Course Title: Mobile Cellular Communication

Course Code: EEE 465

Course Conducted by
Md. Motiur Rahman Tareq
Lecturer, Dept. of EEE, HSTU.

Reference Book
Wireless Communications Principles and Practice
By
Theodore S. Rappaport
Equalization, Diversity, and Channel Coding
Topics
❖ Inter Symbol Interference
❖ Definition: Equalization, Diversity and Channel Coding
❖ Fundamentals of Equalization
❖ Equalization Techniques
❖ Linear and Nonlinear Equalizer
❖ Diversity
❖ RAKE Receiver
❖ Fundamental of Channel Coding
 INTER SYMBOL INTERFERENCE(ISI)

▪ Definition: Delay spread (frequency-selective fading), in which a bit

arrives at the receiver at different times because of the different paths
taken, causing bits to run into each other and thus cause inter-symbol
interference (ISI). This limits the usable digital signaling rate far a given
rate.
▪ In other words, if the modulation bandwidth exceeds the coherence
bandwidth of the radio channel, Inter Symbol Interference or ISI occurs.
This causes significant error in high bit rate systems.
Inter Symbol Interference Representation
 Equalization, Diversity, and Channel Coding
❑ Wireless communication systems require signal processing techniques
that improve the link performance in hostile mobile radio
environments.
❑ Equalization, diversity, and channel coding are three techniques
which can be used independently or in tandem to improve received
signal quality and link performance over small-scale times and
distances.
 Equalization

❑ Equalization compensates for Inter Symbol Interference (ISI) created

by multipath within time dispersive channels.
❑ An Equalizer within a receiver compensates for the average range of
expected channel amplitude and delay characteristics. Equalizers
must be adaptive as the channel is generally unknown and time
varying.
 Diversity
▪ Diversity is another technique used to compensate for fading channel
impairments.
▪ It is usually implemented by using two or more receiving antennas.
➢ While Equalization is used to counter the effects of ISI, Diversity is
usually employed to reduce the depth and duration of the fades
experienced by a receiver in a flat fading channel.
➢ These techniques can be employed at both base station and mobile
receivers.
➢ Spatial Diversity is the most widely used diversity technique.
 Channel Coding
▪ Channel coding improves the small-scale link performance by adding
redundant data bits in the transmitted message so that if an instantaneous
fade occurs in the channel, the data may still be recovered at the receiver.
▪ In this technique, the base band portion of the transmitter, a channel
coder maps a digital message sequence into another specific containing
greater number of bits than originally contained in the message. The
coded message is then modulated for transmission in the wireless
channel.
 CHANNEL CODING (CONT’D)
▪ Channel Coding is used by the receiver to detect or correct some or all
of the errors introduced by the channel in a particular sequence of
message bits. The added coding bits lower these raw data transmission
rate through the channel.
▪ There are two types of codes: Block codes and Convolutional codes.
 Fundamentals of Equalization

❑ ISI has been recognized as the major obstacle to high speed data
transmission over mobile radio channels.
❑ Equalization is a technique used to combat inter symbol interference.
As the mobile fading channels are random and time varying,
equalizers must track the time varying characteristics of the mobile
channel, and thus are called adaptive equalizers.
 Equalization Techniques
❑ The term equalization can be used to describe any signal
processing operation that minimizes ISI.
❑ Two operation modes for an adaptive equalizer: Training and
Tracking.
❑ Three factors affect the time spanning over which an equalizer
converges: equalizer algorithm, equalizer structure and time rate
of change of the multipath radio channel.
❑ TDMA wireless systems are particularly well suited for equalizers
 Training Mode

❑ Initially, a known, fixed length training sequence is sent by the

transmitter so that the receiver’s equalizer may average to a proper
setting.
❑ The training sequence is a pseudo random signal or a fixed,
prescribed bit pattern. Immediately following the training sequence,
the user data is sent.
 Tracking Mode
❑ When the data of the users are received, the adaptive algorithm of the
equalizer tracks the changing channel. As a result of this, the adaptive
equalizer continuously changes the filter characteristics over time.
❑ Equalizers are widely used in TDMA Systems.
 Implementation of an Equalizer
▪ Equalizer is usually implemented at baseband or at intermediate
frequency (IF) in a receiver shown in Figure-1.

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 ⊗ 𝑓 ∗ 𝑡 + 𝑛𝑏 𝑡
Where,
𝑓 ∗ 𝑡 denotes the complex conjugate of f(t),
𝑛𝑏 𝑡 is the baseband noise at the input of the equalizer,
ℎ𝑒𝑞 𝑡 is the impulse response of the equalizer.
 Block Diagram of Adaptive Equalizer

Figure-1: Block diagram of a simplified communications system using an adaptive equalizer at the receiver
 To prove that equalizer is an inverse filter of
the channel
Let, 𝑥 𝑡 is the original information signal and f 𝑡 is the combined complex
baseband impulse response of the transmitter, channel and RF/IF sections of
the receiver.
The signal received by the equalizer may be expressed as

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 ⊗ 𝑓 ∗ 𝑡 + 𝑛𝑏 𝑡

Where, 𝑓 ∗ 𝑡 denotes the complex conjugate of f(t), 𝑛𝑏 𝑡 is the baseband

noise at the input of the equalizer,⊗ denotes the convolution operation.
Also let ℎ𝑒𝑞 𝑡 is impulse response of the equalizer,
Then output of the Equalizer is
𝑑መ 𝑡 = 𝑦 𝑡 ∗ ℎ𝑒𝑞 𝑡
𝑑መ 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 ⊗ 𝑓 ∗ 𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑞 𝑡 + 𝑛𝑏 𝑡 ⊗ ℎ𝑒𝑞 𝑡
𝑑መ 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 ⊗ 𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑛𝑏 𝑡 ⊗ ℎ𝑒𝑞 𝑡
Where 𝑔 𝑡 is combined impulse response of the transmitter (Tx),
channel , the RF/IF section of the Receiver (Rx) and the equalizer.
The complex baseband impulse response of a transversal filter equalizer
is given by
ℎ𝑒𝑞 𝑡 = ෍ 𝑐𝑛 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇

Where 𝑐𝑛 are the complex filter coefficients of the equalizer.

The desired output of the equalizer is 𝑥 𝑡 , the original source data.
Assume that 𝑛𝑏 𝑡 =0. Then, in order to force 𝑑መ 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 ; 𝑔 𝑡 must
be equal to
𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑓 ∗ 𝑡 ⊗ ℎ𝑒𝑞 𝑡 = 𝛿 𝑡
The goal of equalization is to satisfy the above equation. In the
frequency domain the above equation can be expressed as (after taking
Fourier Transform)
𝐻𝑒𝑞 𝑓 𝐹 ∗ −𝑓 = 1
Where 𝐻𝑒𝑞 𝑓 and 𝐹 𝑓 are Fourier transforms of ℎ𝑒𝑞 𝑡 and
f 𝑡 respectively.
Hence proved (The above last equation indicates that an equalizer is
actually an inverse filter of the channel).
 Equalization Techniques

Two general categories - linear and nonlinear equalization (shown in

classification)
In Figure-1, if d(t) is not used in the feedback path to adapt the equalizer,
the equalization is linear.
In Figure-1, if d(t) is fed back to change the subsequent outputs of the
equalizer, the equalization is nonlinear.
Classification of Equalizer
 Full Form

▪ Decision Feedback Equalization (DFE)

▪ Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimation (MLSE) Equalizer
▪ Zero Forcing(ZF) Algorithms
▪ Least Mean Squares(LMS) Algorithms
▪ Recursive Least Squares(RLS) Algorithms
▪ Linear transversal equalizer (LTE, made up of tapped delay lines
as shown in Figure-4).
Most Common Structure: Linear Transversal Equalizer (LTE)
▪ LTE is made up of tapped delay lines, with the tapping spaced symbol period (𝑇𝑠 ) apart
as shown in Figure-2.
▪ The transfer function can be written as a function of the delay operator 𝑇𝑠 .
▪ Assuming that the delay elements have unity gain and delay 𝑇𝑠 , the transfer function of a
LTE can be written as a function of the delay operator exp −𝑗𝜔𝑇𝑠 or 𝑧 −1 .

Figure-2 : Basic linear transversal equalizer structure

 Most common structure: Linear transversal equalizer (LTE)

❑ Two types of LTE

1. Finite Impulse Response (FIR) Filter

➢ The simplest LTE uses only feedforward taps.
➢ Transfer function of the equalizer filter is a polynomial function in 𝑧 −1 .
➢ The filter has many zeros but poles only at z=0 and is called a FIR filter.
➢ Usually simply called a transversal filter.
 Infinite Impulse Response (IIR) Filter

▪ The equalizer has both feedforward and feedback taps.

▪ Transfer function is a rational function of 𝑧 −1 with poles and zeros.
▪ Since IIR filters tend to be unstable when used in channels where the
strongest pulse arrives after an echo pulse.
A tapped delay line filter with both feed forward and feedback taps is shown
below Figure-3

Figure- 3: Tapped delay line filter with both feed forward and feedback taps
 Linear Equalizer
Transversal Filter Implementation:
▪ This type of equalizer is the simplest

Figure-4: Structure of a linear transversal equalizer

 Linear Equalizer

▪ Current and past values of the received signal are linearly weighted by
the filter coefficient and summed to produce the output.
▪ If the delays and the tap gains are analog, the continuous output of the
equalizer is sampled at the symbol rate and the samples are applied to the
decision device.
▪ Implementations is usually carried out in the digital domain where the
samples of the received signal are stored in a shift register
 Linear Equalizer Contd..
▪ The output before decision making (threshold detection) is

Where 𝑐𝑛∗ represents the complex filter coefficients or tap weights. 𝑑መ 𝑘 is the
output at time index 𝑘, 𝑦𝑖 is the input received signal at time 𝑡0 + ⅈ𝑇, 𝑡0 is the
equalizer starting time and N=N1+N2+1 is the number of taps.
▪ The minimum MSE that a linear transversal equalizer can achieve is

ሶ
Where 𝐹 e 𝐽𝜔𝑡 is the frequency response of the channel and 𝑁0 is the noise
spectral density.
 Nonlinear Equalization
▪ Linear equalizers do not perform well on channels which have deep
spectral nulls in the passband.
▪ In an attempt to compensate for the distortion, the linear equalizer
place too much gain in the vicinity of the spectral null, thereby
enhancing the noise present in those frequencies.
▪ Nonlinear equalizers are used in applications where the channel
distortion is too severe for a linear equalizer to handle, and are
commonplace in practical wireless system.
 Nonlinear Equalizers Contd..

Three very effective nonlinear equalizer

▪ Decision Feedback Equalization (DFE)
▪ Maximum Likelihood Symbol Detection
▪ Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimation (MLSE)
 Decision Feedback Equalization (DFE)
Basic Idea: Once an information symbol has been detected and decided
upon, the ISI that it induces on future symbols can be estimated and
subtracted out before detection of subsequent symbols.
▪ DFE can be realized in either the direct transversal form or as a lattice
filter.
▪ The LTE form consists of a feedforward filter (FFF) and a feedback filter
(FBF).
▪ The FBF is driven by decisions on the output of the detector and its
coefficients can be adjusted to cancel the ISI on the current symbol from
past detected symbols.
▪ The equalizer has 𝑁1 + 𝑁2 +1 taps in FFF and 𝑁3 in FBF.
Decision Feedback Equalization (DFE)

Figure-5: Decision Feedback Equalization (DFE)

Decision Feedback Equalization (DFE) contd..

The output of DFE is

Where 𝑐𝑛 and 𝑦𝑛 are tap gains and the inputs respectively the forward
filter, 𝐹𝑖 are tap gains for the feedback filter and 𝑑𝑖 (i<k) is the previous
decision made on the detected signal.
The minimum mean square error ( MSE) is

It can be seen that the minimum MSE for a DFE is always smaller than
that of an LTE
 Maximum Likelihood Sequence Equalizer (MLSE)
The MLSE-based linear equalizers are optimum with respect to the criterion
of minimum probability of symbol error when the channel does not
introduce any amplitude distortion.
Yet this is precisely the condition in which an equalizer is needed for a
mobile communications link.
MLSE uses various forms of the classical maximum likelihood receiver
structure.
▪ The MLSE tests all possible data sequences ( rather than decoding each
received symbol by itself) and chooses the data sequence with the
maximum probability as the output.
▪ A channel impulse response simulator is used within the algorithm.
 Maximum Likelihood Sequence Equalizer(MLSE)
▪ Drawback: An MLSE usually has a large computational requirement
especially when the delay spread of the channel is large.

Figure-6: The structure of a maximum likelihood sequence estimator (MLSE)

with an adaptive match filter
▪ The MLSE can be viewed as a problem in estimating the state of a
discrete time finite state machine.
▪ The channel has 𝑀𝐿 states, where M is the size if the symbol alphabet
of the modulation.
▪ An 𝑀𝐿 trellis is used by the receiver to model the channel over time.
▪ The Viterbi algorithm then tracks the state of the channel by the paths
through the trellis.
▪ The MLSE is optimal in the sense that it minimizes the probability of a
sequence error.
 Diversity
Topics
▪ Diversity
▪ Space Diversity
Selection Diversity
Scanning Diversity
Maximum Ratio Combining
Equal Gain Combining
▪ Polarization Diversity
▪ Frequency Diversity
▪ Time Diversity
 Diversity
❑ Diversity is a powerful communication receiver technique that
provides wireless link improvement at relatively low cost.
❑ Requires no training overhead
❑ Can provides significant link improvement with little added cost
❑ Diversity decisions are made by the receiver (Rx), and are unknown to the
transmitter (Tx).
❑ Two types of diversity
➢ Microscopic diversity Small scale fading
➢ Macroscopic diversity Large scale fading
 Diversity Contd..
▪ A diversity scheme is a method that is used to develop information from
several signals transmitted over independent fading paths.
▪ It exploits the random nature of radio propagation by finding independent
(uncorrelated) signal paths for communication.
❑ Diversity concept:
➢ If one radio path undergoes a deep fade, another independent path may have
a strong signal.
➢ By having more than one path to select from, both the instantaneous and
average SNRs at the receiver may be improved, often by as much as 20 dB to
30 dB
 Diversity Technique
Objectives:
▪ Combining the multiple signals in such a fashion so as to reduce the effects of
excessive deep fades.
Types:
 Frequency Diversity

Principle :
The same information signal is transmitted and received simultaneously on
two or more independent fading carrier frequencies.
▪ Transmits information more than one carrier frequency.
▪ The rational behind this technique is that frequencies separated by more
than the coherence bandwidth of the channel will not experience the same
fade.
▪ Frequency Diversity is often employed in microwave LOS links which
carry several channels in a frequency division multiplex mode(FDM).
 Frequency Diversity Contd..

▪ Disadvantages: This technique not only requires spare bandwidth, but also
requires that there be as many receivers as there are channels used for the
frequency diversity.
▪ However, for critical traffic, the expense may be justified.
▪ If a particular frequency undergoes a fade, the composite signal will still be
demodulated.
 Time Diversity
Principle :
The signals representing the same information are sent over the same
channel at different times.
▪ Time Diversity repeatedly transmits information at time spacing that
exceeds the coherence time of the channel.
▪ Multiple repetitions of the signal will be received with multiple fading
conditions, thereby providing for diversity.
▪ A modern implementation of time diversity involves the use of RAKE
receiver for spread spectrum CDMA, where multipath channel provides
redundancy in the transmitted message.
 RAKE Receiver
Learning objectives
▪ Multipath
▪ Rake Introduction
▪ How does it work?
▪ Role of Rake receiver
▪ Block diagram
▪ Use. advantage, disadvantage
▪ Conclusion
 Multipath
▪ Multipath occurs when RF
signal arrives at the destination
via different paths due to the
reflected transmitted signal
from moving or fixed objects.
▪ The RAKE receiver uses a
multipath diversity principle. It
rake the energy from the
multipath propagated signal
components.
 What is RAKE Receiver?
▪ A Rake Receiver is radio receiver designed to counter the
effects of multipath fading.
▪ Several “ sub receiver” called fingers are used.
▪ RAKE receiver attempts to collect the time shifted versions
of the original signal by providing a separate correlation
receiver for each of the multipath signals.
▪ Rake receiver is used in CDMA and W-CDMA as an
efficient way of multipath signal reception, where several
receptors are able to reconstruct the signal with different
time-codes, amplitude and phase.
 An M-branch RAKE Receiver
An M-branch (M-finger) RAKE receiver implementation. Each correlator detects a time shifted
version of the original CDMA transmission, and each finger of the RAKE correlates to a portion
of the signal which is delayed by at least one chip in time from the other fingers.
 How does it work?
▪ The outputs of each correlator are weighted to provide
better estimate of the transmitted signal than provided by a
single component.
▪ Demodulation is then based on the weighted outputs of the
M-correlators.

Role of RAKE receiver

▪ Equalize the effects of multipath
▪ Spread out the individual echo signals of the multipath.
▪ Each signal is then delayed according to peaks found in the
receiver signal.
 Uses, Advantages and Disadvantages
Uses:
▪ CDMA & W-CDMA radio devices- Mobile Phones & Wireless
LAN
▪ Radio astronomy
Advantages:
▪ Improved SNR
▪ Improved performance
Disadvantages:
▪ Cost, size and complexity.
 Fundamental of Channel Coding
Channel coding protects digital data from errors by selectively introducing
redundancies the transmitted data.
Channels codes that are used to detect errors are called error detection
codes, while codes that can detect and correct errors are called error
correction codes.
Shannon’s channel capacity formula is applicable to the AWGN (An AWGN
channel adds white Gaussian noise to the signal that passes through it) and
is given by

Where C is the channel capacity (bits per second), B is the transmission

bandwidth (Hz), P is the received power signal power(W) and N0 is the single
sided noise power density (W/Hz).
 Fundamental of Channel Coding
The received power at a receiver is given as

𝑃 = 𝐸𝑏 𝑅𝑏
Where 𝐸𝑏 is the average bit energy and 𝑅𝑏 is the transmission bit rate.
Bandwidth efficiency is given by

Basic purpose of error detection and correction techniques is to

introduce redundancies in the data to improve wireless link
performance.
 Block Codes
▪ Block codes are forward error correction (FEC) codes that enable
a limited numbers of error to be detected and corrected without
retransmission .
▪ Block codes can be used to improve the performance of a
communication system when other means of improvement (such as
increasing transmitter power or using a more sophisticated
demodulator) are impractical.
▪ In block codes, parity bits are added to blocks of message bits to
make codewords or code blocks.
▪ The ability of a block code to correct errors is a function of the code
distance.