol. Here 𝑀 = 𝑦 − and 𝑁=𝑥+
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
𝜕𝑀 𝑦 2 −𝑥 2 𝜕𝑁 𝑦 2 −𝑥 2
𝜕𝑦
= 1 + (𝑥 2 +𝑦2 )2and 𝜕𝑥
=1 + (𝑥 2 +𝑦2 )2
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Therefore 𝜕𝑦
= 𝜕𝑥
Hence equation is exact.
Solution is given by ∫ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑥
→ ∫ (𝑦 − 2 2
) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫(0)𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐 → 𝑦𝑥 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑐
𝑥 +𝑦 𝑦

x3
 Solve ydx-xdy+3x2y2 e dx =0

𝑦𝑑𝑥−𝑥𝑑𝑦 3 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑥 3
Sol. Dividing both sides by 𝑦 2 , we get 𝑦2
+ 3𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0 → 𝑑 (𝑦) + 𝑑(𝑒 𝑥 ) = 0
𝑥 𝑥3
Integrating both sides, we get 𝑦
+𝑒 =𝑐

 Solve (x2y-2xy2)dx-(x3-3x2y)dy=0
Sol. Here 𝑀 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 2 and 𝑁 = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑥 3
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
𝜕𝑦
= 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑦 and 𝜕𝑥
= 6𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑥 2
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Therefore ≠ Hence equation is not exact.
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
1 1 1
Since the given equation is homogenous, so I.F. = 𝑀𝑥+𝑁𝑦 = 𝑥 3 𝑦−2𝑥2 𝑦2 +3𝑥2 𝑦2 −𝑥3 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 𝑦2
 1 1 2 𝑥 3
Multiplying the given equation by , we get ( − ) 𝑑𝑥 − ( − ) 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑥 2𝑦2 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦2 𝑦
1 2 𝑥 3
Now 𝑀 = (𝑦 − 𝑥)and 𝑁= − (𝑦2 − 𝑦)
𝜕𝑀 −1 𝜕𝑁 −1
𝜕𝑦
=
𝑦2
and 𝜕𝑥
= 𝑦2
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Therefore 𝜕𝑦 = 𝜕𝑥 Hence equation is exact.
Solution is given by ∫ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 1 2 3 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑥
→ ∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐 → − 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 + 3 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦= 𝑐
𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 𝑦
 Solve xdy-ydx=(x2+y2)dx

𝑥𝑑𝑦−𝑦𝑑𝑥 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦

Sol. Dividing both sides by x2+y2, we get = 𝑑𝑥 → 𝑑 (𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ) = 𝑑𝑥 → 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 −
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 𝑥 𝑥
𝑥=𝑐

 Solve xdy-ydx=xy2 dx

𝑥𝑑𝑦−𝑦𝑑𝑥 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 −𝑥 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 −𝑥 𝑥2

Sol. Dividing both sides by 𝑦 2 , we get = 𝑥𝑑𝑥 → 𝑑 ( ) = 𝑥𝑑𝑥 → = +𝑐
𝑦2 𝑦 𝑦 2
 Solve (1+xy)ydx+(1-xy)xdy=0

Sol. Here 𝑀 = 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 2 and 𝑁 = 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑦

𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
= 1 + 2𝑥𝑦 and = 1 − 2𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Therefore 𝜕𝑦
≠ 𝜕𝑥
Hence equation is not exact.
1 1
Since the given equation is of the form (𝑥𝑦)𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑔(𝑥𝑦)𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0 , I.F. = 𝑀𝑥−𝑁𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 𝑦2

1 1 1 1 1
Multiplying the given equation by2𝑥2 𝑦2 , we get (2𝑥 2 𝑦 + 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + (2𝑥𝑦2 − 2𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 = 0
1 1 1 1
Now 𝑀 = (2𝑥 2 𝑦 + 2𝑥)and 𝑁 = (2𝑥𝑦2 − 2𝑦)
𝜕𝑀 −1 𝜕𝑁 −1
= and =
𝜕𝑦 2𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 2𝑥 2 𝑦 2
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Therefore 𝜕𝑦 = 𝜕𝑥 Hence equation is exact.
Solution is given by ∫ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 1 1 1 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 −1 1 1
→ ∫ ( 2 + ) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (− ) 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐 → + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦= 𝑐
2𝑥 𝑦 2𝑥 2𝑦 2𝑥𝑦 2 2

 Solve x2ydx-(x3+y3)dy=0
Sol. Here 𝑀 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 and 𝑁 = −𝑥 3 − 𝑦 3
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
= 𝑥 2 and = −3𝑥 2
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Therefore 𝜕𝑦
≠ 𝜕𝑥 Hence equation is not exact.
1 1 −1
Since the given equation is homogenous, so I.F. = 𝑀𝑥+𝑁𝑦 = 𝑥 3 𝑦−𝑥3 𝑦−𝑦4 = 𝑦4
−1 −𝑥 2 𝑥3 1
Multiplying the given equation by 𝑦4 , we get ( 𝑦3 ) 𝑑𝑥 + (𝑦4 + 𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 = 0
−𝑥 2 𝑥3 1
Now 𝑀 = ( 𝑦3 )and 𝑁 = (𝑦4 + 𝑦)
 𝜕𝑀 3𝑥 2 𝜕𝑁 3𝑥 2
𝜕𝑦
=
𝑦4
and 𝜕𝑥
= 𝑦4
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Therefore 𝜕𝑦 = 𝜕𝑥 Hence equation is exact.
Solution is given by ∫ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 −𝑥 2 1 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑥 3
→ ∫ ( 3 ) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐 → + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦= 𝑐
𝑦 𝑦 3𝑦 3
 Solve (2x2y-3y4)dx+(3x3+2xy3)dy=0

Sol.Here 𝑀 = 2𝑥 2 𝑦 − 3𝑦 4 and 𝑁 = 3𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑦 3

𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
𝜕𝑦
= 2𝑥 2 − 12𝑦 3 and 𝜕𝑥
= 9𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 3
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Therefore 𝜕𝑦
≠ 𝜕𝑥
Hence equation is not exact.
Now equation is of the form
𝑥 𝑎 𝑦 𝑏 (𝑚𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑦) + 𝑥 𝑐 𝑦 𝑑 (𝑝𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑞𝑥𝑑𝑦) = 0 ,
−28 −49
∴ I. F. = 𝑥 𝑎 𝑦 𝑏 = 𝑥 13 𝑦 13
−49 −28
Multiplying the given equation by 𝑥 13 𝑦 13 , we get
−23 −15 −49 24 −10 −28 −36 −11
(2𝑥 13 𝑦 13 − 3𝑥 13 𝑦 13 ) 𝑑𝑥 + (3𝑥 13 𝑦 13 + 2𝑥 13 𝑦 13 ) 𝑑𝑦 = 0
−23 −15 −49 24
Now 𝑀 = (2𝑥 13 𝑦 13 − 3𝑥 13 𝑦 13 )
−10 −28 −36 11
and 𝑁 = (3𝑥 13 𝑦 13 + 2𝑥 13 𝑦 13 )
𝜕𝑀 −30 −23 −28 72 −49 11 𝜕𝑁 −30 −23 −28 72 −49 11

𝜕𝑦
=13
𝑥 13 𝑦 13 −
13
𝑥 13 𝑦 13 and
𝜕𝑥
= 13
𝑥 13 𝑦 13 − 13 𝑥 13 𝑦 13
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Therefore = Hence equation is exact.
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Solution is given by ∫ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 −23 −15 −49 24 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 −13 −10 −15 13 −36 24
→ ∫ (2𝑥 13 𝑦 13 − 3𝑥 13 𝑦 13 ) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 0𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐 → 𝑥 13 𝑦 13 + 𝑥 13 𝑦 13 = 𝑐
5 12
2 3 𝑦 3 2 )𝑑𝑥 3 3 𝑦
 Solve (3𝑥 𝑦 𝑒 +𝑦 +𝑦 + (𝑥 𝑦 𝑒 − 𝑥𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0
Sol.Here 𝑀 = (3𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑒 𝑦 + 𝑦 3 + 𝑦 2 )and 𝑁 = (𝑥 3 𝑦 3 𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦)
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
= (9𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑒 𝑦 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑒 𝑦 + 3𝑦 2 + 2𝑦)and = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Therefore 𝜕𝑦
≠ 𝜕𝑥
Hence equation is not exact.
𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
− (3𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑒 𝑦 −𝑦)−(9𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑒 𝑦 +3𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑒 𝑦 +3𝑦 2 +2𝑦) −3
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Now 𝑀
= 3𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑒 𝑦 +𝑦 3 +𝑦 2
= 𝑦
= 𝑔(𝑦), a function of y only.
−3
∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1
∴ I. F. = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑔(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 𝑒 = 𝑒 −3 ln 𝑦 = 3
𝑦
1
Multiplying the given equation by𝑦3 , we get
1 𝑥
(3𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑦 + 1 + ) 𝑑𝑥 + (𝑥 3 𝑒 𝑦 − 2 ) 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑦 𝑦
1
Now 𝑀 = (3𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑦 + 1 + 𝑦)
 𝑥
and 𝑁 = (𝑥 3 𝑒 𝑦 − )
𝑦2
𝜕𝑀 1 𝜕𝑁 1
𝜕𝑦
= (3𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑦2 )and 𝜕𝑥
= (3𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑦2 )
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Therefore 𝜕𝑦 = 𝜕𝑥 Hence equation is exact.
Solution is given by ∫ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 1 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑥
→ ∫ (3𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑦 + 1 + ) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 0𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐 → 𝑥3𝑒𝑦 + 𝑥 + = 𝑐
𝑦 𝑦

 Solve (5𝑥 3 + 12𝑥 2 + 6𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + 6𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 0

Sol.Here 𝑀 = (5𝑥 3 + 12𝑥 2 + 6𝑦 2 )and 𝑁 = 6𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
𝜕𝑦
= 12𝑦and 𝜕𝑥
= 6𝑦
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Therefore 𝜕𝑦
≠ 𝜕𝑥
Hence equation is not exact.
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
− 12𝑦−6𝑦 1
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Now = = = 𝑓(𝑥), a function of x only.
𝑁 6𝑥𝑦 𝑥
1
∴ I. F. = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 ∫𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 ln 𝑥 = 𝑥

Multiplying the given equation by𝑥, we get

(5𝑥 4 + 12𝑥 3 + 6𝑥𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + 6𝑥 2 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 0
Now 𝑀 = (5𝑥 + 12𝑥 + 6𝑥𝑦 2 )
4 3

and 𝑁 = 6𝑥 2 𝑦
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
= 12𝑥𝑦and = 12𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Therefore 𝜕𝑦
= 𝜕𝑥
Hence equation is exact.
Solution is given by ∫ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
→ ∫(5𝑥 4 + 12𝑥 3 + 6𝑥𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 0𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐 → 𝑥 5 + 3𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 2 = 𝑐

 Solve (2𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + (3𝑥 − 𝑥 3 𝑦)𝑑𝑦

Sol. Here 𝑀 = (2𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 𝑦) and 𝑁 = (3𝑥 − 𝑥 3 𝑦)
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
𝜕𝑦
= 4𝑥 2 𝑦 + 1 and 𝜕𝑥
= 3 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Therefore ≠ Hence equation is not exact.
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Given Equation can be written as
𝑥 2 𝑦(2𝑦𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥𝑑𝑦) + 𝑥 0 𝑦 0 (𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 3𝑥𝑑𝑦) = 0
Now equation is of the form
𝑥 𝑎 𝑦 𝑏 (𝑚𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑦) + 𝑥 𝑐 𝑦 𝑑 (𝑝𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑞𝑥𝑑𝑦) = 0 ,
−11 −19
∴ I. F. = 𝑥 ℎ 𝑦 𝑘 = 𝑥 7 𝑦 7

−11 −19
Multiplying the given equation by 𝑥 7 𝑦 7 , we get
3 −5 −11 −12 −4 −19 10 −12
(2𝑥 𝑦 7 7 +𝑥 7 𝑦 7 ) 𝑑𝑥 + (3𝑥 𝑦 7 7 −𝑥7𝑦 7 ) 𝑑𝑦 = 0
3 −5 −11 −12
Now 𝑀 = (2𝑥 𝑦 7 7 +𝑥 7 𝑦 7 )
 −4 −19 10 −12
and 𝑁 = (3𝑥 7 𝑦 7 −𝑥7𝑦 7 )
3 −12 −11 −19
𝜕𝑀 −10 12 𝜕𝑁 −10 3 −12 12 −11 −19 𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
𝜕𝑦
= 7
𝑥 7 𝑦 7 − 7
𝑥 7 𝑦 7 and 𝜕𝑥
= 7
𝑥 7𝑦 7 − 7
𝑥 7 𝑦 7 Therefore 𝜕𝑦
= 𝜕𝑥
Hence equation is exact.
Solution is given by ∫ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 3 −5 −11 −12
→ ∫ (2𝑥 7 𝑦 7 + 𝑥 7 𝑦 7 ) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 0𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 7 10 −5
7 −4 −12
→ 5
𝑥 𝑦 7 7 − 4𝑥 𝑦 7 7 =𝑐

 Solve 𝑦(𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑥 2 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥(𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑦 = 0

Sol. Here 𝑀 = 𝑦(𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑥 2 𝑦 2 ) and 𝑁 = 𝑥(𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 )
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
= 2𝑥𝑦 + 6𝑥 2 𝑦 2 and = 2𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 2
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Therefore 𝜕𝑦
≠ 𝜕𝑥
Hence equation is not exact.
1 1
Since the given equation is of the form (𝑥𝑦)𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑔(𝑥𝑦)𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0 , I.F. = 𝑀𝑥−𝑁𝑦 = 3𝑥 3 𝑦3

1 1 2 1 1
Multiplying the given equation by 3𝑥 3 𝑦 3
, we get (3𝑥2 𝑦 + 3𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + (3𝑥𝑦2 − 3𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 = 0
1 2 1 1
Now 𝑀 = ( + )and 𝑁 = ( 2− )
3𝑥 2 𝑦 3𝑥 3𝑥𝑦 3𝑦
𝜕𝑀 −1 𝜕𝑁 −1
= and = 2 2
𝜕𝑦 3𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 3𝑥 𝑦
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Therefore 𝜕𝑦
= 𝜕𝑥
Hence equation is exact.
Solution is given by ∫ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 1 2 1 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 −1 2 1
→ ∫ ( 2 + ) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (− ) 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐 → + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦= 𝑐
3𝑥 𝑦 3𝑥 3𝑦 3𝑥𝑦 3 3
 Solve (3𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑦 3 )𝑑𝑥 − (2𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑦 = 0
Sol. Here 𝑀 = 3𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑦 3 and 𝑁 = −2𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 2
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
𝜕𝑦
= 6𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑦 2 and 𝜕𝑥
= −4𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Therefore ≠ Hence equation is not exact.
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Since the given equation is homogenous, so
1 1 1
I.F. = = 2 2 3 2 2 3= 2 2
𝑀𝑥+𝑁𝑦 3𝑥 𝑦 −𝑥𝑦 −2𝑥 𝑦 +𝑥𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
1
Multiplying the given equation by 𝑥 2𝑦2
, we get
3 𝑦 2 1
(𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 − (y − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑦 = 0
3 𝑦 −2 1
Now 𝑀 = (𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) and 𝑁 = ( y + 𝑥)
𝜕𝑀 −1 𝜕𝑁 −1
𝜕𝑦 𝑦2
=and 𝜕𝑥
= 𝑦2
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Therefore 𝜕𝑦 = 𝜕𝑥 Hence equation is exact.
Solution is given by ∫ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 3 𝑦 −2 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦
→ ∫ ( − 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐 → 3 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 + + 3 − 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦= 𝑐
𝑥 𝑥 y x
 Solve (𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + xy + 1)𝑦𝑑𝑥 + (𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − xy + 1)𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0
 Sol. Here 𝑀 = (𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + xy + 1)𝑦 and 𝑁 = (𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − xy + 1)𝑥
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
𝜕𝑦
= 3𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 2xy + 1 and 𝜕𝑥
= 3𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − 2xy + 1
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Therefore 𝜕𝑦
≠ 𝜕𝑥
Hence equation is not exact.
1 1
Since the given equation is of the form (𝑥𝑦)𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑔(𝑥𝑦)𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0 , I.F. = =
𝑀𝑥−𝑁𝑦 2𝑥 2 𝑦 2

1 1 2 1 1
Multiplying the given equation by , we get ( + ) 𝑑𝑥 +( − ) 𝑑𝑦 =0
2𝑥 2 𝑦 2 3𝑥 2 𝑦 3𝑥 3𝑥𝑦 2 3𝑦
1 2 1 1
Now 𝑀 = (3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥
)and 𝑁 = (3𝑥𝑦2 − 3𝑦)
𝜕𝑀 −1 𝜕𝑁 −1
𝜕𝑦
= 3𝑥 2 𝑦2 and 𝜕𝑥
= 3𝑥2 𝑦2
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Therefore 𝜕𝑦
= 𝜕𝑥
Hence equation is exact.
Solution is given by ∫ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 1 2 1 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 −1 2 1
→ ∫ ( 2 + ) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (− ) 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐 → + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦= 𝑐
3𝑥 𝑦 3𝑥 3𝑦 3𝑥𝑦 3 3

Equations solvable for y

 Solve 𝑦 + 𝑝𝑥 = 𝑥 4 𝑝2
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
Sol. Given equation is 𝑦 + 𝑝𝑥 = 𝑥 4 𝑝2 → 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 𝑝2 − 𝑝𝑥 ……………(i)

Differentiating both sides w.r.t x, we get

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝
= 4𝑥 3 𝑝2 + 2𝑥 4 𝑝 −𝑝−𝑥 → 𝑝 = 4𝑥 3 𝑝2 + 2𝑥 4 𝑝 −𝑝−𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝
→ 4𝑥 3 𝑝2 + 2𝑥 4 𝑝 − 2𝑝 − 𝑥 =0 → 2𝑥 3 𝑝 (2𝑝 + 𝑥 ) − (2𝑝 + 𝑥 ) = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑝 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑝
→ (2𝑥 3 𝑝 − 1) (2𝑝 + 𝑥 )=0 → (2𝑝 + 𝑥 ) = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑝
(By neglecting the factor(2𝑥 3 𝑝 − 1) = 0 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑡 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑥
)

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑝 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑐
→ 2 + =0→ 𝑝= 2
𝑥 𝑝 𝑥

𝑐2 𝑐
Putting the value of p in (i), we get 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 2 𝑥

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑐
→ 𝑦 = 𝑐 2 − 𝑥is the required solution

Equations solvable for x

 𝑑𝑦
 Solve 𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑝 + 𝑦 2 𝑝3 , where 𝑝 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 1 𝑦
Sol. 𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑝 + 𝑦 2 𝑝3 → 𝑥 = 2 (𝑝 − 𝑦 2 𝑝2 )
Differentiating both sides w.r.t y, we get
1 1 1 𝑦 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝
= ( − 2 − 2𝑦𝑝2 − 2𝑦 2 𝑝 ) → 2𝑝 = 𝑝 − 𝑦 − 2𝑦𝑝4 − 2𝑦 2 𝑝3
𝑝 2 𝑝 𝑝 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑝 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑝
→ 𝑝(1 + 2𝑦𝑝3 ) + 𝑦 (1 + 2𝑦𝑝3 ) = 0 → (𝑝 + 𝑦 ) (1 + 2𝑦𝑝3 ) = 0
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑝
→ (𝑝 + 𝑦 ) = 0
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑝
(By neglecting the factor (1 + 2𝑦𝑝3 ) = 0 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑡 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑦
)

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑦 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑐

→ + =0→ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑝 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐 → 𝑝𝑦 = 𝑐 → 𝑝=
𝑝 𝑦 𝑦
2 3
By putting in given equation, we get 𝑦 = 2𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐
 Linear Differential Equations

 Linear Differential equation: A differential equation is said to be linear differential equation if

it is of degree one and does not contain any term having product of dependent variable and its
derivative.
𝑑𝑦
 Leibnitz form : An equation of the form 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑃(𝑥)𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥) is called Leibnitz form.
Integrating factor = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 and
Solution of given equation is (Integrating factor)z = ∫ 𝑄(𝑥) (Integrating factor)dx + c

𝑑𝑦
 Bernoulli’s form: An equation of the form + 𝑃(𝑥)𝑦 = 𝑦 𝑛 𝑄(𝑥) is called Bernoulli’s form.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Dividing both sides by 𝑦 𝑛 , we get 𝑦 −𝑛 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑃(𝑥)𝑦1−𝑛 = 𝑄(𝑥) … … … … … … . . (𝑖)
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 −𝑛 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑧
Put 𝑦1−𝑛 = 𝑧 → (1 − 𝑛)𝑦 −𝑛 = → 𝑦 = (1−𝑛) .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑𝑧 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑧
∴ (𝑖)𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 (1−𝑛) 𝑑𝑥
+ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑧 = 𝑄(𝑥) → 𝑑𝑥
+ (1 − 𝑛)𝑃(𝑥)𝑧 = (1 − 𝑛)𝑄(𝑥).

It is Leibnitz form.

 Higher Order Equations

Let the differential equation be of the form 𝐹(𝐷)𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

Auxiliary eq. is given by 𝐹(𝐷) = 0. Solve it.

Rules for Complementary Function:

1. If the roots of Auxiliary equation are real and distinct say 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 , then
𝐶. 𝐹. = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑚1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝑚2 𝑥 + 𝑐3 𝑒 𝑚3 𝑥
2. If the roots of Auxiliary equation are real and distinct say 𝑚, 𝑚, 𝑚, 𝑚, 𝑚 , then
𝐶. 𝐹. = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑥𝑐2 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑐3 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑥 3 𝑐4 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑥 4 𝑐5 𝑒 𝑚𝑥
3. If the roots are a pair of complex conjugate numbers say 𝛼 ± 𝑖𝛽, then
𝐶. 𝐹. = 𝑒 𝛼𝑥 (𝑐1 cos 𝛽𝑥 + 𝑐2 sin 𝛽𝑥)
4. If the roots are repeated pair of complex conjugate numbers say 𝛼 ± 𝑖𝛽, 𝛼 ± 𝑖𝛽, 𝛼 ± 𝑖𝛽
then
𝐶. 𝐹. = 𝑒 𝛼𝑥 [(𝑐1 + 𝑥𝑐2 + 𝑥 2 𝑐3 ) cos 𝛽𝑥 + (𝑐1 + 𝑥𝑐2 + 𝑥 2 𝑐3 ) sin 𝛽𝑥]

Rules for Particular integral: Let the equation be of the form 𝐹(𝐷)𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).

1
𝑃. 𝐼. = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝐹(𝐷)

1. If 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥
1
𝑒 𝑎𝑥
𝑃. 𝐼. =
𝐹(𝐷)
Put 𝐷 = 𝑎 provided denominator does not become zero. If denominator becomes zero,
then
 1 𝑎𝑥
𝑃. 𝐼. = 𝑥 𝑑 𝑒
𝐹(𝐷)
𝑑𝐷
Put 𝐷 = 𝑎 provided denominator does not become zero. If denominator becomes zero,
then
1
𝑃. 𝐼. = 𝑥 2 𝑑2 𝑒 𝑎𝑥
𝑑𝐷 2
𝐹(𝐷)
Put 𝐷 = 𝑎 provided denominator does not become zero.
Continue this process till we get a non-zero denominator.
2. If 𝑓(𝑥) = cos(𝑎𝑥) 𝑜𝑟 sin(𝑎𝑥)
1
𝑃. 𝐼. = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝐹(𝐷)
Put 𝐷 2 = −(𝑎2 ) provided denominator does not become zero. If denominator
becomes zero, then
1
𝑃. 𝐼. = 𝑥 𝑑 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝐷
𝐹(𝐷)
Put 𝐷 2 = −(𝑎2 ) provided denominator does not become zero. If denominator
becomes zero, then
1
𝑃. 𝐼. = 𝑥 2 𝑑2 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝐷 2 𝐹(𝐷)
Put 𝐷 2 = −(𝑎2 ) provided denominator does not become zero.
3. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑚
1
𝑃. 𝐼. = 𝑥𝑚
𝐹(𝐷)
Use Binomial Theorem i.e.
𝑛(𝑛−1) 2 𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2) 3
If |𝑥| < 1 , (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯ … … … ….
2! 3!
−1 2 3
(1 + 𝑥) = 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 − ⋯ … … … ….4
i.
ii. (1 − 𝑥)−1 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 + ⋯ … … … ….
iii. (1 + 𝑥)−2 = 1 − 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 4 − ⋯ … … … ….
iv. (1 − 𝑥)−2 = 1 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 4 + ⋯ … … … ….
4. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑉, where V is any function.
1 1
𝑃. 𝐼. = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑉 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 ( 𝑉)
𝐹(𝐷) 𝐹(𝐷)

5. General Rule: Factorize 𝐹(𝐷) into linear factors of the form (𝐷 − 𝐴). Apply partial
fractions.
1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝐴𝑥 ∫ 𝑒 −𝐴𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
(𝐷 − 𝐴)
 Method of Variation of Parameters

It is a special method to find particular integral of a second order differential equation.

i. Calculate the complementary function. Let it be 𝑐1 𝑦1 + 𝑐2 𝑦2

𝑦1 𝑦2
ii. Calculate 𝑊 = |𝑦 ′ 𝑦 ′ |
1 2
𝑦2 𝑋𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑋𝑑𝑥
iii. 𝑢 = −∫ and 𝑣 = ∫ 1
𝑊 𝑊
iv. Particular Integral = 𝑢𝑦1 + 𝑣𝑦2
Cauchy’s homogenous equation:

An equation of the form

𝑑𝑛 𝑦 𝑑𝑛−1 𝑦 𝑑1 𝑦
𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1
+ ⋯ … … . . +𝑎1 𝑥 1
+ 𝑎0 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥 1

Is called Cauchy’s homogenous equation.

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑧 1
Put 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧 → 𝑧 = log 𝑥 → =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑

= → = → 𝑥 = → 𝑥 = 𝐷𝑦 where 𝐷 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧

𝑑2 𝑦
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑥 2 = 𝐷(𝐷 − 1)𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2

Legendre’s equation:

An equation of the form

𝑑𝑛 𝑦 𝑑𝑛−1 𝑦 𝑑1 𝑦
𝑎𝑛 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛−1
+ ⋯ … … . . +𝑎1 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)1
+ 𝑎0 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥 1
Is called Cauchy’s homogenous equation.
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑧 𝑎
Put (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) = 𝑒 𝑧 → 𝑧 = log(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) → 𝑑𝑥
= (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑎 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦

= → = → (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) =𝑎 → (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) = 𝑎𝐷𝑦 where 𝐷 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 (𝑎𝑥+𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
𝑑𝑧

𝑑2 𝑦
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 𝐷(𝐷 − 1)𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦
 Solve (𝑥 − 𝑎) 𝑑𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 12 (𝑥 − 𝑎)3

Sol. Given equation is

 𝑑𝑦 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 3𝑦
(𝑥 − 𝑎)
𝑑𝑥
+ 3𝑦 = 12 (𝑥 − 𝑎)3 → 𝑑𝑥
+ (𝑥−𝑎) = 12 (𝑥 − 𝑎)2

It is Leibnitz form.

3
Here 𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥−𝑎) and 𝑄(𝑥) = 12 (𝑥 − 𝑎)2

3
∫(𝑥−𝑎)𝑑𝑥
Integrating factor is 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 = 𝑒 3𝑙𝑛(𝑥−𝑎) = (𝑥 − 𝑎)3

∴ Solution is (Integrating factor)z = ∫ 𝑄(𝑥) (Integrating factor)dx + c

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
→ (𝑥 − 𝑎)3 𝑦 = ∫(𝑥 − 𝑎)3 12 (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 dx + c → (𝑥 − 𝑎)3 𝑦 = ∫ 12 (𝑥 − 𝑎)5 dx + c

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 12 (𝑥 − 𝑎)6 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑐

→ (𝑥 − 𝑎)3 𝑦 = +𝑐→ (𝑥 − 𝑎)3 𝑦 = 2(𝑥 − 𝑎)6 + 𝑐 → 𝑦 = 2(𝑥 − 𝑎)3 +
6 (𝑥 − 𝑎)3

 Write Bernoulli’s equation.

𝑑𝑦
Sol. The equation + 𝑃(𝑥)𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥)𝑦 𝑛 is called Bernoulli’s equation.
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
 Solve𝑑𝑥 + 4𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 3 = 0

Sol. Given equation is

𝑑𝑦 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
+ 4𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 3 = 0 → 𝑑𝑥
+ 4𝑥𝑦 = −𝑥𝑦 3 → 𝑦 −3 𝑑𝑥 + 4𝑥𝑦 −2 = −𝑥

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 −1 𝑑𝑧
Put 𝑦 −2 = 𝑧 → −2𝑦 −3 = → 𝑦 −3 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

−1 𝑑𝑧 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑧
Equation becomes 2 𝑑𝑥
+ 4𝑥𝑧 = −𝑥 → 𝑑𝑥
− 8𝑥𝑧 = 2𝑥 . It is Leibnitz form.

Here 𝑃(𝑥) = −8𝑥 and 𝑄(𝑥) = 2𝑥

2
Integrating factor is 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 ∫(−8𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 −4𝑥

∴ Solution is (Integrating factor)z = ∫ 𝑄(𝑥) (Integrating factor)dx + c

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 2 2 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 2
→ 𝑧𝑒 −4𝑥 = ∫ 2𝑥 (𝑒 −4𝑥 )dx + c → 𝑦 −2 𝑒 −4𝑥 = ∫(𝑒 −4𝑡 )dt + c

2
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 2 𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 2 𝑒 −4𝑥 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 −1 2
→ 𝑦 −2 𝑒 −4𝑥 = −4
+𝑐→ 𝑦 −2 𝑒 −4𝑥 = −4
+𝑐→ 𝑦 −2 = 4
+ 𝑐𝑒 −4𝑥

𝑑𝑦
 Solve𝑑𝑥 − 𝑦 = 𝑦 2 (sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥)

Sol. Given equation is

 𝑑𝑦 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
− 𝑦 = 𝑦 2 (sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥) → 𝑦 −2 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑦 −1 = (sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥)

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
Put 𝑦 −1 = 𝑧 → −𝑦 −2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 → 𝑦 −2 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑧 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑧
Equation becomes − 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑧 = (sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥) → 𝑑𝑥
+ 𝑧 = −(sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥) . It is Leibnitz
form.

Here 𝑃(𝑥) = 1 and 𝑄(𝑥) = −(sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥)

Integrating factor is 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 ∫ 1𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥

∴ Solution is (Integrating factor)z = ∫ 𝑄(𝑥) (Integrating factor)dx + c

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥
→ 𝑧𝑒 𝑥 = ∫ −𝑒 𝑥 (sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥)dx + c → = − [ (sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥) + (cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥)] + c
𝑦 2 2
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 1 𝑐
→ 𝑦
= − sin 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑦
 Solve 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥+√𝑥𝑦

𝑑𝑦 𝑦 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑥 𝑥+√𝑥𝑦 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 √𝑥 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 1/2 1

Sol. Given equation is = → = → − = → 𝑥 −1/2 − =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥+√𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑦 √𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑦 √𝑦

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧
Put 𝑥 1/2 = 𝑧 → 𝑥 −1/2 𝑑𝑦 = 2 𝑑𝑦

𝑑𝑧 𝑧 1 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑧 𝑧 1
Equation becomes 2 − = → − = . It is Leibnitz form.
𝑑𝑦 𝑦 √𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2𝑦 2√𝑦

1 1
Here 𝑃(𝑦) = − and 𝑄(𝑦) =
2𝑦 2√𝑦

1
∫(−2𝑦)𝑑𝑦 1
Integrating factor is 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑔(1/√𝑦)=
√𝑦

∴ Solution is (Integrating factor)z = ∫ 𝑄(𝑦) (Integrating factor)dy + c

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑧 1 1 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 √𝑥 1 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 1

→ =∫ ( ) dy + c → = logy + c → √𝑥 = √𝑦 logy + c√𝑦
√𝑦 2√𝑦 √𝑦 √𝑦 2 2

𝑑𝑦
 Solvetan 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + tan 𝑥 = cos 𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 .

𝑑𝑦
Sol. tan 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + tan 𝑥 = cos 𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥
 𝑑𝑦
Dividing both sides by cos 𝑦 , we get sec 𝑦 tan 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + sec 𝑦 tan 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
Put sec 𝑦 = 𝑧 → sec 𝑦 tan 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑦

𝑑𝑧
Equation becomes 𝑑𝑦
− 𝑧 tan 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 . It is Leibnitz form.

Here 𝑃(𝑥) = − tan 𝑥 and 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥

Integrating factor is 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 ∫ − tan 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑔(cos 𝑥) = cos 𝑥

∴ Solution is (Integrating factor)z = ∫ 𝑄(𝑥) (Integrating factor)dx + c

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
→ 𝑧 cos 𝑥 = ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 dx + c → 𝑧 cos 𝑥 = ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 dx + c

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 1 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 1 sin 3x

→ 𝑧 cos 𝑥 = ∫(cos 3x + 3 cos x) dx + c → 𝑧 cos 𝑥 = [ + 3 sin x] + c
4 4 3

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 1 sin 3x
→ sec 𝑦 cos 𝑥 = [ + 3 sin x] + c
4 3

 Solve𝑦 ′′ − 4𝑦 ′ − 5𝑦 = 0

Sol. The given equation is 𝑦 ′′ − 4𝑦 ′ − 5𝑦 = 0

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
Auxiliary equation is 𝐷 2 − 4𝐷 − 5 = 0 → 𝐷 2 − 5𝐷 + 𝐷 − 5 = 0→ (𝐷 − 5)(𝐷 + 1) = 0

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
→ 𝐷 = −1, 5

Therefore complementary function is 𝑐1 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 5𝑥

Particular Integral = 0

Complete Solution = Complementary function + Particular Integral

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
→ 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 5𝑥

 Solve 𝑦 ′′ + 2𝑦 ′ + 2𝑦 = 0

Sol. The given equation is 𝑦 ′′ + 2𝑦 ′ + 2𝑦 = 0

Auxiliary equation is 𝐷 2 + 2𝐷 + 2 = 0
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
→ 𝐷 = −1 ± 𝑖

Therefore complementary function is 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑐1 cos 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)

 Particular Integral = 0

Complete Solution = Complementary function + Particular Integral

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
→ 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑐1 cos 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)

 Solve 𝑦 ′′′′ + 32𝑦 ′′ + 256𝑦 = 0

Sol. The given equation is 𝑦 ′′′′ + 32𝑦 ′′ + 256𝑦 = 0
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
Auxiliary equation is 𝐷 4 + 32𝐷2 + 256 = 0 → (𝐷 + 16)2 = 0
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
→ 𝐷 = ±4𝑖, ±4𝑖, ±4𝑖, ±4𝑖

Therefore complementary function is

[(𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 + 𝑐3 𝑥 2 + 𝑐4 𝑥 4 ) cos4 𝑥 + (𝑐5 + 𝑐6 𝑥 + 𝑐7 𝑥 2 + 𝑐8 𝑥 4 )𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥]

Particular Integral = 0

Complete Solution = Complementary function + Particular Integral

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
→ 𝑦 = [(𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 + 𝑐3 𝑥 2 + 𝑐4 𝑥 4 ) cos4 𝑥 + (𝑐5 + 𝑐6 𝑥 + 𝑐7 𝑥 2 + 𝑐8 𝑥 4 )𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥]
 Solve the differential equation 𝑦 ′′′ − 3𝑦 ′ − 2𝑦 = 0

Sol. The given equation is 𝑦 ′′′ − 3𝑦 ′ − 2𝑦 = 0

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
Auxiliary equation is 𝐷 3 − 3𝐷 − 2 = 0 → (𝐷 + 1)2 (𝐷 − 2) = 0
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
→ 𝐷 = −1, −1,2

Therefore complementary function is 𝑐1 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 +𝑐3 𝑒 2𝑥

Particular Integral = 0

Complete Solution = Complementary function + Particular Integral

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
→ 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 +𝑐3 𝑒 2𝑥

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 Solve 𝑑𝑡 2 + 5 𝑑𝑡 + 6𝑥 = 0 , given x(0)=0 and x’(0)=15

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
Sol. Auxiliary equation is 𝐷 2 + 5𝐷 + 6 = 0 → 𝐷 = −2, −3
−2𝑡
Therefore complementary function is 𝑐1 𝑒 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −3𝑡
1
Particular Integral= 2 (0) = 0
𝐷 +5𝐷+6
Complete Solution = Complementary function + Particular Integral
 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
→ 𝑥 = 𝑐1 𝑒 −2𝑡 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −3𝑡

Therefore 𝑥 ′ = −2𝑐1 𝑒 −2𝑡 − 3𝑐2 𝑒 −3𝑡

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
Given x(0)=0 → 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 = 0 → 𝑐1 = −𝑐2
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
and x’(0)=15 → 2𝑐1 + 3𝑐2 = −15 → −2𝑐2 + 3𝑐2 = −15 → 𝑐2 = −15 → 𝑐1 = 15

Hence complete solution is 𝑥 = 15𝑒 −2𝑡 + −15𝑒 −3𝑡

 Find a differential equation of the form 𝑎𝑦 ′′ + 𝑏𝑦 ′ + 𝑐𝑦 = 0, for which 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 are

solutions.
Sol. The required equation is (𝐷 + 1)2 𝑦 = 0
 Solve(4𝐷 2 − 4𝐷 + 1)𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥/2

Sol. The given equation is (4𝐷 2 − 4𝐷 + 1)𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥/2

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 1 1
Auxiliary equation is 4𝐷 2 − 4𝐷 + 1 = 0 → (2𝐷 − 1)2 𝑦 = 0 → 𝐷 = 2 ,2

Therefore complementary function is = (𝑐1 𝑒 𝑥/2 + 𝑥𝑐2 𝑒 𝑥/2 )

1 1
Particular Integral = (2𝐷−1)2 𝑒 𝑥/2 (𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝐷 = 2)

But it is case of failure.

1 1
∴ Particular Integral = 𝑥 2(2𝐷−1)2 𝑒 𝑥/2 (𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝐷 = 2)

But it is again case of failure.

1 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥/2
∴ Particular Integral = 𝑥 2 8 𝑒 𝑥/2 = 8

∴ Complete Solution = Complementary function + Particular Integral

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥/2
→ 𝑦 = (𝑐1 𝑒 𝑥/2 + 𝑥𝑐2 𝑒 𝑥/2 ) + 8

𝑥
 Solve (D2-3D+2)y=2excos2

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
Sol.Auxiliary equation is 𝐷 2 − 3𝐷 + 2 = 0 → 𝐷 = 2, 1
Therefore complementary function is 𝑐1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝑥
1 𝑥 1 𝑥 1 𝑥
Particular Integral = 2 2𝑒 𝑥 cos = 2𝑒 𝑥 [((𝐷+1)2 cos ] = 2𝑒 𝑥 [(𝐷2 ] cos
𝐷 −3𝐷+2 2 −3(𝐷+1)+2) 2 −𝐷) 2

1 1 𝑥 1 𝑥
(𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝐷 2 = − 4) = 2𝑒 𝑥 [ 1 ] cos 2 = −8𝑒 𝑥 [1+4𝐷] cos 2
(− −𝐷)
4
 1 − 4𝐷 𝑥 1
= −8𝑒 𝑥 [ 2 ] cos (𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝐷 2 = − )
1 − 16𝐷 2 4
8 𝑥 1 𝑥
= − 5 𝑒 𝑥 (cos 2 − 2 sin 2)

Complete Solution = Complementary function + Particular Integral

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 8 𝑥 1 𝑥
→ 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝑥 − 5 𝑒 𝑥 (cos 2 − 2 sin 2)
 Solve 𝑦 ′′ − 2𝑦 ′ + 𝑦 = 𝑥 sin 𝑥

Sol. The given equation is 𝑦 ′′ − 2𝑦 ′ + 𝑦 = 𝑥 sin 𝑥

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
Auxiliary equation is 𝐷 2 − 2𝐷 + 1 = 0 → 𝐷 = 1,1

Therefore complementary function is 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑐2 𝑒 𝑥

1 1 2(𝐷−1)
Particular Integral = (𝐷−1)2 𝑥 sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 [𝐷2 −2𝐷+1 sin 𝑥] − [𝐷2 −2𝐷+1 sin 𝑥] (𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝐷 2 = −1)

1 2(𝐷 − 1) 1 1
= 𝑥[ sin 𝑥] − [ sin 𝑥] = 𝑥 cos 𝑥 − (𝐷 − 1) cos 𝑥 = 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥
−2𝐷 −2𝐷 2 2

Complete Solution = Complementary function + Particular Integral

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 1
→ 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑐2 𝑒 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥

 Solve(𝐷 2 + 3𝐷 + 2)𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
Sol. Auxiliary equation is 𝐷 2 + 3𝐷 + 2 = 0 → 𝐷 = −1, −2

Therefore complementary function is 𝑐1 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −2𝑥

1 1 1
Particular Integral = 𝐷2 +3𝐷+2 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 [((𝐷+1)2 +3(𝐷+1)+2) 𝑥 sin 𝑥] = 𝑒 𝑥 [(𝐷2 +5𝐷+6) 𝑥 sin 𝑥]

1 2𝐷+5
= 𝑒 𝑥 [𝑥 [𝐷2 +5𝐷+6 sin 𝑥] − [(𝐷2 +5𝐷+6)2 sin 𝑥]] (𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝐷 2 = −1)

1 2𝐷 + 5
= 𝑒 𝑥 [𝑥 [ sin 𝑥] − [ sin 𝑥]]
5𝐷 + 5 (5𝐷 + 5)2
𝑥 (𝐷 − 1) 1 (2𝐷 + 5)
= 𝑒𝑥 [ [ 2 sin 𝑥] − [ 2 sin 𝑥]] (𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝐷 2 = −1)
5 𝐷 −1 25 𝐷 + 2𝐷 + 1

−𝑥 1 (2𝐷+5) −𝑥 1
= 𝑒 𝑥 [ 10 [(𝐷 − 1) sin 𝑥] − 25 [ 2𝐷
sin 𝑥]] = 𝑒 𝑥 [ 10 [(𝐷 − 1) sin 𝑥] + 50 [(2𝐷 + 5) cos 𝑥]]
 −𝑥 1
= 𝑒 𝑥 [ 10 (cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥) + 50 [(−2 sin 𝑥 + 5 cos 𝑥)]]

Complete Solution = Complementary function + Particular Integral

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 −𝑥 1
→ 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −2𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 [ 10 (cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥) + 50 [(−2 sin 𝑥 + 5 cos 𝑥)]]

 Using differential operator, find general solution of (𝐷 2 + 9)𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 cos 𝑥

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
Sol. Auxiliary equation is 𝐷 2 + 9 = 0 → 𝐷 = ±3𝑖

Therefore complementary function is (𝑐1 cos 3𝑥 + 𝑐2 sin3 𝑥)

1 1 1
Particular Integral = 𝐷2 +9 𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 cos 𝑥 = 𝑒 2𝑥 [((𝐷+2)2 +9) 𝑥 cos 𝑥] = 𝑒 2𝑥 [(𝐷2 +4𝐷+13) 𝑥 cos 𝑥]

1 (2𝐷 + 4)
= 𝑒 2𝑥 [𝑥 [ cos 𝑥] − [ cos 𝑥]] (𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝐷 2 = −1)
𝐷 2 + 4𝐷 + 13 (𝐷 2 + 4𝐷 + 13)2

1 (2𝐷 + 4)
= [𝑒 2𝑥 𝑥 [ cos 𝑥] − [ cos 𝑥]]
4𝐷 + 12 (4𝐷 + 12)2
𝑥 (𝐷 − 3) 1 (2𝐷 + 4)
= 𝑒 2𝑥 [ [ 2 cos 𝑥] − [ 2 cos 𝑥]] (𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝐷 2 = −1)
4 𝐷 −9 16 𝐷 + 6𝐷 + 9

𝑥 (𝐷−3) 1 (2𝐷+4)
= 𝑒 2𝑥 [4 [ −10
cos 𝑥] − 16 [ 6𝐷+8 cos 𝑥]]

𝑥 (− sin 𝑥−3 cos 𝑥) 1 (2𝐷+4)(6𝐷−8)

= 𝑒 2𝑥 [4 [ −10
] − 16 [ (36𝐷2 −64) cos 𝑥]] (𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝐷 2 = −1)

𝑥 (− sin 𝑥 − 3 cos 𝑥) 1
= 𝑒 2𝑥 [ [ ]+ [(12𝐷 2 + 8𝐷 − 32) cos 𝑥]]
4 −10 1600

𝑥 1
= 𝑒 2𝑥 [ (sin 𝑥 + 3 cos 𝑥) + (−12 cos 𝑥 − 8 sin 𝑥 − 32 cos 𝑥)]
40 1600

𝑥 1
= 𝑒 2𝑥 [ (sin 𝑥 + 3 cos 𝑥) − (44 cos 𝑥 + 8 sin 𝑥)]
40 1600

Complete Solution = Complementary function + Particular Integral

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑥 1
→ 𝑦 = (𝑐1 cos 3𝑥 + 𝑐2 sin3 𝑥) + 𝑒 2𝑥 [40 (sin 𝑥 + 3 cos 𝑥) − 1600 (44 cos 𝑥 + 8 sin 𝑥)]
METHOD OF VARIATION OF PARAMETERS

 Find Wroskian of 1 , sin 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos 𝑥.

Sol. Here Here 𝑦1 = 1 , 𝑦2 = sin 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦3 = cos 𝑥

𝑦1 𝑦2 𝑦3 1 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
𝑊 = | 𝑦1 ′ 𝑦2 ′ 𝑦3 ′ | = |0 cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 | = −1
𝑦1 ′′ 𝑦2 ′′ 𝑦3 ′′ 0 − sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥

 Solve𝑦 ′′ + 16𝑦 = 32 sec 2𝑥

Sol. The given equation is 𝑦 ′′ + 16𝑦 = 32 sec 2𝑥by method of variation of parameters.
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
Auxiliary equation is 𝐷 2 + 16 = 0 → 𝐷 = ±4𝑖

Therefore complementary function is (𝑐1 cos 4𝑥 + 𝑐2 sin4 𝑥)

Here 𝑦1 = cos 4𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦2 = sin4 𝑥

𝑦1 𝑦2 cos 4𝑥 sin4 𝑥
𝑊 = |𝑦 ′ 𝑦2 ′ | = |−4sin4 𝑥 |=4
1 4cos 4𝑥
𝑦2 𝑋𝑑𝑥 sin4 𝑥32 sec 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑢 = −∫ 𝑊
= −∫ 4
= −8 ∫ 2sin 2𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 sec 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= −16 ∫ sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 8 cos 2𝑥

𝑦1 𝑋𝑑𝑥 cos 4𝑥32 sec 2𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑣=∫ 𝑊
=∫ 4
= 8 ∫(2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥 − 1) sec 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 8 ∫(2 cos 2𝑥 − sec 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 8 sin 2𝑥 − 4𝑙𝑜𝑔|sec2 𝑥 + tan2 𝑥|

Particular Integral = 𝑢𝑦1 + 𝑣𝑦2 = 8 cos 2𝑥 cos 4𝑥 + (8 sin 2𝑥 − 4𝑙𝑜𝑔|sec2 𝑥 + tan2 𝑥|) sin4 𝑥

= 8 cos 2𝑥 − 4 sin 4𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔|sec2 𝑥 + tan2 𝑥|

Complete Solution = Complementary function + Particular Integral

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
→ 𝑦 = (𝑐1 cos 4𝑥 + 𝑐2 sin4 𝑥) + 8 cos 2𝑥 − 4 sin 4𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔|sec2 𝑥 + tan2 𝑥|
′′
 Solve𝑦 + 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 by method of variation of parameters.
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
Sol.The given equation is 𝑦 ′′ + 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 → (𝐷 2 + 1)𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
Auxiliary equation is 𝐷 2 + 1 = 0 → 𝐷 = ±𝑖

Therefore complementary function is 𝑐1 cos 𝑥 + 𝑐2 sin 𝑥

 Here 𝑦1 = cos 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦2 = sin 𝑥
𝑦1 𝑦2 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥
𝑊 = |𝑦 ′ 𝑦2 ′ | = |− sin 𝑥 |=1
1 cos 𝑥
𝑦2 𝑋𝑑𝑥 sin 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑢 = −∫ 𝑊
= −∫ 1
= − ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑥

𝑦1 𝑋𝑑𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑣=∫ =∫ = ∫ cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = log sin 𝑥
𝑊 1

Particular Integral = 𝑢𝑦1 + 𝑣𝑦2 = −𝑥 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 log sin 𝑥

Complete Solution = Complementary function + Particular Integral

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
→ 𝑦 = 𝑐1 cos 𝑥 + 𝑐2 sin 𝑥 + (−𝑥 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 log sin 𝑥)

 Solve 𝑦 ′′ − 2𝑦 ′ + 2𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 tan 𝑥by method of variation of parameters.

Sol. The given equation is 𝑦 ′′ − 2𝑦 ′ + 2𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 tan 𝑥

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 2±√4−8
Auxiliary equation is 𝐷 2 − 2𝐷 + 2 = 0 → 𝐷= 2
=1±𝑖

Therefore complementary function is 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑐1 cos 𝑥 + 𝑐2 sin 𝑥)

Here 𝑦1 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦2 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥

𝑦1 𝑦2 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥
𝑊 = |𝑦 ′ ′| = | 𝑥 | = 𝑒 2𝑥
1 𝑦2 𝑒 (cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥) 𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥)
𝑦2 𝑋𝑑𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑢 = −∫ 𝑊
= −∫ 𝑒 2𝑥
= − ∫(sec 𝑥 − cos 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = −(𝑙𝑜𝑔|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥| − sin 𝑥)

𝑦1 𝑋𝑑𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑣=∫ =∫ = ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥
𝑊 𝑒 2𝑥

Particular Integral = 𝑢𝑦1 + 𝑣𝑦2 = −(𝑙𝑜𝑔|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥| − sin 𝑥)𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 − cos 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥

= −𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥|

2
 Solve 𝑦 ′′ − 𝑦 = 1+𝑒 𝑥 by method of variation of parameters.

2
Sol. 𝑦 ′′ − 𝑦 = 1+𝑒 𝑥

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
Auxiliary equation is 𝐷 2 − 1 = 0 → 𝐷 = ±1

Therefore complementary function is 𝑐1 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝑥

Here 𝑦1 = 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦2 = 𝑒 𝑥
 𝑦1 𝑦2 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒𝑥
𝑊 = |𝑦 ′ 𝑦2 ′| = | |=2
1 −𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒𝑥
𝑦2 𝑋𝑑𝑥 𝑒𝑥 2 𝑒𝑥
𝑢 = −∫ 𝑊
= −∫ 2 (1+𝑒 𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ (1+𝑒 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = −log(1 + 𝑒 𝑥 )

𝑦1 𝑋𝑑𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑣=∫ 𝑊
=∫ 2 (1+𝑒 𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (1+𝑒 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 Put 𝑒 −𝑥 = 𝑡. ∴ 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑑𝑡

𝑒 −𝑥 𝑡2 𝑡2 − 1 + 1 1 𝑡2
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = − ∫(𝑡 − 1 + )𝑑𝑡 = − +𝑡
(1 + 𝑒 𝑥 ) (𝑡 + 1) (𝑡 + 1) (𝑡 + 1) 2
− log((𝑡 + 1)

𝑒 −2𝑥
=− + 𝑒 −𝑥 − log((𝑒 −𝑥 + 1)
2
𝑒 −2𝑥
Particular Integral = 𝑢𝑦1 + 𝑣𝑦2 = −log(1 + 𝑒 𝑥 ) 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 [− + 𝑒 −𝑥 − log((𝑒 −𝑥 + 1)]
2

Complete Solution = Complementary function + Particular Integral

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑒 −2𝑥
→ 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝑥 −log(1 + 𝑒 𝑥 ) 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 [− 2
+ 𝑒 −𝑥 − log((𝑒 −𝑥 + 1)]

CAUCHY’S and LEGENDER’S EQUATION

 Solve4𝑥 2 𝑦 ′′ + 𝑦 = 0

Sol.4𝑥 2 𝑦 ′′ + 𝑦 = 0. It is Cauchy’s homogenous equation. Put 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧

𝑑2 𝑦
∴ 𝑊𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑥 2 = 𝐷(𝐷 − 1)𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
Hence the given equation becomes 4𝐷(𝐷 − 1)𝑦 + 𝑦 = 0 → (4𝐷 2 − 4𝐷 + 1)𝑦 = 0
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 1 1
Auxiliary equation is 4𝐷 2 − 4𝐷 + 1 = 0 → 𝐷 = 2,2

1 1
Therefore complementary function is 𝑐1 𝑒 2𝑧 + 𝑧𝑐2 𝑒 2𝑧 = √𝑥(𝑐1 + 𝑐2 log 𝑥)

Hence solution is 𝑦 = √𝑥(𝑐1 + 𝑐2 log 𝑥)

 Solve 𝑥 2 𝑦 ′′ + 2𝑥𝑦 ′ − 2𝑦 = 0

Sol. The given equation is of the form 𝑥 2 𝑦 ′′ + 2𝑥𝑦 ′ − 2𝑦 = 0

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑧 1
It is Cauchy’s homogenous equation. Put 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧 → 𝑧 = log 𝑥 → 𝑑𝑥
=𝑥
 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥
→ 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑧 𝑥 → 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑧
→ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐷𝑦 where 𝐷 = 𝑑𝑧

𝑑2 𝑦 2
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = 𝐷(𝐷 − 1)𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
Hence the given equation becomes 𝐷(𝐷 − 1)𝑦 + 2𝐷𝑦 − 2𝑦 = 0 → (𝐷 2 + 𝐷 − 2)𝑦 = 0
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
Auxiliary equation is 𝐷 2 + 𝐷 − 2 = 0 → 𝐷 = 1, −2
𝑐
Therefore complementary function is 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −2𝑧 = 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑥22

Particular Integral = 0

∴ Complete Solution = Complementary function + Particular Integral

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑐2
→ 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑥 +
𝑥2

 Solve 𝑥 2 𝑦 ′′ + 𝑥𝑦 ′ + 𝑦 = 𝑥

Sol. The given equation is of the form 𝑥 2 𝑦 ′′ + 𝑥𝑦 ′ + 𝑦 = 𝑥

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑧 1
It is Cauchy’s homogenous equation. Put 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧 → 𝑧 = log 𝑥 → 𝑑𝑥
=𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑

𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥
→ 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑧 𝑥 → 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑧
→ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐷𝑦 where 𝐷 = 𝑑𝑧

𝑑2 𝑦 2
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = 𝐷(𝐷 − 1)𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
Hence the given equation becomes 𝐷(𝐷 − 1)𝑦 + 𝐷𝑦 + 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑧 → (𝐷 2 + 1)𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑧
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
Auxiliary equation is 𝐷 2 + 1 = 0 → 𝐷 = ±𝑖

Therefore complementary function is 𝑐1 cos 𝑧 + 𝑐2 sin 𝑧 = 𝑐1 cos(log 𝑥) + 𝑐2 sin(log 𝑥)

1
Particular Integral = 𝑒 𝑧 (𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝐷 = 1)
𝐷 2 +1

1 𝑥
= 𝑒𝑧 =
2 2

∴ Complete Solution = Complementary function + Particular Integral

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑥
→ 𝑦 = 𝑐1 cos(log 𝑥) + 𝑐2 sin(log 𝑥) + 2

 Solve 𝑥 2 𝑦 ′′ + 5𝑥𝑦 ′ + 3 = ln 𝑥

Sol. The given equation is of the form 𝑥 2 𝑦 ′′ + 5𝑥𝑦 ′ + 3 = ln 𝑥

 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑧 1
It is Cauchy’s homogenous equation. Put 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧 → 𝑧 = ln 𝑥 → 𝑑𝑥
=𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑

𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥
→ 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑧 𝑥 → 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑧
→ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐷𝑦 where 𝐷 = 𝑑𝑧

𝑑2 𝑦
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑥 2 = 𝐷(𝐷 − 1)𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
Hence the given equation becomes
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
𝐷(𝐷 − 1)𝑦 + 5𝐷𝑦 + 3𝑦 = 𝑧 → (𝐷 2 + 4𝐷 + 3)𝑦 = 𝑧
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
Auxiliary equation is 𝐷 2 + 4𝐷 + 3 = 0 → 𝐷 = −3, −1
𝑐1 𝑐
Therefore complementary function is 𝑐1 𝑒 −𝑧 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −3𝑧 = 𝑥
+ 𝑥23

−1
1 1 1 𝐷2 4𝐷
Particular Integral = 𝑧= 𝐷2 4𝐷
𝑧 = [1 + ( + )] 𝑧
𝐷 2 +4𝐷+3 3(1+ + ) 3 3 3
3 3

2
1 𝐷 2 4𝐷 𝐷 2 4𝐷 1 4
= [1 − − + ( + ) − ⋯ … … ] 𝑧 = [𝑧 − 0 − + 0 − 0 … … … ]
3 3 3 3 3 3 3

𝑧 4 ln 𝑥 4
= − = −
3 9 3 9

∴ Complete Solution = Complementary function + Particular Integral

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑐1 𝑐2 ln 𝑥 4
→ 𝑦= + + −
𝑥 𝑥3 3 9

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
 Solve Cauchy’s homogenous linear eq.𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥2 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥

Sol. The given equation is of the form 𝑥 2 𝑦 ′′ − 𝑥𝑦 ′ + 2𝑦 = 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑧 1
It is Cauchy’s homogenous equation. Put 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧 → 𝑧 = log 𝑥 → 𝑑𝑥
=𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑

= → = → 𝑥 = → 𝑥 = 𝐷𝑦 where 𝐷 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧

𝑑2 𝑦
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑥 2 = 𝐷(𝐷 − 1)𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
Hence the given equation becomes
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
𝐷(𝐷 − 1)𝑦 − 𝐷𝑦 + 2𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑧 𝑧 → (𝐷 2 − 2𝐷 + 1)𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑧 𝑧
 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
Auxiliary equation is 𝐷 2 − 2𝐷 + 1 = 0 → 𝐷 = 1,1

Therefore complementary function is 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑧𝑐2 𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥

1 1
Particular Integral = 𝐷2 −2𝐷+1 𝑧𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 [((𝐷+1)2 −2(𝐷+1)+1) 𝑧]

1 𝑧3 (log 𝑥)3
= 𝑒𝑧 [ 𝑧] = 𝑒 𝑧
= 𝑥
𝐷2 6 6

∴ Complete Solution = Complementary function + Particular Integral

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 (log 𝑥)3
→ 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 + 𝑥 6

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
 Solve Cauchy’s homogenous linear eq.𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥2 + 5𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 5𝑦 = 24𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥

Sol. The given equation is of the form 𝑥 2 𝑦 ′′ + 5𝑥𝑦 ′ − 5𝑦 = 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑧 1
It is Cauchy’s homogenous equation. Put 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧 → 𝑧 = log 𝑥 → 𝑑𝑥
=𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑

= → = → 𝑥 = → 𝑥 = 𝐷𝑦 where 𝐷 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧

𝑑2 𝑦
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑥 2 = 𝐷(𝐷 − 1)𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
Hence the given equation becomes
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
𝐷(𝐷 − 1)𝑦 + 5𝐷𝑦 − 5𝑦 = 24𝑒 𝑧 𝑧 → (𝐷 2 + 4𝐷 − 5)𝑦 = 24𝑒 𝑧 𝑧
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
Auxiliary equation is 𝐷 2 + 4𝐷 − 5 = 0 → 𝐷 = −5, 1
𝑐
Therefore complementary function is 𝑐1 𝑒 −5𝑧 + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑥15 + 𝑐2 𝑥

1 1
Particular Integral = 𝐷2 +4𝐷−5 24𝑧𝑒 𝑧 = 24𝑒 𝑧 [((𝐷+1)2 +4(𝐷+1)−5) 𝑧]

1 24𝑒 𝑧 𝐷 −1 4𝑒 𝑧 𝐷 𝐷2 4𝑒 𝑧 1
= 24𝑒 𝑧 [ 2
𝑧] = (1 + ) 𝑧 = (1 − + … … … ) 𝑧 = (𝑧 − )
𝐷 + 6𝐷 6𝐷 6 𝐷 6 36 𝐷 6
2 (log 𝑥)2
𝑧 𝑧 log 𝑥
= 4𝑒 𝑧 ( − ) = 4𝑥 ( − )
2 6 2 6

∴ Complete Solution = Complementary function + Particular Integral

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑐 (log 𝑥)2 log 𝑥
→ 𝑦 = 𝑥15 + 𝑐2 𝑥 + 4𝑥 ( 2
− 6
)
 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
 Solve(1 + 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥 2 + (1 + 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 = 4 cos[log(1 + 𝑥)]

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
Sol. Put (1 + 𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑧 → 𝑧 = log(1 + 𝑥)
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
The given equation becomes [𝐷(𝐷 − 1) + 𝐷 + 1]𝑦 = 4 cos 𝑧 → (𝐷 2 + 1)𝑦 = 4 cos 𝑧
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
Auxiliary equation is 𝐷 2 + 1 = 0 → 𝐷 = ±𝑖

Therefore complementary function is = (𝑐1 cos 𝑧 + 𝑐2 sin 𝑧)

= (𝑐1 cos log(1 + 𝑥) + 𝑐2 sin log(1 + 𝑥))

1
Particular Integral = 𝐷2 +1 4 cos 𝑧 (𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝐷 2 = −1)

1
But it is case of failure. ∴ Particular Integral = 𝑧 4 cos 𝑧
2𝐷

= 2𝑧𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 = 2 log(1 + 𝑥) sin log(1 + 𝑥)

∴ Complete Solution = Complementary function + Particular Integral

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
→ 𝑦 = (𝑐1 cos log(1 + 𝑥) + 𝑐2 sin log(1 + 𝑥)) + 2 log(1 + 𝑥) sin log(1 + 𝑥)

SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

 Solve(𝐷 + 5)𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑡 and 𝑥 + (𝐷 + 5)𝑦 = 𝑒 5𝑡 simultaneously.

Sol. Given equations are (𝐷 + 5)𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑡 …………..(i) and 𝑥 + (𝐷 + 5)𝑦 = 𝑒 5𝑡 …………..(ii)

Multiplying (i) by (D+5) and subtracting (ii) from (i), we get

(𝐷 2 + 10𝐷 + 24)𝑥 = 6𝑒 𝑡 − 𝑒 5𝑡
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
Auxiliary equation is 𝐷 2 + 10𝐷 + 24 = 0 → 𝐷 = −4, −6

Therefore complementary function is 𝑐1 𝑒 −4𝑡 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −6𝑡

1 6𝑒 𝑡 𝑒 5𝑡
Particular Integral = 𝐷2 +10𝐷+24 (6𝑒 𝑡 − 𝑒 5𝑡 ) = 35
− 99

Complete Solution = Complementary function + Particular Integral

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 6𝑒 𝑡 𝑒 5𝑡
→ 𝑥 = 𝑐1 𝑒 −4𝑡 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −6𝑡 + 35
− 99

6𝑒 𝑡 𝑒 5𝑡
Putting the value of x in (i), we get (𝐷 + 5)(𝑐1 𝑒 −4𝑡 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −6𝑡 + 35
− 99
)+ 𝑦 = 𝑒𝑡

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 6𝑒 𝑡 5𝑒 5𝑡 30𝑒 𝑡 5𝑒 5𝑡
→ −4𝑐1 𝑒 −4𝑡 − 6𝑐2 𝑒 −6𝑡 + − + 5𝑐1 𝑒 −4𝑡 + 5𝑐2 𝑒 −6𝑡 + − + 𝑦 = 𝑒𝑡
35 99 35 99
 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 36𝑒 𝑡 10𝑒 5𝑡 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑒 𝑡 10𝑒 5𝑡
→ 𝑐1 𝑒 −4𝑡 − 𝑐2 𝑒 −6𝑡 +
− + 𝑦 = 𝑒𝑡 → 𝑦 = −𝑐1 𝑒 −4𝑡 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −6𝑡 − +
35 99 35 99
 Solve D𝑥 + 2𝑦 = − sin 𝑡 and −2𝑥 + 𝐷𝑦 = cos 𝑡 simultaneously.

Sol. Given equations are D𝑥 + 2𝑦 = − sin 𝑡 …………..(i) and −2𝑥 + 𝐷𝑦 = cos 𝑡 …………..(ii)

Multiplying (i) by 2 and (ii) by D and adding (ii) and (i), we get

(𝐷 2 − 4)𝑦 = −3 sin 𝑡
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
Auxiliary equation is 𝐷 2 − 4 = 0 → 𝐷 = −2, 2

Therefore complementary function is 𝑐1 𝑒 −2𝑡 + 𝑐2 𝑒 2𝑡

1 3 sin 𝑡
Particular Integral = (𝐷2 (−3 sin 𝑡) = ( by putting 𝐷 2 = −1)
−4) 5

Complete Solution = Complementary function + Particular Integral

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 3 sin 𝑡
→ 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 −2𝑡 + 𝑐2 𝑒 2𝑡 +
5

3 sin 𝑡
Putting the value of y in (ii), we get −2𝑥 + 𝐷 (𝑐1 𝑒 −2𝑡 + 𝑐2 𝑒 2𝑡 + 5
) = cos 𝑡

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 3 cos 𝑡
→ −2𝑥 + (−2𝑐1 𝑒 −2𝑡 + 2𝑐2 𝑒 2𝑡 + ) = cos 𝑡
5
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 cos 𝑡
→ 𝑥= + 𝑐1 𝑒 −2𝑡 − 𝑐2 𝑒 2𝑡
5

SPECIAL FUNCTIONS

Q.1 Define error function and write its two properties.

2 x

 
t 2dt
Ans. Error function = erfx  e .
0

Properties:

1. erf  x   erfx
 2. erf x   erfc x   1

Q.2 What are ordinary, regular & irregular singular points of an ordinary differential function?

Ans. Ordinary Point: A point x  x0 is called an ordinary point of the equation:

d2y
 Px   Q x  y  0 ; if both functions Px  and Qx  are
dy
2
dx dx
analytic at x  x0 .

Regular Singular Point: If both x  x0 Px  and x  x0  qx  are analytic at x  x0 .

2

Irregular Singular Point: A singular point which is not regular, is called Irregular Singular Point.

Q.3 Explain the Power series solution to solve Differential equations.

Ans. Step – I Assume the solution in the form

y  a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  a3 x3  

dy d2y
Step – IIFind and
dx dx2

dy d2y
Step – III Substitute the value of and in the given Differential equation.
dx dx2

Step – IV Equate to zero the coefficients of various power of x and find

a2 , a3 , a4 , a5 , in terms of a0 and a1 .

Step – V Substitute the value of a2 , a3 , a4 , a5 , in the assumed solution of y .

Q.4 What is Legendre’s differential equation?

1  x  ddxy  2 x dy
2
Ans.
2
2
 nn  1 y  0
dx

Q.5 What is Bessel’s differential equation?

Ans. The differential equation of the form

d2y
 x  nn  1 y  0
dy
x2 2
dx dx

Q.6 Explain the method of forbenius to solve the differential equation.

m 1
Ans. Step – I Assume y  a0 x  a1 x
m
 a2 x m  2  

dy d2y
Step – IIFind the value of and
dx dx2

dy d2y
Step – III Substitute the value of y, and in the given differential equation.
dx dx2

Step – IV Equate the coefficient of lowest power of x equal to zero. This gives a
quadratic equation in m, which is known as Indicial equation.

Step – V Equate the coefficient of powers of x to find a1 , a2 , a3 , in terms of

a0 .

Q.7 Write down the Rodrigue’s formula.

Ans. Pn x  
1 dn 2
n
2 n! dx n

x 1
n

Q.8 Show that x4 
1
8P4 x   20 P2 x   7 P0 x .
35

Ans. P4 x  
1
8

35 x 4  30 x 2  3 

P2 x   
1 2
2
3x  1 
P0 x   1

Hence
1  1

35  8
 1
 

8 35 x 4  30 x 2  3  20 3x 2  1  7  x 4 
2 

Q.9 Express f x   x3  5x 2  x  2 in terms of Legendre’s polynomials.

x 2  P2 x   ;
2 1
x 3  P3 x   x ; x  P1 x  ; P0 x   1
2 3
Ans.
5 5 3 3

2 3  2 1
x3  5 x 2  x  2   P3 x   x   5 P2 x     P1 x   2 P0 x 
5 5  3 3

 P3 x   P2 x   P1 x   P0 x 
2 10 8 1
5 3 5 3

Q.10 Prove that J 0 x    J1 x 

Ans.
d n
dx
 
x J n x    x  n J n 1 x 
 Put n = 0,
d
J 0 x    J1 x 
dx

J 0 x    J1 x 

Q.11 State the orthogonality condition of Bessel’s function.

Ans. If α and ß are the roots of J n x   0

0 when α  ß

0 xJ n x J n  ßxdx   1 J  
1

 n 1 when α  ß
2

Q.12 Prove that erf 0  0 .

2 x
0 e
 t 2 dt
Ans. As we know erfx 


Put x0

2 0  t 2 dt
erf 0 
 0 e 0

Q.13 What does J n  x  represent? What is the value of J 1  x  ?

2

Ans. J n x  represents the Bessel function which is the solution of the Bessel differential equation.

J 1 x  
2
sin x .
2
x
Q.14 Prove that Pn 1  1 .

 
 1

 hn Pn x   1  2 xh  h2

Ans. As we know, 2
n0

Put x = 1,

 
 1

 hn Pn 1  1  2h  h2

2
n0

 1  h 
1

 1  h  h2    hn  

equate the coefficients of h , then P1  1 .

n

Prove that Pn  x    1 Pn x  .
n
Q.15

 
 1
As we know  h Pn  x   1  2 xh  h
n 2 
Ans. 2 ………………………………… (1)
n0

Replace x by –x in (1),

 h Pn  x   1  2 xh  h2  2 ……………………………………………. (2)
 1
n 

n 0

Replace h by –h in (1),

  h Pn x   1  2 xh  h2  2 …………………………………………… (3)
 1
n 

n 0

From (2) and (3),

  
 hn Pn  x     h Pn x 
n

n0 n0

Pn  x    1 Pn x 
n

Q.16 Stat the orthogonal property of Legendre’s polynomials.

0 if m  n

1 Pm x Pn x dx   2
1
Ans.
 if m  n
 2n  1

Q.17 Solve the differential equations in terms of Bessel function.

Ans. The given equation is  

x 2 y  2 xy  4 x 4  4 y  0

Comparing with general form, we get,

1  2  2 , ß 2 r 2  4 , 2r  4 ,  2  n2 r 2  4

3 5
 , ß  1, r  2 , n 
2 4

 
   
3
n is not an integer. y  x 2 c1 J 5 x 2  c2 J 5 x 2 

 4 4 

Q.18 Define the generating function for J n  x  .

x 1 
 z 
2 z 
Ans. The function e is called generating function.
 x 1 
 z  
e 2 z 
=  z n J n x 
n  

x 1 
 z 
J n x  is the coefficient of z in the expansion of e n 2 z 
.

Q.19 Prove that erf  x   erfx

erf x  
2 x
0 e
t 2
dt
Ans.


erf  x  
2 x
0 et
2
dt

2 x
0 e
t 2
 dt
 erfx


Prove that Pn  1   1 .
n
Q.20

We know that Pn  x    1 Pn x 
n
Ans.

Put x = 1,

Pn  1   1 Pn 1
n

  1
n
As Pn 1  1

nn  1
Q.21 Prove that Pn1 
2

Ans. We know Legendre’s differential equation

 1 x
d2y
2
dx 2

 2 x  nn  1 y  0
dy
dx

y  Pn x  is the solution of above equation.

1  x Px  2xPx  nn  1P x  0

2
n n n

Put x = 1,

 2Pn1  nn  1Pn 1  0 Pn 1  1

nn  1
Pn1 
2

Q.22 Prove that 4 J 0x   3J 0 x   J 3 x   0 .

Ans. We know J 0   J1

Differentiation gives J 0   J1  

1
J 0  J 2 
2

Differentiation gives J 0  

1
J 0  J 2 
2

  J 0  J1  J 3 
1 1
2 4

3 1
  J 0  J 3
4 4

4 J 0x   3J 0 x   J 3 x   0
Q.23 Prove that J n3  J n5 
2
n  4J n  4 .
x

Ans. As we know, 2nJ n x   xJ n 1 x   J n 1 x 

Replace n by n + 4, we get:

2
n  4J n  4  J n  3  J n  5
x

Q.24 Show that erfc 0  1.

Ans. As the relation erfc x   erf x   1

As erf 0  0

erfc 0  1

Q.25 Solve the equation in terms of Bessel equation.

xy  3 y  xy  0 .

Ans. 1  2  3 , ß 2 r 2  1 , 2r  2 ,  2  n2r 2  0

  2, ß  r  1, n2

Hence the solution is

y  x 2 c1 J 2 x   c2Y2 x .

Q.26 Recurrence Relations of BESSEL function

𝑑
1. Prove that 𝑑𝑥 ⌈𝑥 𝑛 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥)⌉ = 𝑥 𝑛 𝐽𝑛−1 (𝑥)

Proof: Since
(−1)𝑘 𝑥 𝑛+2𝑘
𝐽𝑛 (𝑥) = ∑∞
𝑘=0 𝑘!Γ(𝑛+𝑘+1) (2 )

∞
𝑛
(−1)𝑘 𝑥 2𝑛+2𝑘
𝑥 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥) = ∑
2𝑛+2𝑘 𝑘! Γ(𝑛 + 𝑘 + 1)
𝑘=0

∞ ∞
𝑑 𝑛 (−1)𝑘 (2𝑛 + 2𝑘)𝑥 2𝑛+2𝑘−1 𝑛
(−1)𝑘 (𝑛 + 𝑘)𝑥 𝑛+2𝑘−1
⌈𝑥 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥)⌉ = ∑ = 𝑥 ∑ 𝑛+2𝑘−1
𝑑𝑥 2𝑛+2𝑘 𝑘! Γ(𝑛 + 𝑘 + 1) 2 𝑘! (𝑛 + 𝑘)Γ(𝑛 + 𝑘)
𝑘=0 𝑘=0

∞ ∞
𝑛
(−1)𝑘 𝑥 𝑛+2𝑘−1 (−1)𝑘 𝑥 𝑛+2𝑘−1
=𝑥 ∑ ( ) = 𝑥𝑛 ∑ ( )
𝑘! Γ(𝑛 + 𝑘) 2 𝑘! Γ(𝑛 − 1 + 𝑘 + 1) 2
𝑘=0 𝑘=0

= 𝑥 𝑛 𝐽𝑛−1 (𝑥)

𝑑
II) Prove that ⌈𝑥 −𝑛 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥)⌉ = −𝑥 −𝑛 𝐽𝑛+1 (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

(−1)𝑘 𝑥 𝑛+2𝑘
Since 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥) = ∑∞
𝑘=0 𝑘!Γ(𝑛+𝑘+1) (2 )

∞
−𝑛
(−1)𝑘 𝑥 2𝑘
𝑥 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥) = ∑
2𝑛+2𝑘 𝑘! Γ(𝑛 + 𝑘 + 1)
𝑘=0
 ∞
𝑑 −𝑛 (−1)𝑘 (2𝑘)𝑥 2𝑘−1
⌈𝑥 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥)⌉ = ∑ 𝑛+2𝑘
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑘(𝑘 − 1)! Γ(𝑛 + 𝑘 + 1)
𝑘=0
∞
−𝑛
(−1)𝑘−1 𝑥 𝑛+2𝑘−1
=𝑥 ∑ 𝑛+3𝑘−1
2 (𝑘 − 1)! (𝑛 + 𝑘)Γ(𝑛 + 𝑘 + 1)
𝑘=0
∞
(−1)𝑟 𝑥 𝑛+2𝑘+1
= −𝑥 −𝑛 ∑ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 = 𝑘 − 1
2𝑛+2𝑟+1 𝑟! Γ(𝑛 + 𝑟 + 2)
𝑘=0

∞
−𝑛
(−1)𝑟 𝑥 𝑛+1+2𝑟
= −𝑥 ∑ ( ) = −𝑥 −𝑛 𝐽𝑛+1 (𝑥)
𝑟! Γ(𝑛 + 1 + 𝑟 + 1) 2
𝑘=0

𝑛
III) Prove that 𝐽𝑛 , (𝑥) + 𝐽 (𝑥) = 𝐽𝑛−1 (𝑥)
𝑥 𝑛

Proof:

𝑑 𝑛
⌈𝑥 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥)⌉ = 𝑥 𝑛 𝐽𝑛−1 (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

=> 𝑥 𝑛 𝐽𝑛 , (𝑥) + 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 𝐽𝑛−1 (𝑥)

𝑛
Dividing by 𝑥 𝑛 , we have 𝐽𝑛 , (𝑥) + 𝐽 (𝑥) = 𝐽𝑛−1 (𝑥)____________________(1)
𝑥 𝑛

𝑛
IV) Prove that 𝐽𝑛 , (𝑥) − 𝐽 (𝑥)
𝑥 𝑛
= −𝐽𝑛+1 (𝑥)

𝑑
Proof: ⌈𝑥 𝑛 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥)⌉ = 𝑥 𝑛 𝐽𝑛−1 (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

=> 𝑥 −𝑛 𝐽𝑛 , (𝑥) − 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥) = −𝑥 −𝑛 𝐽𝑛+1 (𝑥)

Multiplying by 𝑥 𝑛 , we have

𝑛
𝐽𝑛 , (𝑥) − 𝐽 (𝑥) = −𝐽𝑛+1 (𝑥)_ ______________________________________(2)
𝑥 𝑛

V) Prove that 2𝐽𝑛 , (𝑥) = 𝐽𝑛−1 (𝑥) − 𝐽𝑛+1 (𝑥)

Adding (1) and (2)

We have 2𝐽𝑛 , (𝑥) = 𝐽𝑛−1 (𝑥) − 𝐽𝑛+1 (𝑥) ________________________________(3)

2𝑛
VI) Prove that 𝐽 (𝑥) = 𝐽𝑛−1 (𝑥) + 𝐽𝑛+1 (𝑥)
𝑥 𝑛

Proof: Subtracting (2) from (1)

2𝑛
We get 𝐽 (𝑥)
𝑥 𝑛
= 𝐽𝑛−1 (𝑥) + 𝐽𝑛+1 (𝑥)

Q.27 Recurrence Relations for 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥)

i) (2𝑛 + 1)𝑥𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = (𝑛 + 1)𝑃𝑛+1 (𝑥) + 𝑛𝑃𝑛−1 (𝑥)

ii) 𝑛𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑥𝑃𝑛 , (𝑥) − 𝑃𝑛−1 , (𝑥)
iii) (2𝑛 + 1)𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑃𝑛+1 , (𝑥) − 𝑃𝑛−1 , (𝑥)
iv) 𝑃𝑛 , (𝑥) = 𝑥𝑃𝑛−1 , (𝑥) + 𝑛𝑃𝑛−1 (𝑥)
v) (1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑃𝑛 , (𝑥) = 𝑛[𝑃𝑛−1 (𝑥) − 𝑥𝑃𝑛 (𝑥)]
vi) (1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑃𝑛 , (𝑥) = (𝑛 + 1)[𝑥𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) − 𝑃𝑛+1 (𝑥)]
−1
Proof: (1 − 2𝑥𝑧 + 𝑧 2 ) 2 = ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 ℎ 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) (1)
Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t h, we get
∞
−1 −3
(1 − 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 ) 2 (2ℎ − 2𝑥) = ∑ 𝑛ℎ𝑛−1 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥)
2
𝑛=0
∞
−1
(𝑥 − ℎ)(1 − 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 ) 2 = (1 − 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ ) ∑ 𝑛ℎ𝑛−1 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥)
2

𝑛=0

∞ ∞

(𝑥 − ℎ) ∑ ℎ 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = (1 − 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ ) ∑ 𝑛ℎ𝑛−1 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥)

𝑛 2

𝑛=0 𝑛=0
𝑛−1
Equating coefficients of ℎ on both sides,

x𝑃𝑛−1 (𝑥) − 𝑃𝑛−2 (𝑥) = 𝑛𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) − 2𝑥(𝑛 − 1)𝑃𝑛−1 (𝑥) + (𝑛 − 2)𝑃𝑛−2 (𝑥)
𝑛𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = (2𝑛 − 1)𝑥𝑃𝑛−1 (𝑥) − (𝑛 − 1) 𝑃𝑛−2 (𝑥)
 Replacing n by n+1, we get
(𝑛 + 1)𝑃𝑛+1 (𝑥) = (2𝑛 + 1)𝑥𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) − 𝑛𝑃𝑛−1 (𝑥)
−1
ii) we know that : (1 − 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 ) 2 = ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 ℎ 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥)

Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t h, we get

∞
−1 −3
(1 − 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 ) 2 (2ℎ − 2𝑥) = ∑ 𝑛ℎ𝑛−1 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥)
2
𝑛=0
∞
−1
(𝑥 − ℎ)(1 − 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 ) 2 = (1 − 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ ) ∑ 𝑛ℎ𝑛−1 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥)
2

𝑛=0

∞ ∞

(𝑥 − ℎ) ∑ ℎ 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = (1 − 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ ) ∑ 𝑛ℎ𝑛−1 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥)

𝑛 2

𝑛=0 𝑛=0

Differentiating both sides w.r.t x

∞
−1 −3
(1 − 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 ) 2 (−2ℎ) = ∑ ℎ𝑛 𝑃′ 𝑛 (𝑥)
2
𝑛=0
∞
−3
(𝑥 − ℎ)(1 − 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 ) 2 = (𝑥 − ℎ) ∑ ℎ𝑛−1 ) 𝑃′ 𝑛 (𝑥)
𝑛=0

Comparing the coefficient of ℎ𝑛−1 on both sides, we get

𝑛𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑥𝑃𝑛 , (𝑥) − 𝑃𝑛−1 , (𝑥)

iii) From recurrence relation (i) (2𝑛 + 1)𝑥𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = (𝑛 + 1)𝑃𝑛+1 (𝑥) + 𝑛𝑃𝑛−1 (𝑥)

Differentiating w.r.t.x, we get

(2𝑛 + 1)[𝑥𝑃𝑛 , (𝑥) + 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥)] = (𝑛 + 1)𝑃, 𝑛+1 (𝑥) + 𝑛𝑃, 𝑛−1 (𝑥) ………………….(1)

𝑥𝑃𝑛 , (𝑥) = 𝑛𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) + 𝑃, 𝑛−1 (𝑥)

From (1) (2𝑛 + 1)[𝑛𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) + 𝑃, 𝑛−1 (𝑥) + 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥)] = (𝑛 + 1)𝑃, 𝑛+1 (𝑥) + 𝑛𝑃, 𝑛−1 (𝑥)

Hence (2𝑛 + 1)𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑃𝑛+1 , (𝑥) − 𝑃𝑛−1 , (𝑥)

 (iv) From recurrence relation (iii) (2𝑛 + 1)𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑃𝑛+1 , (𝑥) − 𝑃𝑛−1 , (𝑥)
From recurrence relation (ii) 𝑛𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑥𝑃𝑛 , (𝑥) − 𝑃𝑛−1 , (𝑥)

(𝑛 + 1)𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑃𝑛+1 , (𝑥) − 𝑥𝑃𝑛 , (𝑥)

V) From recurrence relation (iv) 𝑃𝑛 , (𝑥) = 𝑥𝑃𝑛−1 , (𝑥) + 𝑛𝑃𝑛−1 (𝑥)………………1

From recurrence relation (ii) 𝑛𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑥𝑃𝑛 , (𝑥) − 𝑃𝑛−1 , (𝑥)…………………….2
Multiplying (2) by x subtracting from (1), we have

(1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑃𝑛 , (𝑥) = 𝑛[𝑃𝑛−1 (𝑥) − 𝑥𝑃𝑛 (𝑥)]

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
(vi) From recurrence relation (i) (𝑛 + 1 + 𝑛̅)𝑥𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = (𝑛 + 1)𝑃𝑛+1 (𝑥) + 𝑛𝑃𝑛−1 (𝑥)
(𝑛 + 1)𝑥𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) + 𝑛𝑥𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = (𝑛 + 1)𝑃𝑛+1 (𝑥) + 𝑛𝑃𝑛−1 (𝑥)

(𝑛 + 1)[𝑥𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) − 𝑃𝑛+1 (𝑥)] = (1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑃𝑛 , (𝑥)

∴ (1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑃𝑛 , (𝑥) = (𝑛 + 1)[𝑥𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) − 𝑃𝑛+1 (𝑥)]

Q.28 Show that x4 

1
8P4 x   20 P2 x   7 P0 x .
35

Ans. P4 x  
1
8

35 x 4  30 x 2  3 

P2 x   
1 2
2
3x  1 
P0 x   1

Hence
1  1

35  8
 1
 

8 35 x 4  30 x 2  3  20 3x 2  1  7  x 4 
2 

Q.29 Express f x   x3  5x 2  x  2 in terms of Legendre’s polynomials.

 x 2  P2 x   ;
2 1
x 3  P3 x   x ; x  P1 x  ; P0 x   1
2 3
Ans.
5 5 3 3

2 3  2 1
x3  5 x 2  x  2   P3 x   x   5 P2 x     P1 x   2 P0 x 
5 5  3 3

 P3 x   P2 x   P1 x   P0 x 
2 10 8 1
5 3 5 3