Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Sets 5

Section 1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Section 1.2 Union and Intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Section 1.3 Complements and Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Chapter 2 The Real Number System 6

Section 2.1 The Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Section 2.2 Absolute Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Section 2.3 Exponents and Radicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Chapter 3 Expressions and Equations 13

Section 3.1 Algebraic Expressions and Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Section 3.2 Factoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Section 3.3 Rational Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Section 3.4 Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Section 3.5 Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Chapter 4 Coordinate Geometry 21

Section 4.1 The Cartesian Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Section 4.2 The Distance and Midpoint Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Section 4.3 Graphs and Intercepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Section 4.4 Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Section 4.5 Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Chapter 5 Variation 26

Section 5.1 Direct Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Section 5.2 Inverse Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Section 5.3 Joint Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

1
Chapter 6 Complex Numbers 28

Section 6.1 Arithmetic with Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Section 6.2 The Complex Conjugate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Chapter 7 Functions 29

Section 7.1 The Definition of Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Section 7.2 Graphs of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Section 7.3 Even and Odd Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Section 7.4 Combinations of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Section 7.5 Transformations of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Section 7.6 One-to-One and Onto Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Section 7.7 Inverses of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Chapter 8 Linear Functions 42

Section 8.1 Slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Section 8.2 Equations of Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Section 8.3 Parallel Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Section 8.4 Perpendicular Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Section 8.5 Linear Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Chapter 9 Polynomial Functions 45

Section 9.1 Quadratic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Section 9.2 Polynomial Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Section 9.3 Roots of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Chapter 10 Rational Functions and Asymptotes 53

Section 10.1 Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Section 10.2 Infinite Limits and Vertical Asymptotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Section 10.3 Limits at Infinity and Horizontal Asymptotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Section 10.4 Oblique Asymptotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Chapter 11 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 59

Section 11.1 Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Section 11.2 Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Section 11.3 Exponential Growth and Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

2
 Section 11.4 Logistic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Section 11.5 Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Chapter 12 Introduction to Trigonometry 64

Section 12.1 Radian and Degree Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Section 12.2 Area and Arc Length of a Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Section 12.3 The Unit Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Section 12.4 Right Triangle Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Chapter 13 Trigonometric Functions and Identities 73

Section 13.1 Periodic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Section 13.2 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Section 13.3 Trigonometric Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Section 13.4 Trigonometric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Section 13.5 Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Chapter 14 Additional Topics in Trigonometry 83

Section 14.1 The Law of Sines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Section 14.2 The Law of Cosines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Section 14.3 Heron’s Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Chapter 15 Vectors 87

Section 15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Section 15.2 Vector Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Section 15.3 The Dot Product and Norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Section 15.4 Angles Between Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Section 15.5 The Triangle Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Chapter 16 Trigonometry and Complex Numbers 91

Section 16.1 The Complex Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Section 16.2 The Trigonometric Form of a Complex Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Section 16.3 Multiplying and Dividing Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Section 16.4 DeMoivre’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Chapter 17 Conic Sections 93

Section 17.1 Parabolas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

3
 Section 17.2 Ellipses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Section 17.3 Hyperbolas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Section 17.4 Translations of Conics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Chapter 18 Plane and Polar Curves 98

Section 18.1 Plane Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

Section 18.2 Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Section 18.3 Polar Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Chapter 19 Conic Sections Revisited 107

Section 19.1 Rotations of Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Section 19.2 Conic Sections and Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Chapter 20 Induction 113

4
 Chapter 1: Sets

Section 1.1: Introduction

Definition 1: A set is an unordered collection of objects.

Example 2: The following are examples of sets.

(a) {1, 2, 7};

(b) {a, b, c};

(c) {a, b, 9, 10, δ};

(d) {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, . . .}.

Notation 3: If an object x is contained in a set X, we say x is an element of X and write x ∈ X.

Otherwise, we say x is not an element of X and write x ∈

/ X.

Example 4: Consider the following.

(a) 2 ∈ {1, 2, 3};

(b) a ∈ {a, b, c};

(c) 3 ∈
/ {1, 2, 4};

(d) d ∈
/ {a, b, c}.

Definition 5: The empty set, written either ∅ or {}, is the set with no elements.

Note 6: The set {∅} is not empty; it is the set containing the empty set.

Definition 7: A singleton is a set containing one element.

Definition 8: A set X is a subset of a set Y if every element of X is contained in Y and write

X ⊆Y.

Section 1.2: Union and Intersection

Definition 9: Let X and Y be sets.

(i) The union of X and Y is the set X ∪ Y = {x | x ∈ X or x ∈ Y }.

(ii) The intersection of X and Y is the set X ∩ Y = {x | x ∈ X and x ∈ Y }.

Example 10: Set X = {1, 2, 7, a, c} and Y = {2, 3, 4, a, b}.

(a) X ∪ Y = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, a, b, c}

(b) X ∩ Y = {2, a}.

Definition 11: Two sets are disjoint if their intersection is the empty set.

Example 12: The sets {1, 2, 3} and {4, 5, 6} are disjoint.

5
 Section 1.3: Complements and Products
Definition 13: Let X and Y be sets. The complement of X relative to Y is the set X \ Y = {x ∈

X|x∈
/ Y }.

Example 14: Set X = {1, 2, 7, a, c} and Y = {2, 3, 4, a, b}.

(a) X \ Y = {1, 7, c}

(b) Y \ X = {3, 4, b}.

Definition 15: Let X and Y be sets. The Cartesian product of X and Y is the set X × Y =

{(x, y) | x ∈ X and y ∈ Y }.

Example 16: Set X = {1, a} and Y = {2, b}.

(a) X × Y = {(1, 2), (1, b), (a, 2), (a, b)}

(b) Y × X = {(2, 1), (2, a), (b, 1), (b, a)}.

Chapter 2: The Real Number System

Section 2.1: The Real Numbers

Notation 17: The following are common sets of numbers we will use throughout this text.

(i) (Natural Numbers) N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .};

(ii) (Whole Numbers) ω = N ∪ {0};

(iii) (Integers) Z = {±n | n ∈ ω};

 
p
(iv) (Rational Numbers) Q = | p, q ∈ Z and q ̸= 0 ;
q
(v) (Real Numbers) R (definition below);

(vi) (Irrational Numbers) R \ Q.

Definition 18: The set of real numbers is the set

R = {(−1)b (x0 .x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 . . .) | b ∈ {0, 1}, x0 ∈ ω, and xi ∈ {0, 1, 2, . . . , 9} for every i ∈ N}.

Note 19: Consider R with the usual operations of addition and multiplication.

A1. (Closure and Commutativity of Addition) For every a, b ∈ R, a + b ∈ R and a + b = b + a

A2. (Associativity of Addition) For every a, b, c ∈ R, a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c

A3. (Additive Identity) There is a 0 ∈ R such that for all a ∈ R, a + 0 = 0 + a = a

A4. (Additive Inverse) For all a ∈ R, there is a −a ∈ R such that a + (−a) = −a + a = 0

6
M1. (Closure and Commutativity of Multiplication) For every a, b ∈ R, ab ∈ R and ab = ba

M2. (Associativity of Multiplication) For every a, b, c ∈ R, a(bc) = (ab)c

M3. (Multiplicative Identity) There is a 1 ∈ R such that for all a ∈ R, 1a = a1 = a

M4. (Multiplicative Inverse) For all a ∈ R \ {0}, there is an a−1 ∈ R such that aa−1 = a−1 a = 1

AM1. (Distributivity) For all a, b, c ∈ R, (a + b)c = ac + bc

Proposition 20 (Uniqueness of Identity and Inverse):

(i) If a, b ∈ R and a + b = a, then b = 0.

(ii) If a, b ∈ R and ab = a, then b = 1.

(iii) If a, b ∈ R and a + b = 0, then b = −a.

(iv) If a, b ∈ R and ab = 1, then b = a−1 .

Proof: For (i), suppose a, b ∈ R and a + b = a. Then,

b
=b+0
= b + (a + (−a))
= (b + a) + (−a)
= (a + b) + (−a)
= a + (−a)
= 0.

Thus, b = 0.

The proofs of parts (ii) and (iii) are left as an exercise for the reader. ■

For (iv), suppose a, b ∈ R, a ̸= 0, and ab = 1. Then,

b
= b1
= b(aa−1 )
= (ba)a−1
= (ab)a−1
= 1a−1
= a−1 .

Thus, b = a−1 . ■

Proposition 21:

(i) If a ∈ R, then a · 0 = 0.

(ii) If a, b ∈ R and ab = 0, then one of a and b is 0.

(iii) If a ∈ R, then (−1)a = −a.

Proof: For (i), note that a0 = a(0 + 0) = a0 + a0, and so, a0 = 0.

For (ii), suppose a, b ∈ R and ab = 0. If a = 0, there is nothing to show. So suppose a ̸= 0 and

consider the following.

b
= b1

7
= b(aa−1 )
= (ba)a−1
= (ab)a−1
= 0a−1
= 0.

Therefore, b = 0.

For (iii), consider the following.

(−1)a + a
= (−1)a + 1a
= (−1 + 1)a
= 0a
= 0.

Thus, (−1)a + a = 0, and so, (−1)a = −a. ■

Note 22: By part (iii) of the theorem above and the uniqueness of additive inverses, (−1)2 =

(−1)(−1) = 1.

Notation 23: Suppose a, b ∈ R.

(i) a + (−b) = a − b;
1 a
= .
(ii) If b ̸= 0, then a ·
b b
Theorem 24 (Order Properties of R): The set R+ has the following properties.

(i) For all a, b ∈ R+ , a + b ∈ R+ ;

(ii) For all a, b ∈ R+ , ab ∈ R+ ;

(iii) (Trichotomy Property) For all a ∈ R, either a ∈ R+ , −a ∈ R+ , or a = 0.

Theorem 25:

(i) If a ∈ R \ {0}, then a2 ∈ R+ ;

(ii) 1 ∈ R+ ;

(iii) N ⊆ R+ ;
1
(iv) If a ∈ R+ , then ∈ R+ .
a
Proof: For (i), suppose a ∈ R \ {0}. By the trichotomy property, a ∈ R+ or −a ∈ R+ . If a ∈ R+ ,

then a · a = a2 ∈ R+ by part (ii) of the order properties of R+ . If −a ∈ R+ , then by an argument

similar to the one above, (−a)(−a) ∈ R+ . Now,

(−a)(−a)
= [(−1)a][(−1)a]
= (−1)(−1)aa
= 1aa
= a2 .

For (ii), since 1 = 12 , 1 ∈ R+ by part (i) of this theorem.

For (iii), use induction.

8
 1 1
For (iv), toward a contradiction, suppose ∈ / R+ . By the trichotomy property, − ∈ R+ . Then,
  a a
1 1 1
−1 = a − = −1 · a · ∈ R+ . This is a contradiction since 1 ∈ R+ Therefore, ∈ R+ . ■
a a a
Definition 26: Let a, b ∈ R. Then,

(i) a is less than b, written a < b, if b − a ∈ R+ ;

(ii) a is less than or equal to b, written a ≤ b, if b − a ∈ R+ or b − a = 0.

Theorem 27: Let a, b, c ∈ R.

(i) If a < b and b < c, then a < c.

(ii) If a < b, then a + c < b + c

(iii) If a < b and c ∈ R+ , then ac < bc.

(iv) If a < b and −c ∈ R+ , then bc < ac.

1
(v) If a ∈ R+ such that 1 < a, then < 1.
a
Proof: For (i), since b − a ∈ R+ and c − b ∈ R+ , (c − b) + (b − a) = c − a ∈ R+ .

For (ii), since a < b, b − a ∈ R+ . Also, since c ∈ R+ , c(b − a) = cb − ca ∈ R+ .

For (iii), since a < b, b − a ∈ R+ . Also, since c ∈ R+ , c(b − a) = cb − ca ∈ R+ .

For (iv), since b − a ∈ R+ and −c ∈ R+ , −c(b − a) = ca − cb ∈ R+ .

For (v), consider the following.

1<a
1 1
⇐⇒ 1 · < a ·
a a
1
⇐⇒ < 1. ■
a
Proposition 28: If a ∈ R with 0 ≤ a < ε for every ε > 0, then a = 0.
a 1 1 a
Proof: We prove the contrapositive. If a > 0, set ε = . Then, 0 = · 0 < a = = ε.
2 2 2 2
a
Also, ε = < 1a = a. This implies that a > ε, as desired. ■
2
Theorem 29: For every a, b ∈ R, ab < 0 if and only if one of a and b is positive, and the other is

negative.

Proof: (=⇒) We will prove the contrapositive. If a, b ∈ R+ , then ab > 0. Also, if a, b < 0, then

−a, −b ∈ R+ , and so ab = (−a)(−b) > 0.

(⇐=) Suppose one of a and b is positive and the other is negative. Without loss of generality,

suppose a > 0 and b < 0. Then, by the trichotomy property, −b > 0, and so, a(−b) = −ab > 0. So,

ab < 0. ■

9
 Section 2.2: Absolute Value


x
 if x ≥ 0;
Definition 30: Let x ∈ R. The absolute value of x is |x| =

−x
 if x < 0.
Proposition 31: Let x, y ∈ R. Then

(i) |x|2 = x2 ;
√
(ii) |x| = x2 ;

(iii) |xy| = |x| · |y|;

(iv) xy ≤ |xy|.

Proof: For (i), if x ≥ 0, then |x|2 = x2 . If x < 0, then |x|2 = (−x)2 = x2 . So, in any case,

|x|2 = x2 .
p √
For (ii), by the definition of square root and part (i), |x| = |x|2 = x2 .
p p √ p
For (iii), by part (ii), |xy| = (xy)2 = x2 y 2 = x2 · y 2 = |x| · |y|.

For (iv), if x, y ≥ 0 or x, y ≤ 0, then xy ≥ 0 and |xy| = xy. If one of x and y is positive and the

other is negative, then xy < 0 and xy < |xy|. ■

Theorem 32 (The Triangle Inequality): For all x, y ∈ R, |x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|.

Proof: By part (i) of the previous proposition, |x + y|2 = (x + y)2 . So,

|x + y|2

= (x + y)2 = x2 + 2|x| · |y| + y 2

= x2 + 2xy + y 2 = |x|2 + 2|x| · |y| + |y|2

≤ x2 + 2|xy| + y 2 = (|x| + |y|)2 .

Since |x + y|2 ≤ (|x| + |y|)2 and |x| + |y| ≥ 0,

|x + y|
p 2
= |x + y| = |(|x| + |y|)|
p
≤ (|x| + |y|)2 = |x| + |y|. ■

Corollary 33: For all x, y, z ∈ R, |x − y| ≤ |x − z| + |y − z|.

Proof: Exercise. ■

Proposition 34: For all x, y ∈ R, 2|xy| ≤ x2 + y 2 .

Proof: Exercise. ■

Proposition 35: Suppose that a, b ∈ R with a ≤ b. The distance between a and b in R is

10
|a − b| = |b − a|.

Proof: Note that a + |a − b| = a + (b − a) = b and b − |a − b| = b − (b − a) = a. So |a − b| is the

distance between a and b. ■

Notation 36: For x ∈ R and ε > 0, B(x, ε) = (x − ε, x + ε).

 
1
Example 37: B 2, = (1.75, 2.25) = {x ∈ R | 1.75 < x < 2.25}.
4
Proposition 38: For x, y ∈ R and ε > 0, the following are equivalent.

(i) |x − y| < ε;

(ii) y ∈ B(x, ε);

(iii) x ∈ B(y, ε).

Proof: ((i) =⇒ (ii)) Suppose |x − y| < ε and consider two cases.

Case 1: y ≤ x Case 2: x ≤ y

Note the following. Note the following.

|x − y| < ε |x − y| < ε

⇐⇒ x − y < ε ⇐⇒ y − x < ε

⇐⇒ x − ε < y ⇐⇒ y < x + ε

⇐⇒ x − ε < y < x < x + ε ⇐⇒ x − ε < x < y < x + ε

⇐⇒ y ∈ (x − ε, x + ε) = B(x, ε). ⇐⇒ y ∈ (x − ε, x + ε) = B(x, ε).

((ii) =⇒ (iii)) Suppose that y ∈ B(x, ε). Then x − ε < y < x + ε. Since x − ε < y, x < y + ε. Also,

since y < x+ε, y −ε < x. Therefore, y −ε < x < y +ε, which means that x ∈ (y −ε, y +ε) = B(y, ε).

((iii) =⇒ (i)) Depending on the relative values of x and y, |x − y| is equal to either x − y or y − x.

We will show that both x − y and y − x are less than ε. Since x ∈ B(y, ε), y − ε < x < y + ε. Since

x < y + ε, x − y < ε and since y − ε < x, y − x < ε. Therefore, |x − y| < ε. ■

Corollary 39: For any a ∈ R and c ≥ 0, |a| ≤ c if and only if −c ≤ a ≤ c.

Proof: Consider the following.

|a| ≤ c ⇐⇒ a ∈ B(0, c)
⇐⇒ |a − 0| ≤ c ⇐⇒ −c ≤ a ≤ c. ■

Proposition 40: Suppose x ∈ R. If |x| < ε for all ε > 0, then x = 0.

|x|
Proof: We will prove the contrapositve. Suppose x ̸= 0. Then |x| > 0. Set ε = and note that
2
|x|
x> = ε. ■
2
Corollary 41: For all x, y ∈ R, the following are equivalent.

(i) x = y;

11
(ii) |x − y| = 0;

(iii) |x − y| < ε for all ε > 0.

Proof: Exercise. ■

Section 2.3: Exponents and Radicals

Definition 42: Let a ∈ R and n ∈ N. Then an = a · a · . . . · a, where a is called the base and n is

called the exponent.

Theorem 43: Let a, b, x, y ∈ R.

(i) ax+y = ax · ay ; 1
ax (vi) a−x = x ;
(ii) ax−y = y ; a
a
 a −n bn
(vii) = n;
(iii) (a ) = axy ;
x y b a
a−n bm
(viii) −m = n ;
(iv) (ab)x = ax bx ; b a
 a x ax (ix) If a ̸= 0, then a0 = 1.
(v) = x;
b b

Example 44: Simplify the following as much as possible.

 2 4 −2
28 x
(c)
49x−2
2
49x−2
3 
x3 y −2 z 4

(b) =
(a) (2x3 y 2 )(3xy 4 )3 x−2 y 3 z 3 282 x4
x9 y −6 z 12 492 x−4
= 2x3 y 2 (27x3 y 12 ) = −6 9 9 =
x y z 284 x8
= 54x6 y 14 . x15 z 3 72 · 72 · x−4
= 15 . = 2 2 2 2 8
y 7 ·7 ·4 ·4 ·x
1
= .
256x12

Definition 45: A real number x ∈ R+ is in scientific notation if x = a × 10n where a ∈ [1, 10)

and n ∈ Z.

Example 46:

(a) The distance from the Sun to the star Proxima Centauri is 4 × 1013 kilometers.

(b) The mass of a hydrogen atom is 1.66 × 10−24 grams.

√
Definition 47: Let a, b ∈ R and n ∈ N. The principal nth root of a is defined by n
a = b if and

only if bn = a.

Note 48: In the definition above, if n is even, then a ≥ 0 and b ≥ 0.

12
 √ √
n √
Theorem 49: Let a, b ∈ R and n ∈ N such that n
a, b, and
√
m
a exist.
√ √ √
(i) a1/n = n a; (iv) n ab = n a n b;
r √
√ n a n
a
(ii) ( n a) =a; (v) n = √ ;
b n
b √
p √

a if n is odd (vi) m n a = mn a;
√

n
(iii) an = √
 (vii) am/n = n am .
|a| if n is even;


Example 50: Simplify the following as much

√ as√possible. √ √
p (b) 32 + 200 (c) (2 x)(3 3 x)
(a) 4 81x8 y 4 √ √
√4
√
4
p = 16 · 2 + 100 · 2 = 6x1/2 x1/3
81 x8 y 4
4
√ √
= 4 2 + 10 2 = 6x5/6 .
= 3x2 |y|. √
= 14 2.
Definition 51: The procedure of removing a root from a denominator is called rationalizing the

denominator.

Example 52: For each of the following, rationalize the denominator and simplify.
s
2
5 x
r
2 (c)
(a) 1 y3
√ 3 (b) √ √
2
4
x√ 5
x 2
=√ 1
4
x 3 = p
√3 √ y3 p
5
= √ · √ √
2 3
4
x 4
x 3 5
x2 5 y 2
=√ ·√ √ 3 = · p
4
x
√3 3
p
= . 5
y3 5 y2
6 |x| p
= .
5
x2 y 2
3 = .
y

Chapter 3: Expressions and Equations

Section 3.1: Algebraic Expressions and Polynomials

Definition 53:

(i) A variable is a letter that can represent any number from a given set of numbers.

(ii) Combinations of variables and real numbers with addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,

powers, and roots are called algebraic expressions.

Definition 54:

(i) A monomial is an expression of the form axk where a ∈ R, k ∈ ω, and x is a variable.

(ii) A binomial is a sum of two monomials.

(iii) A trinomial is a sum of three monomials.

13
(iv) A polynomial is a sum of monomials.

Example 55: Perform the indicated operation.

(a) (x3 − 6x2 + 2x + 4) + (x3 + 5x2 − 7x)

= (x3 + x3 ) + (−6x2 + 5x2 ) + (2x − 7x) + 4

= 2x3 − x2 − 5x + 4.

(b) (x3 − 6x2 + 2x + 4) − (x3 + 5x2 − 7x)

= (x3 − x3 ) + (−6x2 − 5x2 ) + (2x − (−7x)) + 4

= −11x2 + 9x + 4.

(c) (2x + 1)(3x − 5)

= 2x(3x − 5) + 1(3x − 5)

= 6x2 − 10x + 3x − 5

= 6x2 − 7x − 5.

Proposition 56: Let A and B be algebraic expressions.

(i) (A − B)(A + B) = A2 − B 2 ;

(ii) (A + B)2 = A2 + 2AB + B 2 ;

(iii) (A − B)2 = A2 − 2AB + B 2 ;

(iv) (A + B)3 = A3 + 3A2 B + 3AB 2 + B 3 ;

(v) (A − B)3 = A3 − 3A2 B + 3AB 2 − B 3 .

Example 57: Multiply and simplify.

(a) (3x + 5)2 √ √
(c) (2x + y)(2x − y)
= (3x)2 + 2(3x)(5) + 52 √
= (2x)2 − ( y)2
= 9x2 + 30x + 25.
= 4x2 − y.
(b) (x2 − 2)3
(d) (x + y − 1)(x + y + 1)
= (x2 )3 − 3(x2 )2 (2) + 3(x2 )(2)2 − (2)3
= (x + y)2 − (1)2
= x6 − 6x4 + 12x2 − 8.
= x2 + 2xy + y 2 − 1.

Section 3.2: Factoring

Lemma 58: For any algebraic √ expressions
! a, b, c √
with a ̸= 0,!
b − b2 − 4ac b + b2 − 4ac
ax2 + bx + c = a x + x+ .
2a 2a
Proof: Consider
√ the!following. √ !
b − b2 − 4ac b + b2 − 4ac
x+ x+
2a 2a
√ ! √ ! √ ! √ !
b + b2 − 4ac b − b 2 − 4ac b − b2 − 4ac b+ b2 − 4ac
= x2 + ·x+ ·x+ ·
2a 2a 2a 2a

14
 " √ √ # √ √
2 b+ b2 − 4ac b − b2 − 4ac (b − b2 − 4ac)(b + b2 − 4ac)
=x + + ·x+
2a 2a 4a2
2 2
2b b − (b − 4ac)
= x2 + x +
2a 4a2
2 b 4ac
=x + x+ 2
a 4a
2 b c
=x + x+
a a √ ! √ !
2 b − b2 − 4ac b + b2 − 4ac
⇐⇒ ax + bx + c = a x + x+ . ■
2a 2a
Theorem 59 (Factor Theorem for Quadratics): For any algebraic expressions a, b, c with a ̸= 0,
1 p p
ax2 + bx + c = (2ax + b − b2 − 4ac)(2ax + b + b2 − 4ac).
4a
Proof: By the lemma above, √ ! √ !
2 b − b2 − 4ac b + b2 − 4ac
ax + bx + c = a x + x+
2a 2a
1 1 p p
= · · a(2ax + b − b2 − 4ac)(2ax + b + b2 − 4ac)
2a 2a
1 p p
= (2ax + b − b2 − 4ac)(2ax + b + b2 − 4ac). ■
4a
Example 60: Factor the following expressions.

(a) 6x2 + 7x − 5
1 h p ih p i
= 2(6)x + (7) − (7)2 − 4(6)(−5) 2(6)x + (7) + (7)2 − 4(6)(−5)
4(6)
1 √ √
= (12x + 7 − 49 + 120)(12x + 7 + 49 + 120)
24
1
= (12x + 7 − 13)(12x + 7 + 13)
24
1
= (12x − 6)(12x + 20)
24
1
= · 6(2x − 1) · 4(3x + 5)
24
= (2x − 1)(3x + 5).

(b) x2 − 2x − 3
1 h p ih p i
= 2(1)x + (−2) − (−2)2 − 4(1)(−3) 2(1)x + (−2) + (−2)2 − 4(1)(−3)
4(1)
1 √  √ 
= 2x − 2 − 4 + 12 2x − 2 + 4 + 12
4
1
= (2x − 2 − 4)(2x − 2 + 4)
4
1
= (2x − 6)(2x + 2)
4
1
= · 2(x − 3) · 2(x + 1)
4
= (x − 3)(x + 1).

15
(c) (5x + 1)2 − 2(5x + 1) − 3

Set u = 5x + 1. Then, (e) x3 + x2 − 4x − 4

(5x + 1)2 − 2(5x + 1) − 3 = x2 (x + 1) − 4(x + 1)
= u2 − 2u − 3 = (x2 − 4)(x + 1)
= (u − 3)(u + 1) = (x + 2)(x − 2)(x + 1).
= [(5x + 1) − 3][(5x + 1) + 1] (f ) x3 − 2x2 − 3x + 6
= (5x − 2)(5x + 2). = x2 (x − 2) − 3(x − 2)
(d) x5 y 2 − xy 6 = (x2 − 3)(x − 2)
√
√

= xy 2 (x4 − y 4 ) = x + 3 x − 3 (x − 2).
= xy 2 (x2 − y 2 )(x2 + y 2 )

= xy 2 (x + y)(x − y)(x2 + y 2 ).

Note 61: If a and b are algebraic expressions, then

(i) a3 − b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2 );

(ii) a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 + ab + b2 ).

Section 3.3: Rational Expressions

Definition 62:

(i) A fractional expression is a quotient of two algebraic expressions.

(ii) A rational expression is a quotient of two polynomials.

Proposition 63: Let A, B, C, and D be algebraic expressions.

AC A
(i) If C ̸= 0, then = .
BC B
A C AC
(ii) If B, D ̸= 0, then · = .
B D BD
A C AD
(iii) If B, C, D ̸= 0, then ÷ = .
B D BC
A+B A B
(iv) If C ̸= 0, then = + .
C C C
A A AC + AB
(v) If B, C ̸= 0, then + = .
B C BC
A C
(vi) If B, D ̸= 0, then = if and only if AD = BC.
B D
A
(vii) If B ̸= 0, then = 0 if and only if A = 0.
B
Definition 64: A complex fraction is a fractional expression where the numerator or denominator

consists of one or more fractions.

Example 65: Simplify the following.

2 1 2x + x − 2
+ 3x − 2 x−5 x−5
x(x − 2)
(a) x − 2 x = = · = .
3x 2 3x − 2 x(x − 2) 3x − 2 x(x − 2)
−
x−5 x−5 x−5

16
 2x 2x 2x2 4(x + 2) − 2x2 −2x2 + 4x + 8
(b) 4 − =4− =4− = = .
x−2 2x − (x − 2) x+2 x+2 x+2
2−
x x
1 1
c−1 c ab
(c) −1 = = c = .
a + b−1 1 1 a+b c(a + b)
+
a b ab

Section 3.4: Equations

Definition 66:

(i) An equation is a statement that two expressions are equivalent.

(ii) The values of a variable that make an equation true are the solutions (roots) of the equation.

(iii) The process of finding the solutions of an equation is called solving the equation.

(iv) Two equations with the same solutions are equivalent equations.

Proposition 67: Let A, B, and C be expressions and n ∈ N. Then the following are equivalent.

(i) A = B;

(ii) A + C = B + C;

(iii) A − C = B − C;

(iv) If C ̸= 0, then AC = BC;

(v) An = B n .

Definition 68: A linear equation is an equation equivalent to one of the form ax + b = 0, where

a, b, c ∈ R and x is a variable.

Example 69: Solve the equation 7x − 4 = 3x + 8.

Consider the following.

7x − 4 = 3x + 8 ⇐⇒ 7x − 3x = (3x + 12) − 3x
⇐⇒ (7x − 4) + 4 = (3x + 8) + 4 ⇐⇒ 4x = 12
⇐⇒ 7x = 3x + 12 ⇐⇒ x = 3.

Definition 70: A quadratic equation is an equation equivalent to one of the form ax2 +bx+c = 0,

where a, b, c ∈ R and a ̸= 0.
√
Proposition 71: Let c ∈ R+ . Then x2 = c if and only if x = ± c.

Example 72: Solve each equation.

(a) x2 = 5
√
By the proposition above, x = ± 5.

(b) (x + 5)2 = 4

By the proposition above,

17
 √
x + 5 = ± 4 = ±2

⇐⇒ x = −5 ± 2

⇐⇒ x = −3 or x = −7.

Lemma 73 (Completing the Square Lemma): For any a, b, c ∈ R with a ̸= 0,

2
b2 − 4ac

2 b
ax + bx + c = a x + − .
2a 4a
Proof: Consider the following.
2
b2 − 4ac

b
a x+ −
 2a 4a
2 b b2 b2 − 4ac
=a x + x+ 2 −
a 4a 4a
2 2
b b − 4ac
= ax2 + bx + −
4a 4a
2 4ac
= ax + bx +
4a
2
= ax + bx + c. ■

Example 74: Use the completing the square lemma to solve the equation x2 − 5x + 6 = 0.

Consider the following.

= x2 − 5x + 6
2
(−5)2 − 4(1)(6)

−5
=1 x+ −
2 4(1)
 2
5 25 − 24
= x− −
2 4
 2
5 1
= x− −
2 4
 2
5 1
⇐⇒ x − =
2 4
5 1
⇐⇒ x − = ±
2 2
5 1
⇐⇒ x = ±
2 2
⇐⇒ x = 3 or x = 2.

Definition 75: Let a, b, c ∈ R with a ̸= 0 and x be a variable. The discriminant of the expression

ax2 + bx + c is the quantity b2 − 4ac.

Note 76: Let a, b, c ∈ R with a ̸= 0, ax2 + bx + c = 0 be a quadratic equation, and D denote the

discriminant of the expression ax2 + bx + c.

(i) If D > 0, then the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has two real solutions;

(ii) If D = 0, then the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has one real solution;

(iii) If D < 0, then the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has two complex solutions.

Theorem 77 (Quadratic
√ Formula): Let a, b, c ∈ R with a ̸= 0. Then ax2 + bx + c = 0 if and
2
−b ± b − 4ac
only if x = .
2a

18
Proof: By the completing the square lemma,

= ax2 + bx + c
2
b2 − 4ac

b
=a x+ −
2a 4a
2
b2 − 4ac

b
⇐⇒ =a x+
4a 2a
2
 2
b − 4ac b
⇐⇒ = x +
√4a2 2a
b2 − 4ac b
⇐⇒ ± =x+
2a √ a √
b b2 − 4ac −b ± b2 − 4ac
⇐⇒ x = − ± = . ■
2a 2a 2a
Example 78: Solve the following equations.
3 5
(b) + =2
x x+2
(a) 3x2 − x − 7 = 0p ⇐⇒ 3(x + 2) + 5x = 2x(x + 2)
−(−1) ± (−1)2 − 4(3)(−7) ⇐⇒ 3x + 6 + 5x = 2x2 + 4x
⇐⇒ x =
√ 2(3)
1 ± 1 + 84 ⇐⇒ 8x + 6 = 2x2 + 4x
=
√6 ⇐⇒ 2x2 − 4x − 6 = 0
1 ± 85
= .
6 ⇐⇒ x2 − 2x − 3 = 0

⇐⇒ (x − 3)(x + 1) = 0

√ ⇐⇒ x = 3 or x = −1.
(c) 2x = 1 − 2−x
√
⇐⇒ 2x − 1 = − 2 − x (d) x1/3 + x1/6 − 2 = 0
√
⇐⇒ 1 − 2x = 2 − x Set u = x1/6 . Then,
⇐⇒ (1 − 2x)2 = 2 − x x1/3 + x1/6 − 2 = 0
⇐⇒ 1 − 4x + 4x2 = 2 − x ⇐⇒ u2 + u − 2 = 0
⇐⇒ 4x2 − 3x − 1 = 0 ⇐⇒ (u + 2)(u − 1) = 0
⇐⇒ (4x + 1)(x − 1) = 0 ⇐⇒ u = −2 or u = 1
1
⇐⇒ x = − or x = 1. ⇐⇒ x1/6 = −2 or x1/6 = 1
4
Note that x = 1 does not satisfy the equation ⇐⇒ x = 64 or x = 1.
(is an extraneous solution). Note that x = 64 is an extraneous solution.

19
(e) 4x4 − 25x2 + 36 = 0 ⇐⇒ (4u − 9)(u − 4) = 0
9
Set u = x2 . Then, ⇐⇒ u = or u = 4
4
9
4x4 − 25x2 + 36 = 0 ⇐⇒ x2 = or x2 = 4
4
3
⇐⇒ 4u2 − 25u + 36 = 0 ⇐⇒ x = ± or x = ±2.
2

Section 3.5: Inequalities

Theorem 79: Let A, B, C, D be expressions and c ∈ R.

(i) A ≤ B if and only if A + C ≤ B + C;

(ii) A ≤ B if and only if A − C ≤ B − C;

(iii) If C > 0, then A ≤ B if and only if AC ≤ BC;

(iv) If C < 0, then A ≤ B if and only if AC ≥ BC;

1 1
(v) If A > 0 and B > 0, then A ≤ B if and only if ≥ ;
A B
(vi) If A ≤ B and C ≤ D, then A + C ≤ B + D;

(vii) |A| ≤ c if and only if −c ≤ A ≤ c;

(viii) |A| ≥ c if and only if A ≤ −c or A ≥ c.

Theorem 80: Let p be a polynomial. If p(x1 ) = 0 = p(x2 ), where x1 , x2 are consecutive zeros of p,

then for all x ∈ (x1 , x2 ), p(x) > 0 or p(x) < 0.

Definition 81: A critical value (number) of a rational expression is a number that makes the

numerator or the denominator of the expression equal to zero.

Example 82: Solve the following inequalities.

(a) 3x + 1 < 4x − 2 ⇐⇒ 3x + 3 − 3x < 4x − 3x

⇐⇒ 3x + 1 + 2 < 4x − 2 + 2 ⇐⇒ x > 3.

So the solution set is (3, ∞).

(b) x3 + 3x2 − 4x − 12 ≥ 0

⇐⇒ (x + 3)(x + 2)(x − 2) ≥ 0.

If (x + 3)(x + 2)(x − 2) = 0, then x = −3, −2, 2. Consider four cases.

Case 1: x < −3

In this case, x + 3 < 0, x + 2 < 0, and x − 2 < 0. This means that (x + 3)(x + 2)(x − 2) < 0.

Case 2: x ∈ (−3, −2)

In this case, x + 3 > 0, x + 2 < 0, and x − 2 < 0. This means that (x + 3)(x + 2)(x − 2) > 0.

Case 3: x ∈ (−2, 2)

In this case, x + 3 > 0, x + 2 > 0, and x − 2 < 0. This means that (x + 3)(x + 2)(x − 2) < 0.

20
Case 4: x > 2

In this case, x + 3 > 0, x + 2 > 0, and x − 2 > 0. This means that (x + 3)(x + 2)(x − 2) > 0.

Therefore, the solution set is [−3, −2] ∪ [2, ∞).

3x + 4
(c) ≤2
x+1
3x + 4 3x + 4 − 2x − 2
⇐⇒ −2≤0 ⇐⇒ ≤0
x+1 x+1
3x + 4 − 2(x + 1) x+2
⇐⇒ ≤0 ⇐⇒ ≤ 0.
x+1 x+1

The above implies that x = −2 and x = −1 are critical values for the expression. Consider three

cases.

Case 1: x < −2 Case 2: x > −1 Case 3: x ∈ (−2, −1)

x+2 x+2 x+2
In this case, > 0. In this case, > 0. In this case, < 0.
x+1 x+1 x+1

Thus, the solution set is [−2, −1).

Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Section 4.1: The Cartesian Plane

Definition 83: The Cartesian Plane is the set R × R = R2 = {(x, y) | x, y ∈ R}.

Definition 84: Let (x, y) ∈ R2 .

(i) x is called the abcissa;

(ii) y is called the ordinate;

(iii) x and y are called the coordinates of (x, y);

(iv) The pair (x, y) is called either a coordinate (pair), an ordered pair, or simply a point;

(v) The origin is the point (0, 0), and it is usually denoted O.

Example 85:

21
 Section 4.2: The Distance and Midpoint Formulas
Theorem 86 (Pythagorean Theorem): Suppose the legs of a right triangle have lengths a, b and

the hypotenuse has length c. Then a2 + b2 = c2 .

Proof: Suppose that the triangle described in the theorem is a right triangle and consider the figure

below.

1
Recall the area of the triangle is ab. Now consider the figure below.
2

22
Since α + β = 90, the figure contains a small square of side length c, a large square of side length
1
a + b, and four copies of the triangle. Now, the area of the small square is c2 = (a + b)2 − 4 · ab =
2
(a + b)2 − 2ab = a2 + 2ab + b2 − 2ab = a2 + b2 . Therefore, a2 + b2 = c2 . ■

Corollary 87 (Distance Formula): Let (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) ∈ R2 . The distance d between (x1 , y1 )
p
and (x2 , y2 ) is d = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 .

Proof: Consider the figure below.

Let d denote the distance between (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ). By the Pythagorean Theorem and a previous

proposition,

d2

= |x2 − x1 |2 + |y2 − y1 |2

= (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
p
⇐⇒ d = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 . ■

23
 p
Example 88: The distance between the points (−3, 1) and (5, −2) is (−3 − 5)2 + (1 − (−2))2 =
√
73.

Theorem 89 (Midpoint Formula): The midpoint between the points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) is the
 
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
points , .
2 2  
−3 + 5 1 − 2
Example 90: The midpoint between the points (−3, 1) and (5, −2) is the point , =
  2 2
−1
1, .
2

Section 4.3: Graphs and Intercepts

Definition 91: Let (x, y) ∈ R2 . Then (x, y) satisfies an equation if the equation is a true statement

when x and y are substituted in it.

Example 92:

(a) The point (3, 10) satisfies the equation y = x2 + 1.

(b) The point (1, 3) does not satisfy the equation y = x2 + 1.

Definition 93: The graph of an equation is the set {(x, y) ∈ R2 | the equation is satisfied}.

Theorem 94 (Fundamental Principle of Analytic Geometry): A point in R2 lies on the

graph of an equation if and only if its coordinates satisfy the equation.

Proof: (=⇒) Suppose that the point (x, y) ∈ R2 lies on the graph of an equation. Since the point

(x, y) is on the graph of the equation, the equation is a true statement, and so, the equation is

satisfied.

(⇐=) Suppose the point (x, y) satisfies an equation. Then, by the definition of graph, (x, y) is on

the graph of the equation. ■

Definition 95:

(i) The x-coordinates where a graph of an equation intersects the x-axis are called the x-intercepts.

(ii) The y-coordinates where a graph of an equation intersects the y-axis are called the y-intercepts.

Note 96:

(i) To find the x-intercepts, set y = 0 in the equation and solve for x.

(ii) To find the y-intercepts, set x = 0 in the equation and solve for y.

Example 97: Find the x- and y-intercepts of the equation y = x2 − 2.

To find the x-intercepts, we set y = 0. Doing this, we obtain that 0 = x2 − 2, or 2 = x2 , which

√ √ √
means that x = ± 2. So, the x-intercepts are ( 2, 0) and (− 2, 0). Now, to find the y-intercepts,

we set x = 0. Doing this, we obtain that y = 02 − 2 = −2. So, the y-intercept is (−2, 0).

24
 Section 4.4: Circles
Definition 98:

(i) A circle is the set {(x, y) ∈ R2 | (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2 where h, k, r ∈ R}.

(ii) r is called the radius of the circle;

(iii) The point (h, k) is called the center of the circle.

Theorem 99: The general equation of a circle is given by x2 + y 2 − 2hx − 2ky + h2 + k 2 − r2 = 0.

Proof: Consider the following.

= x2 + y 2 − 2hx − 2ky + h2 + k 2
2 2 2
r = (x − h) + (y − k)
⇐⇒ x2 + y 2 − 2hx − 2ky + h2 + k 2 − r2 = 0. ■
2 2 2 2
= x − 2hx + h + y − 2ky + y
Example 100: For each of the following, give the equation of the circle with the given properties.

(a) Center at (3, −1) and radius 2.

(x − 3)2 + (y + 1)2 = 4;

(b) Endpoints of the diameter at (1, 6) and (3, 8).

√
By the midpoint formula, the center is at (2, 7). Also, by the distance formula, the radius is 2. So,

the equation of the circle is given by (x − 2)2 + (y − 7)2 = 2.

Example 101: For each of the following, find the center and radius of the given circle.

(a) (x − 1)2 + (y + 2)2 = 4

The circle is centered at (1, −2) and has radius 2;

(b) x2 + 4x + y 2 + 10y + 26 = 0

Note that 0 = x2 + 4x + y 2 + 10y + 26 = (x + 2)2 + (y + 5)2 − 3, and so (x + 2)2 + (y + 5)2 = 3. So,

√
the circle is centered at (−2, −5) and has radius 3;

(c) x2 + y 2 − 4x + 6y − 23 = 0

Note that −2h = −4, −2k = 6, and h2 + k 2 − r2 = −23. So, h = 2, k = −3, and r2 = 4 + 9 + 23 = 36,

and so, r = 6. Thus, the circle is centered at (2, −3) and has radius 6.

Section 4.5: Symmetry

Definition 102: A graph of an equation

(i) is symmetric (has symmetry) with respect to the x-axis if whenever the point (x, y) is

on the graph, then the point (x, −y) is on the graph.

(ii) is symmetric (has symmetry) with respect to the y-axis if whenever the point (x, y) is

on the graph, then the point (−x, y) is on the graph.

(iii) is symmetric (has symmetry) with respect to the origin if whenever the point (x, y) is

on the graph, then the point (−x, −y) is on the graph.

25
Example 103: Determine whether the graph of the given equation has symmetry.

(a) x = y 2 .

Note that x = y 2 = (−y)2 . So, the graph of the equation has symmetry with respect to the x-axis.

Also, if x = y 2 , then −x ̸= y 2 , and so, the graph of the equation does not have symmetry with

respect to the y-axis. By a similar argument, the graph of the equation is not symmetric with respect

to the origin.

(b) y = x3 − 9x.

Note that −y = (−x)3 − 9(−x) = −x3 + 9x, or y = x3 − 9x. So, the graph of the equation has

symmetry with respect to the origin.

Chapter 5: Variation

Section 5.1: Direct Variation

Definition 104: A quantity y varies directly as (is directly proportional to) a quantity x if

there is a k ∈ R \ {0} such that y = kx. The constant k is called the constant of proportionality.

Example 105: During a thunderstorm you see the lightning before you hear the thunder because

light travels much faster than sound. The distance between you and the storm varies directly as the

time interval between the lightning and the thunder.

(a) Suppose that the thunder from a storm 5400 feet away takes 5 seconds to reach you. Determine

the constant of proportionality, and write the equation for the variation.

Let d be the distance from you to the storm, and let t be the length of the time interval. Since

d varies directly as t, d = kt for some k ∈ R \ {0}. When d = 5400 and t = 5, the equation for

the variation is 5400 = 5k, which means that k = 1080. Thus, the equation for the variation is

d = 1080t.

(b) If the time interval between the lightning and thunder is now 8 seconds, how far away is the

storm?

When t = 8, d = 1080(8) = 8640 feet (about 1.6 miles) away.

26
 Section 5.2: Inverse Variation
Definition 106: A quantity y is inversely proportional to a quantity x if there is a k ∈ R \ {0}
k
such that y = . The constant k is called the constant of proportionality.
x
Example 107 (Boyle’s Law): Boyle’s Law states that when a sample of gas is compressed at a

constant temperature, the pressure of the gas is inversely proportional to the volume of the gas.

(a) Suppose that the pressure of a sample of air that occupies 0.106 cubic meters at 25◦ Celsius

is 50 kilo-Pascals. Find the constant of proportionality, and write the equation that expresses the

inverse proportionality.

Let P be the pressure of the sample of gas, and let V be its volume. Since the pressure of the gas
k
is inversely proportional to its volume, P = where k ∈ R \ {0}. To determine k, note that when
V
k 5.3
V = 0.106, P = 50, which means that 50 = , which means that k = 5.3. Thus, P = .
0.106 V
(b) If the sample expands to a volume of 0.3 cubic meters, find the new pressure.
5.3
By (a), P = = 17.7 kilo-Pascals.
0.3

Section 5.3: Joint Variation

Definition 108: A quantity z varies jointly as (is jointly proportional to) quantities x and y if

there is a k ∈ R\{0} such that z = kxy. The constant k is called the constant of proportionality.

Example 109 (Newton’s Law of Gravitation): Newton’s Law of Gravitation says that two

objects with masses m1 and m2 attract each other with a force F that is jointly proportional to

their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance r between the objects. Express

Newton’s Law of Gravitation as an equation.

m1 m2
By the definition of joint and inverse variation, there is a G ∈ R \ {0} such that F = G · .
r2

27
 Chapter 6: Complex Numbers

Section 6.1: Arithmetic with Complex Numbers

√
Definition 110: The number i, called the imaginary unit, is defined to be −1.
√
Notation 111: C = {a + bi | a, b ∈ R, and i = −1}.

Definition 112: Let z = a + bi, w = c + di ∈ C for some a, b, c, d ∈ R.

(i) a is the real part of z and is denoted Re(z);

(ii) b is the imaginary (complex) part of z and is denoted Im(z);

(iii) If Re(z) = 0 and Im(z) ̸= 0, then z is called pure imaginary;

(iv) z and w are equal if Re(z) = Re(w) and Im(z) = Im(w).

Definition 113: Let z = a + bi, w = c + di ∈ C.

(i) z + w = (a + c) + (b + d)i;

(ii) zw = (a + bi)(c + di) = ac + adi + bci + bdi2 = ac − bd + (ad + bc)i;

z a + bi a + bi c − di (ac + bd) + (bc − ad)i
(iii) = = · = .
w c + di c + di c − di a2 + b2
Example 114: Let z = 3 + 4i and w = −2 + 5i.

(a) z + w = 1 + 9i;

(b) z − w = 5 − i;

(c) w − z = −5 + i;

(d) zw = (3 + 4i)(−2 + 5i) = −26 + 7i.

Section 6.2: The Complex Conjugate

Definition 115: Let z = a + bi ∈ C. The conjugate of z is z = a − bi.

Example 116: Let z = 3 + 4i and w = −2 + 5i.

(a) z = 3 − 4i;

(b) w = −2 − 5i.

Note 117: If z = a + bi ∈ C, then

(i) z + z = (a + bi) + (a − bi) = 2a;

(ii) zz = (a + bi)(a − bi) = a2 − abi + abi − bi2 = a2 + b2 .

Proposition 118: Let z, w ∈ C.

(i) z + w = z + w;

(ii) zw = z · w.

Proof: Let a, b, c, d ∈ R such that z = a + bi and w = c + di. Then,

28
z+w zw
= a + c + (b + d)i = (a + bi)(c + di)
= a + c − (b + d)i = ac − bd + (ad + bc)i
= a + c − bi − di = (ac − bd) − (ad + bc)i
= a − bi + c − di = (ac − bd) + (−bc − ad)i
= a + bi + c + di = (a − bi)(c − di)
= z + w, and = z · w. ■

Chapter 7: Functions

Section 7.1: The Definition of Function

Definition 119: Let X and Y be sets.

(i) A relation from X to Y is a rule that assigns one or more elements of Y to each element of X.

(ii) A function from X to Y is a relation that assigns a unique element of Y to each element of X.

(iii) The set X is the domain of the function and will be denoted dom(f ).

(iv) The set Y is the codomain of the function and will be denoted cod(f ).

Notation 120: Let X and Y be sets.

(i) If f is a function from X to Y , we write f : X → Y .

(ii) Y X = {f | f : X → Y }.

Example 121: The following are examples of relations. Which are functions?

(a)

(b)

29
(c)

(d)

Each of (a), (b), and (c) are functions, while (d) is not a function.

Definition 122: Suppose that f ∈ Y X and x ∈ X.

(i) The unique element of Y that f assigns to x is the function value of x or the image of x under

f and is usually denoted f (x).

(ii) The range of f is the set f (X) = ran(f ) = {f (x) | x ∈ X}.

30
(iii) The natural domain of f is the set {x ∈ X | f (x) is defined}.

Example 123: Define f ∈ RR by f (x) = x2 .

(a) f (3) = 9;

(b) f (−3) = 9;

(c) dom(f ) = R;

(d) cod(f ) = R;

(e) ran(f ) = [0, ∞).

√
 
1
Example 124: Define f : − , ∞ → R by f (x) = 2x + 1.
  2
1
(a) dom(f ) = − , ∞ ;
2
(b) ran(f ) = [0, ∞).

Definition 125: Suppose that f ∈ R[a,b] for some a, b ∈ R with a < b. The average rate of
f (b) − f (a)
change of f over [a, b] (or from a to b) is the quantity .
b−a
Example 126: For each of the following, find the average rate of change of the function on the

given interval.

(a) f (x) = 3x + 8; [0, 3]

f (3) − f (0) 17 − 8
By the definition above, the average rate of change is = = 3.
3−0 3
(b) g(x) = x2 − 2x + 8; [1, 5]
g(5) − g(1) 23 − 7
By the definition above, the average rate of change is = = 4.
5−1 4
√
(c) h(x) = − x + 1 + 3; [3, 8]
h(8) − h(3) 0−1 1
By the definition above, the average rate of change is = =− .
8−3 5 5

Section 7.2: Graphs of Functions

Definition 127: The graph of a function f ∈ Y X is the set G (f ) = {(x, y) ∈ X × Y | y = f (x)} =

{(x, f (x)) ∈ X × Y | x ∈ X}.

Example 128: Set X = {−1, 0, 1, 2, 3} and define f ∈ ZX by f (x) = x2 + 1.

(a) dom(f ) = X = {−1, 0, 1, 2, 3}

(b) cod(f ) = Z

(c) ran(f ) = {2, 1, 2, 5, 10} = {1, 2, 5, 10}

(d) The graph of f is the set G (f ) = {(−1, 2), (0, 1), (1, 2), (2, 5), (3, 10)}.
x2 + 3x + 2
Example 129: Consider the functions f (x) = and g(x) = x + 2. Since g(−1) = 1 and
x+1
f (−1) is undefined, the functions are not the same. Note that dom(f ) = R \ {−1} and dom(g) = R.

Since ran(g) = R and g(−1) = 1, ran(f ) = R \ {1}. The sketches of f and g are below.

31
Example 130: For each of the following functions, the domain, range, and sketch of the graph is

given.

(a) f (x) = |x|

dom(f ) = R

ran(f ) = [0, ∞)

32
 √
(b) g(x) = 3 − 2x
 
3
dom(g) = −∞,
2
ran(f ) = (−∞, 0]

√
(c) h(x) = 16 − x2

dom(h) = [−4, 4]

ran(h) = [0, 16]

33
 |x|
(d) j(x) =
x
dom(j) = R \ {0}

ran(j) = {−1} ∪ {1} = {−1, 1}

Theorem 131 (Vertical Line Test): A curve in R2 is the graph of a function if and only if every

vertical line intersects the curve in at most one point.

Proof: (=⇒) Suppose that X ⊆ R, f ∈ RX , and G (f ) ⊆ R2 is the graph of f . To see that every

vertical line in R2 intersects G (f ) in at most one point, let a ∈ R and consider the vertical line

x = a.

Case 1: a ∈
/ X.

In this case, f (a) does not exist. So, there is no y ∈ R such that (a, y) ∈ G (f ), which means the

34
vertical line does not intersect G (f ).

Case 2: a ∈ X.

Since G (f ) is the graph of f and f (a) is unique, the vertical line x = a intersects G (f ) only at the

point (a, f (a)).

(⇐=) Suppose G (f ) ⊆ R2 such that every vertical line intersects G (f ) in at most one point. Set

X = {x ∈ R | there is a y ∈ R such that (x, y) ∈ G (f )}. Since every vertical line intersects G (f ) in

at most one point, for each x ∈ X, there is a unique y ∈ R such that (x, y) ∈ G . So, the rule f ∈ RX

defined by f (x) = y if and only if (x, y) ∈ G (f ) is a function. By design, G (f ) is the graph of f . ■

Example 132: The following is not the graph of a function since there is a vertical line that

intersects the curve in more than one point.

Section 7.3: Even and Odd Functions

Definition 133: A function f is

(i) even if f (−x) = f (x) for every x ∈ dom(f );

(ii) odd if f (−x) = −f (x) for every x ∈ dom(f ).

Theorem 134:

(i) A function is even if and only if its graph is symmetric about the y-axis.

(ii) A function is odd if and only if its graph is symmetric about the origin.

Question 135: Does a function have to be even or odd? No.

Example 136: Determine whether the following functions are even, odd, or neither.

(a) f (x) = x2 + x

Note that f (2) = 6 ̸= 2 = f (−2). So f is neither even nor odd.

(b) g(x) = −|x|

35
Note that g(−x) = −| − x| = −|x| = g(x). Thus, g is even.
x
(c) h(x) =
|x|
−x x
Note that h(−x) = =− = −h(x). Thus, h is odd.
| − x| |x|
(d) f (x) = x3 + x2 − 1

Note that f (2) = 11 ̸= −5 = f (−2). Thus, f is neither even nor odd.

Section 7.4: Combinations of Functions

Definition 137: Let f and g be functions.

(i) The sum of f and g is the function (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x).

(ii) The difference of f and g is the function (f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x).

(iii) The product of f and g is the function (f g)(x) = f (x)g(x).

 
f f (x)
(iv) The quotient of f and g is the function (x) = .
g g(x)
Note 138: If f and g are functions, then dom(f + g) = dom(f − g) = dom(f g) = dom(f ) ∩ dom(g)
 
f
and dom = {x ∈ dom(f ) ∩ dom(g) | g(x) ̸= 0}.
g
√
Example 139: Set f (x) = x and g(x) = x + 1. Calculate each of the following.

(a) (f + g)(9) = f (9) + g(9) = 3 + 10 = 13

(b) (f g)(9) = f (9) · g(9) = 3 · 10 = 30.

Definition 140: Let f : A → B and g : B → C.

(i) The function (g ◦ f ) : A → C defined by (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) is the composition of g with f .

(ii) dom(g ◦ f ) = {x ∈ dom(f ) | f (x) ∈ dom(g)}.

√
Example 141: Let f (x) = x and g(x) = x + 1. Calculate each of the following.
√
(a) (f ◦ g)(x) = f (x + 1) = x + 1
√ √
(b) (f ◦ g)(9) = 9 + 1 = 10

36
 √
(c) (g ◦ f )(x) = x+1

(d) (g ◦ f )(9) = 4
√
Example 142: Let f (x) = (x2 − 1)3 + x2 − 2. Find functions h(x) and g(u) such that f (x) =

g[h(x)].

There are infinitely many solutions to this. Listed below are three solutions.
√
Set h(x) = x2 − 1 and g(u) = u3 + u − 1
√
Set h(x) = x2 and g(u) = (u − 1)3 + u − 2
√
Set h(x) = x2 − 2 and g(u) = (u + 1)3 + u.

Definition 143: Let f be a function and h ∈ R\{0}. The difference quotient of f is the quantity
f (x + h) − f (x)
.
h
Example 144: Calculate the difference quotient of the function f (x) = x2 + 7.
f (x + h) − f (x)
h
(x + h)2 + 7 − (x2 + 7)
=
h
x2 + 2xh + h2 + 7 − x2 − 7
=
h
2xh + h2
=
h
h(2x + h)
=
h
= 2x + h.

Section 7.5: Transformations of Functions

Theorem 145: The graph of y = f (x) + c is the graph of y = f (x) shifted

(i) up c units if c ≥ 0;

(ii) down |c| units if c < 0.

Theorem 146: The graph of y = f (x + c) is the graph of y = f (x) shifted

(i) left c units if c ≤ 0;

(ii) right |c| units if c < 0.

Theorem 147: The graph of the function y = −f (x) is the graph of the function y = f (x) reflected

about the x-axis.

Theorem 148: The graph of the function y = f (−x) is the graph of the function y = f (x) reflected

about the y-axis.

Theorem 149: The graph of y = a · f (x) is the graph of y = f (x)

(i) stretched vertically if a > 1;

(ii) compressed vertically if a ∈ (0, 1).

37
Theorem 150: The graph of y = f (ax) is the graph of the function y = f (x)

(i) stretched horizontally if a ∈ (0, 1);

(ii) compressed horizontally if a > 1.

Example 151: Given the graph of f (x) = |x|, use transformations to sketch the graph of the

function g(x) = −2|x − 1| + 3.

The transformations are as follows:

(i) reflection about the x-axis;

(ii) vertical stretch of factor 2;

(iii) horizontal shift of 1 unit right;

(iv) vertical shift of 3 units up.

The graph of the function g is below.

38
 Section 7.6: One-to-One and Onto Functions
Theorem 152: The following are equivalent for any f ∈ Y X and any x1 , x2 ∈ X.

(i) f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) if and only if x1 = x2 ;

(ii) If x1 ̸= x2 , then f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 );

(iii) If f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), then x1 = x2 .

Proof: Let f ∈ Y X .

((i) =⇒ (ii)) Suppose that (i) is satisfied and let x1 , x2 ∈ X with x1 ̸= x2 . Since x1 ̸= x2 , it is

clear that f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 ).

((ii) =⇒ (iii)) Suppose (ii) is satisfied. To see that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) implies that x1 = x2 , suppose

x1 , x2 ∈ X such that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). If x1 ̸= x2 , then f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 ) by the assumption. Since

f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), it must be that x1 = x2 .

((iii) =⇒ (i)) Suppose that (iii) is satisfied. To see that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) if and only if x1 = x2 ,

suppose x1 , x2 ∈ X. If x1 = x2 , then f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) since f is a function. Also, if f (x1 ) = f (x2 ),

then by the assumption, we obtain x1 = x2 .

Therefore, (i) is satisfied, and the theorem is proved. ■

Definition 153: A function f ∈ Y X is one-to-one if it satisfies any of the conditions in the

theorem above.

Notation 154: We sometimes write “1-1” instead of “one-to-one.”

Example 155: Determine whether the following functions are one-to-one.

(a) f (x) = x

To see that f is one-to-one, note that for x1 ̸= x2 , then f (x1 ) = x1 ̸= x2 = f (x2 ). Thus, f is

one-to-one.

(b) g(x) = x2

To see that f is not one-to-one, note that g(−3) = 9 = g(3). Thus, g is not one-to-one. ■

Theorem 156 (Horizontal Line Test): Let X ⊆ R. Then a function f ∈ RX is one-to-one if and

only if every horizontal line intersects the graph of the function in at most one point.

Proof: (=⇒) Suppose that f is one-to-one and y = c is a horizontal line. Attempting a contradiction,

suppose the line y = c intersects the graph of f at two points, (x1 , c) and (x2 , c). Since (x1 , c) lies

on the graph of f , f (x1 ) = c. Likewise, f (x2 ) = c. This is a contradiction since f is one-to-one.

(⇐=) Suppose that every horizontal line intersects the graph of f in at most one point. To see that

f is one-to-one, suppose x1 , x2 ∈ X with x1 ̸= x2 . Let c = f (x1 ) and consider the horizontal line

y = c. By the assumption, the line y = c intersects the graph of f only at the point (x1 , c). This

39
implies the point (x2 , f (x2 )) is not on the line y = c which means f (x2 ) ̸= c = f (x1 ). Since x1 and

x2 were chosen arbitrarily, f is one-to-one. ■

Definition 157: Suppose I ⊆ R is an interval and f ∈ RI .

(i) f is increasing (nondecreasing) on I if f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 ) whenever x1 ≤ x2

(ii) f is decreasing (nonincreasing) on I if f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 ) whenever x1 ≤ x2

(iii) f is strictly increasing (increasing) on I if f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2

(iv) f is strictly decreasing (decreasing) on I if f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2

(v) f is monotonic (monotone) if it is either increasing or decreasing.

Proposition 158: A strictly increasing or strictly decreasing function is one-to-one.

Proof: Let f ∈ RX be either strictly increasing or strictly decreasing.

Case 1: f is strictly increasing

To see that f is one-to-one, suppose x1 , x2 ∈ X with x1 ̸= x2 . Without loss of generality, suppose

x1 < x2 . Since f is strictly increasing, f (x1 ) < f (x2 ), which implies that f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 ). Therefore,

f is one-to-one.

Case 2: f is strictly decreasing

To see that f is one-to-one, use an argument similar to the one above. ■

Definition 159: A function f has a

(i) local (relative) maximum at c ∈ R if there is an open interval U containing c such that

f (x) ≤ f (c) for all x ∈ U .

(ii) local (relative) minimum at c ∈ R if there is an open interval U containing c such that

f (x) ≥ f (c) for all x ∈ U .

(iii) local (relative) extremum at c ∈ R if c is a local maximum or a local minimum.

Definition 160: A function f ∈ Y X is onto if for each y ∈ Y , there is an x ∈ X such that f (x) = y.

Example 161:

(a) The function f ∈ RR defined by f (x) = x2 is not onto since ran(f ) = [0, ∞) ̸= R = cod(f ).

(b) The function f ∈ [0, ∞)R defined by f (x) = x2 is onto since ran(f ) = [0, ∞) = cod(f ).

Theorem 162: Let f ∈ Y X , g ∈ Z Y , and h ∈ W Z

(i) f ◦ (g ◦ h) = (f ◦ g) ◦ h;

(ii) If f and g are one-to-one, then g ◦ f is one-to-one;

(iii) If f and g are onto, then g ◦ f is onto.

Proof: Exercise. ■

40
 Section 7.7: Inverses of Functions
Definition 163: A function is a bijection if it is one-to-one and onto.

Definition 164: Let X be a set and f ∈ X X . Then f is an identity function if f (x) = x for all

x ∈ X.

Proposition 165: The identity function is unique.

Proof: Let f, g ∈ X X be distinct identity functions. Then, for all x ∈ X, f (x) = x = g(x), a

contradiction. Thus, the identity function is unique. ■

Definition 166: A bijection f ∈ Y X is invertible if there is a function g ∈ X Y , called the inverse

of f and usually denoted f −1 , such that (f ◦ g)(x) = (g ◦ f )(x) = x.

Note 167: To find the inverse of an invertible function y = f (x), we proceed as following.

(i) Interchange x and y;

(ii) Solve for y.

Example 168: For each of the following, find the inverse of the given function.

(a) f : [0, ∞) → [−4, ∞); f (x) = x2 − 4

Consider y = x2 − 4. Interchanging x and y, we obtain the following.

x = y2 − 4 √
⇐⇒ y = x + 4.
2
⇐⇒ x + 4 = y

(b) g : [−3, ∞) → [−4, ∞); g(x) = x2 + 6x + 5

Consider y = x2 + 6x + 5. Interchanging x and y, we obtain the following.

x = y 2 + 6y + 5 ⇐⇒ x + 4 = (y + 3)2
√
⇐⇒ x = (y + 3)2 − 4 ⇐⇒ y = −3 + x + 4

x+1
(c) h : R \ {1} → R \ {3}; h(x) =
x−3
x+1
Consider y = . Interchanging x and y, we obtain the following.
x−3
y+1 ⇐⇒ xy − y = 3x + 1
x=
y−3
⇐⇒ x(y − 3) = y + 1 ⇐⇒ y(x − 1) = 3x + 1
3x + 1
⇐⇒ xy − 3x = y + 1 ⇐⇒ y = .
x−1

Theorem 169: Let f ∈ Y X be invertible.

(i) f −1 is unique;

(ii) (f −1 )−1 = f .

Proof: Exercise. ■

41
Theorem 170: Let f ∈ Y X and g ∈ Z Y .

(i) f is invertible if and only if it is a bijection;

(ii) If f and g are invertible, then g ◦ f is invertible and (g ◦ f )−1 = f −1 ◦ g −1 .

Proof: For (i),

(=⇒) Suppose f is invertible. Then for any x, y ∈ X, f (x) = f (y) implies that x = [f −1 ◦ f ](x) =

[f −1 ◦ f ](y) = y. So f is one-to-one. Also, if u ∈ Y , then [f ◦ f −1 ](u) = u. Set x = [f −1 ](u). Note

that f (x) = u. Since u was chosen arbitrarily, we obtain f is onto.

(⇐=) Suppose f is a bijection. Define g ∈ X Y as follows. For any y ∈ Y , let g(y) = x ∈ X such

that f (x) = y. Note that this x exists since f is onto. Also, since f is one-to-one, the function g

will clearly be well-defined. Furthermore, by definition of g, f (g(x)) = x. Hence, g = f −1 , and so,

f is invertible.

The proof of (ii) is left as an exercise to the reader. ■

Theorem 171: Let X, Y ⊆ R and suppose f ∈ Y X is invertible. Then the graph of f −1 is obtained

by reflecting the graph of f about the line y = x.

Proof: Note that (u, v) ∈ R2 lies on the graph of f if and only if the point (v, u) lies on the graph

of f −1 . If u = v, then the point (u, v) = (v, u) lies on the line y = x. So suppose u ̸= v. Recall that
 
u+v u+v
the midpoint of the line segment connecting the points (u, v) and (v, u) is , , which
2 2
is on the line y = x. Also, recall that the slope of the line containing the points (u, v) and (v, u) is

−1. So, the line containing the points (u, v) and (v, u) is perpendicular to the line y = x. Therefore,

(u, v) is the reflection of (v, u) through the line y = x. ■

Proposition 172: If X, Y ⊆ R and f ∈ Y X is invertible and odd, then f −1 is odd.

Proof: Exercise. ■

Chapter 8: Linear Functions

Section 8.1: Slope

Definition 173: The slope of a non-vertical line passing through the points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 )
y2 − y1 y1 − y2
is m = = .
x2 − x1 x1 − x2
Note 174:

(i) There is no definition of the slope of a vertical line.

42
(ii) Since every point on a horizontal line has the same y-coordinate, the slope of a horizontal line

is 0.

Example 175: For each of the following, calculate the slope of the line passing through the given

pair of points.

(a) (2, −3) and (0, 4)

4 − (−3) 7
m= =− .
0−2 2
(b) (2, 6) and (2, −4)
−4 − 6 −10
m= = , which is undefined.
2−2 0
(c) (3, 1) and (−2, 1)
1−1
m= = 0.
3 − (−2)

Section 8.2: Equations of Lines

Theorem 176 (Point-Slope Formula): The equation of a line passing through the point (x1 , y1 )

with slope m is y − y1 = m(x − x1 ).

Proof: Suppose the point (x, y) is on the line passing through the point (x1 , y1 ) with slope m.
y − y1
Then, m = , which means y − y1 = m(x − x1 ). ■
x − x1
Corollary 177: The equation of a horizontal line passing through the point (x1 , y1 ) is y = y1 .

Proof: Exercise. ■

Corollary 178 (Slope-Intercept Formula) The equation of a line with slope m passing through

y-intercept (0, b) is y = mx + b.

Proof: By the point-slope formula, the equation of the line with slope m passing through the point

(0, b) is y − b = m(x − 0), which means y = mx + b. ■

Example 179: Find the equation of the line with slope 3 passing through the point (0, −7).

By the point-slope formula, the desired line is given by the equation y − (−7) = 3(x − 0) = 3x, or

y = 3x − 7.

Section 8.3: Parallel Lines

Theorem 180: Two distinct non-vertical lines are parallel if and only if they have the same slope.

Proof: (=⇒) We will prove the contrapositive. Suppose two lines have equations y1 = m1 x + b1

and y2 = m2 x + b2 with m1 ̸= m2 . Then, since m1 ̸= m2 , the equation m1 x + b1 = m2 x + b2 has

 
b2 − b1 b2 − b1 m1 b2 − m2 b1
solution . So, the lines intersect at the point , .
m1 − m2 m1 − m2 m1 − m2
(⇐=) Suppose two lines have the same slope. If they share a point, the point-slope formula implies

the lines passing through the point in common are the same line. Thus, two different lines with the

43
same slope are parallel. ■

Note 181: Two distinct vertical lines are parallel.

Section 8.4: Perpendicular Lines

Theorem 182: Two lines with slope m1 , m2 ∈ R are perpendicular if and only if m1 m2 = −1.

Proof: Suppose that two lines with slope m1 and m2 respectively intersect at the point (a, b). Then,

the equations of the lines are y = m1 (x − a) + b (call this line l1 ) and y = m2 (x − a) + b (call this

line l2 ). Note that the point (a + 1, b + m1 ) is on l1 and the point (a + 1, b + m2 ) is on l2 . By the

p
distance formula, the distance between (a, b) and (a + 1, b + m1 ) is 1 + m21 , the distance between
p
(a, b) and (a + 1, b + m2 ) is 1 + m22 , and the distance between (a + 1, b + m1 ) and (a + 1, b + m2 )
p
is (m1 − m2 )2 . Consider the triangle with vertices (a, b), (a + 1, b + m1 ), and (a + 1, b + m2 ) and

note the following.

l1 and l2 are perpendicular

⇐⇒ the triangle is a right triangle

⇐⇒ (1 + m1 )2 + (1 + m2 )2 = (m1 − m2 )2

⇐⇒ m21 + m22 + 2 = m21 + m22 − 2m1 m2

⇐⇒ 2 = −2m1 m2

⇐⇒ m1 m2 = −1 ■

Note 183: A horizontal and a vertical line are perpendicular.

Example 184: For each of the following, give the equation of the line (if possible) with the given

properties. If it is not possible, explain why it is not.

(a) Perpendicular to the line 2x + 4y = 8 and passing through the point (2, 1).

Note the following.

2x + 4y = 8

⇐⇒ x + 2y = 4

⇐⇒ 2y = 4 − x
1
⇐⇒ y = 2 − x.
2
So the desired slope is 2. Now, by the point-slope formula,

y − 1 = 2(x − 2) = 2x − 4, or y = 2x − 3.

(b) Parallel to the line 2x + 4y = 8 and passing through the point (2, 1).

This is not possible since the point (2, 1) is on the line 2x + 4y = 8.

(c) Passing through the point (0, 3) with no x-intercept.

The line is given by the equation y = 3.

44
 Section 8.5: Linear Functions
Definition 185: A linear function is a function of the form f (x) = mx + b, where m, b ∈ R.

Note 186:

(i) A line is the graph of a linear function if and only if it is not vertical.

(ii) Two intersecting lines intersect in a single point.

Chapter 9: Polynomial Functions

Section 9.1: Quadratic Functions

Definition 187: A quadratic function is a function of the form f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a ̸= 0.

Theorem 188: The graph of a quadratic function f (x) = ax2 + bx + c

(i) opens upward if a > 0;

(ii) opens downward if a < 0;

  
−b −b
(iii) has vertex ,f .
2a 2a
Definition 189: The axis (of symmetry) of the graph of of a quadratic function is the vertical

line that passes through the vertex.

Example 190: Find the vertex and x-intercept(s) (if any) of the function f (x) = x2 + x − 6. Use

your answers to sketch the graph.

 
1 25
By the theorem above, the vertex is given by the point − , − . Now, setting f (x) = 0, we
2 4
obtain 0 = x2 + x − 6 = (x + 3)(x − 2), or x = 2, −3. Thus, the x-intercepts are (2, 0) and (−3, 0).

The graph of f (x) is given below.

45
 Section 9.2: Polynomial Functions
Definition 191: A polynomial is a function of the form f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 ,

where n ∈ ω, ai ∈ R for all 0 ≤ i ≤ n with an ̸= 0 (unless f (x) = 0).

Notation 192: R[x] = {p(x) | p(x) is a polynomial with coefficients in R}.

Definition 193: A polynomial in R[x] is monic if its leading term is 1.

Definition 194: The degree of a nonconstant polynomial in R[x] is a function deg : R[x] → N

defined by deg(an xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 ) = n.

Note 195:

(i) The degree of the zero polynomial is not defined.

(ii) The degree of a constant polynomial is zero.

(iii) A linear function is a polynomial of degree at most 1.

(iv) A quadratic function is a polynomial of degree 2.

Example 196: Which of the following are polynomials?

√
(a) f (x) = x2 + 3x − x

(b) g(x) = x5 − 6

(c) h(x) = 3x
x3 − x2 + x
(d) j(x) =
x
Theorem 197 (Leading Coefficient Test): The end behavior of a polynomial is determined by

its leading term.

46
 Section 9.3: Roots of Polynomials
Definition 198: Let f ∈ R[x] and c ∈ R. Then

(i) c is a root (zero) if f (c) = 0.

(i) c is algebraic if there is a polynomial in Q[x] such that c is a root.

(ii) c is transcendental if it is not algebraic.

Theorem 199: Suppose that f ∈ R[x] and c ∈ R. Then the following are equivalent.

(i) c is a root of f ;

(ii) c is a solution to the equation f (x) = 0;

(iii) x − c is a factor of f (x);

(iv) The point (c, 0) is an x-intercept of the graph of f .

Theorem 200 (Division Algorithm in R[x]): Let f (x), g(x) ∈ R[x] such that g(x) ̸= 0. Then,

there are unique q(x), r(x) ∈ R[x] such that f (x) = g(x)q(x) + r(x) and either r(x) = 0 or deg(r) <

deg(q).

Proof: Use strong induction on deg(f ). ■

Example 201: Set p(x) = 2x3 + x2 − x + 1.

(a) Divide p(x) by x − 1.

Long division:

2x2 + 3x + 2


x−1 2x3 + x2 − x + 1

− 2x3 + 2x2

3x2 − x

− 3x2 + 3x

2x + 1

− 2x + 2

3
Synthetic division (Horner’s Scheme):

2 1 −1 1

1 2 3 2

2 3 2 3
(b) Calculate p(1).

p(1) = 3.

47
Theorem 202 (Remainder Theorem): Let f (x) ∈ R[x] and a ∈ R. Then f (a) is the remainder

when dividing f (x) by x − a.

Proof: By the division algorithm, there are q(x), r(x) ∈ R[x] such that f (x) = q(x)(x − a) + r(x)

and either r(x) = 0 or deg(r) < deg(x − a) = 1. So, in either case, r(x) = c, where c ∈ R. Thus,

f (x) = q(x)(x − a) + c. Note that f (a) = c = r(x). ■

Definition 203: Let f (x) ∈ R[x], and a ∈ R be a zero of f . Then

(i) a is a zero of multiplicity s if there is a q(x) ∈ R[x] such that q(a) ̸= 0 and f (x) = q(x)(x − a)s .

(ii) a is a simple zero if it is a zero of multiplicity 1.

Theorem 204: A polynomial in R[x] with degree n has at most n zeros.

Proof: Use strong induction on n. ■

Corollary 205: A polynomial in R[x] of degree n has at most n − 1 local extrema.

Proof: Let p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 ∈ R[x]. Define the derivative of p by

p′ (x) = nan xn−1 + (n − 1)xn−2 + . . . + 2a2 x + a1 ∈ R[x]. It is shown in Calculus that the zeros of

p′ represent the local extrema of p. Hence, p has at most n − 1 local extrema. ■

Theorem 206 (Intermediate Value Theorem for Polynomials): Let f (x) ∈ R[x] and suppose

there are a, b ∈ R with f (a) < 0 and f (b) > 0. Then there is a c ∈ R such that f (c) = 0.

Corollary 207: A polynomial in R[x] with odd degree has at least one root in R.

Proof: Let f (x) = xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . a1 x + a0 ∈ R[x], where n is odd, and let

u = 1 + |an−1 | + . . . + |a1 | + |a0 |, and consider f (u) = un + an−1 un−1 + . . . + a1 u + a0 .

Then |an−1 un−1 + . . . + a1 u + a0 | ≤ |an−1 |un−1 + . . . + |a1 |u + |a0 |.

Since |ai | ≤ |an−1 | + . . . + |a1 | + |a0 | = u − 1,

we obtain that |an−1 un−1 + . . . + a1 u + a0 | ≤ (u − 1)(un−1 + . . . + u + 1) = un − 1 < un .

Therefore, f (u) ≥ un − |an−1 un−1 + . . . a1 u + a0 | > 0.

Since n is odd, (−u)n = −un and

f (−u) ≤ −un + |an−1 un−1 + . . . a1 u + a0 | < 0.

Thus, by the Intermediate Value Theorem for Polynomials, there is a c ∈ R such that f (c) = 0, as

desired. ■

Example 208: Show that the polynomial p(x) = x5 − 3x4 + 2x + 2 has a root between −1 and 0.

Proof: By the corollary above, p has a real root. To see that a real root is between −1 and 0, note

that p(−1) = −4 < 0 and p(0) = 2 > 0. So by the Intermediate Value Theorem for Polynomials,

there is a c ∈ R such that p(c) = 0. ■

Theorem 209: Suppose that f ∈ R[x] and a ∈ R is a root of f with multiplicity k.

(i) If k is odd, then the graph of f crosses the x-axis at x = a;

48
(ii) If k is even, then the graph of f touches but does not cross the x-axis at x = a;
p
Theorem 210 (Rational Roots Theorem): Let f (x) = a0 + a1 x + . . . + an xn ∈ Z[x]. If ∈Q
q
is a zero of f (x), where gcd(p, q) = 1, then p divides a0 and q divides an .

Proof: Note the following.

 
p
0=f
q
p pn
= a0 + a1 + . . . + an n
q q
= a0 q n + a1 pq n−1 + . . . + an pn

⇐⇒ −a0 q n = a1 pq n−1 + . . . + an pn .

This means that p divides −a0 q n , and so, p divides a0 .

Also, −an pn = a0 q n + a1 pq n−1 + . . . + an−1 pn−1 q, which means that q divides an pn , and so, q divides

an . ■

Theorem 211 (Descartes’ Rule of Signs): Let p(x) ∈ R[x] and suppose that j is the total

multiplicities of the positive roots and k is the total multiplicities of the negative roots.

(i) If s is the number of sign changes of p(x), then s − j ≥ 0 and s − j is even.

(ii) If t is the number of sign changes of p(−x), then t − k ≥ 0 and t − k is even.

Example 212: Determine the number of possible positive and negative real zeros of the function

f (x) = x4 − 5x3 + 5x2 + 5x − 6.

Note that f (x) has three sign changes. So, by Descartes’ Rule of Signs, f (x) either has one or three

positive real zeros. Also, note that f (−x) = x4 + 5x3 + 5x2 − 5x − 6 has one sign change. So, by

Descartes’ Rule of Signs, f (x) has one negative real zero.

Theorem 213 (Upper and Lower Bound Rules): Suppose that p(x) ∈ R[x] with a positive

leading coefficient and p is divided by x − c for some c ∈ R using synthetic division.

(i) If c > 0 and each number of the last row is either positive or zero, then c is an upper bound for

the real zeros of p.

(ii) If c < 0 and the numbers of the last row are alternately positive and negative (with zero

considered both positive and negative), then c is a lower bound for the real zeros of p.

Proof: Exercise. ■

49
Example 214: What is the smallest positive integer which is an upper bound and the largest

negative integer which is a lower bound for the real zeros of the function f (x) = 2x3 + 7x2 − 4x − 14?

Performing synthetic division with c = 2,

2 7 −4 − 14

2 4 22 36

2 11 18 22
we obtain that c = 2 is the smallest positive integer upper bound by the upper and lower bound

rules theorem. Also, performing synthetic division with c = −4,

2 7 −4 − 14

−4 −8 4 0

2 −1 0 − 14
we obtain that c = −4 is the largest negative integer lower bound by the upper and lower bound

rules theorem.

Definition 215: A field F is algebraically closed if every polynomial in F [x] has a root.

Theorem 216 (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra): The field C is algebraically closed.

Corollary 217 (Linear Factor Theorem): If p ∈ C[x] is of positive degree, then it can be

expressed as a product of linear factors.

Proof: Use induction on deg(p). ■

Example 218: Find all zeros of the polynomial p(x) = x4 − 4x3 + 8x2 − 16x + 16 and factor.

By the linear factor theorem, p(x) has four zeros. By the rational root theorem, the potential zeros

of p are ±1, ±2, ±4, ±8, and ±16. If x = 1, then p(1) = 5 ̸= 0. If x = −1, then p(−1) = 45 ̸= 0. If

x = 2, then p(2) = 0. Applying synthetic division with divisor x − 2,

1 −4 8 − 16 16

2 2 −4 8 − 16

1 −2 4 −8 0
we obtain that p(x) = (x − 2)(x3 − 2x2 + 4x − 8). Set q(x) = x3 − 2x2 + 4x − 8. By the rational

roots theorem, the potential zeros of q are ±1, ±2, ±4, and ±8. By a similar argument to the one

above, we obtain that x = 2 is a root of q. Applying synthetic division with x − 2,

1 −2 4 −8

2 2 0 8

1 0 4 0

50
we obtain that q(x) = (x − 2)(x2 + 4), which means that p(x) = (x − 2)2 (x2 + 4). Thus, the four

zeros are given by x = 2 and x = ±2i and p(x) = (x − 2)2 (x + 2i)(x − 2i).

Theorem 219 (Conjugate Pair Theorem): Let p(x) ∈ R[x]. If z ∈ C is a root of p(x) with

multiplicity n for some n ∈ N, then z is a root of p(x) with multiplicity n.

Proof: Let p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 ∈ C[x] and suppose z ∈ C is a root of

p(x) with multiplicity n. We prove the theorem with two claims.

Claim 1: The conjugate z is a root of p.

Proof (Claim 1): Consider the following.

p(z) = 0

⇐⇒ p(z) = 0 = 0.

Since p ∈ R[x],

p(z) = an z n + an−1 z n−1 + . . . + a2 z 2 + a1 z + a0

= an z n + an−1 z n−1 + . . . + a2 z 2 + a1 z + a0

= p(z).

Thus, since p(z) = 0 and p(z) = p(z), we obtain that z is a root of p. ■Claim 1

Claim 2: The conjugate z is a root with multiplicity n.

Proof (Claim 2): Consider the following.

p(x) = (x − z)n q(x)

⇐⇒ p(x) = (x − z)n q(x)

= (x − z)n · q(x)

= (x − z)n · q(x)

⇐⇒ p(x) = (x − z)n · q(x).

Therefore, z is a root with multiplicity n. ■Claim 2

The proof of claim 2 completes the proof of the theorem. ■

Corollary 220: A non-constant irreducible polynomial in R[x] has degree 1 or 2.

Proof: Let p ∈ R[x] with deg(p) = n > 0. By the Linear Factor Theorem, there are c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ∈ C

and a d ∈ R such that p(x) = d(x − c1 )(x − c2 ) . . . (x − cn ). If ci ∈ R for every i, 1 ≤ i ≤ n, then

there is nothing to show. So suppose there is a cj ∈ C for some j, 1 ≤ j ≤ n. Then there are a, b ∈ R

such that cj = a + bi. Since p ∈ R[x], the conjugate cj = a − bi is a root by the Conjugate Pair

Theorem. So,

(x − cj )(x − cj )

= [x − (a + bi)][x − (a − bi)]

= x2 − 2ax + (a2 + b2 ),

51
which means that p(x) = d(x − c1 )(x − c2 ) . . . (x − cn )[x2 − 2ax + (a2 + b2 )]. ■

Example 221: If 3 − 5i is a zero, find all the zeros of the polynomial p(x) = x5 − 10x4 + 65x3 −

184x2 + 274x − 204.

By a previous theorem and the linear factor theorem, the polynomial p has 5 zeros. By the conjugate

pair theorem, since 3−5i is a zero, 3+5i is a zero. Dividing p by (x−3+5i)(x−3−5i) = x2 −6x+34,

x3 − 4x2 + 7x −6


x2 − 6x + 34 x5 − 10x4 + 65x3 − 184x2 + 274x − 204

− x5 + 6x4 − 34x3

− 4x4 + 31x3 − 184x2

4x4 − 24x3 + 136x2

7x3 − 48x2 + 274x

− 7x3 + 42x2 − 238x

− 6x2 + 36x − 204

6x2 − 36x + 204

0
we obtain p(x) = (x − 3 + 5i)(x − 3 − 5i)(x − 4x + 7x − 6). Set q(x) = x3 − 4x2 + 7x − 6. By
3 2

Descartes’ Rule of Signs, q has either one or three positive real zeros and no negative zeros. By the

rational root theorem, 1, 2, 3, and 6 are potential zeros. If x = 1, then q(1) = −2 ̸= 0. If x = 2, then

q(2) = 0. Applying synthetic division with divisor x − 2,

1 −4 7 −6

2 2 −4 6

1 −2 3 0
we obtain that q(x) = (x − 2)(x2 − 2x − 3), which means that p(x) = (x − 3 + 5i)(x − 3 − 5i)(x −
√
2)(x2 − 2x + 3). By the quadratic formula, the remaining two zeros are x = 1 ± i 2.

52
 Chapter 10: Rational Functions and Asymptotes

Section 10.1: Rational Functions

Definition 222:
p(x)
(i) A rational function is a function of the form r(x) = , where p(x), q(x) ∈ R[x] are relatively
q(x)
prime polynomials and q(x) ̸= 0 for every x ∈ R.
ax + b
(ii) A rational function of the form r(x) = , where a, b, c, d ∈ R, is called a linear fractional
cx + d
transformation.
p(x)
Note 223: The domain of a rational function r(x) = is the set dom(r) = {x ∈ R | q(x) ̸= 0}.
q(x)

Section 10.2: Infinite Limits and Vertical Asymptotes

Concept 224: Let f be a function and c ∈ R be not necessarily in the domain of f . Then

(i) lim f (x) = ∞ if f (x) can be made arbitrarily large by making x sufficiently close to c but not
x→c

equal to c.

(ii) lim f (x) = −∞ if f (x) can be made arbitrarily small by making x sufficiently close to c but
x→c

not equal to c.

(iii) lim− f (x) = ∞ if f (x) can be made arbitrarily large by making x sufficiently close to, and less
x→c
than, c.

(iv) lim f (x) = −∞ if f (x) can be made arbitrarily large by making x sufficiently close to, and
x→c−
less than, c.

(v) Then lim+ f (x) = ∞ if f (x) can be made arbitrarily large by making x sufficiently close to, and
x→c
greater than, c.

(vi) Then lim+ f (x) = −∞ if f (x) can be made arbitrarily small by making x sufficiently close to,
x→c
and greater than, c.

Example 225: Analyze each limit.

1
(a) lim 2
x→0 x
1 1 1
Note that lim 2 = ∞ = lim 2 . Thus, lim 2 = ∞.
x→0 x
− x→0 x+ x→0 x
1
(b) lim
x→5 (x − 5)3
1
Note that x − 5 > 0 as x > 5. So, lim+ = ∞. Likewise, x − 5 < 0 as x < 5. So,
x→5 (x − 5)3
1 1
lim− 3
= −∞. Thus, lim does not exist.
x→5 (x − 5) x→5 (x − 5)3
x+1
(c) lim
x→−2 (x − 3)(x + 2)

53
 x+1 x+1 x+1
Note that lim = ∞ and lim − = −∞. Thus, lim
x→−2+ (x − 3)(x + 2) x→−2 (x − 3)(x + 2) x→−2 (x − 3)(x + 2)
does not exist.

Definition 226: The line x = c is a vertical asymptote of the graph y = f (x) if at least one of

the following is true.

(i) lim f (x) = ∞; (iii) lim− f (x) = ∞; (v) lim+ f (x) = ∞;

x→c x→c x→c
(ii) lim f (x) = −∞; (iv) lim f (x) = −∞; (vi) lim f (x) = −∞.
x→c x→c− x→c+
p(x)
Theorem 227: Let r(x) = be a rational function.
q(x)
(i) If q(a) ̸= 0, then the vertical line x = a is not a vertical asymptote of r.

(ii) If q(a) = 0 and p(a) ̸= 0, then the vertical line x = a is a vertical asymptote of r.

(iii) If p(a) = 0 = q(a), then r may or may not be a vertical asymptote of r.

Example 228: For each of the following, find the vertical asymptotes, if any, and sketch a graph.
x2 + x + 1
(a) f (x) =
x
2
If x = 0, then x + x + 1 = 1. So, by the theorem above, there is a vertical asymptote at x = 0, and

a sketch of the graph is below.

x2 + 3x + 2
(b) f (x) =
x+1
x2 + 3x + 2 (x + 2)(x + 1)
Suppose that x = −1. Then x2 +3x+2 = 0 and x+1 = 0. So f (x) = = =
x+1 x+1
x+2
. By the theorem above, there are no vertical asymptotes. A sketch of the graph is below.
1

54
Section 10.3: Limits at Infinity and Horizontal Asymptotes
Concept 229: Let f be a function.

(i) The limit as x tends to infinity of f is L if f (x) can be made arbitrarily close to L by making x

sufficiently large.

(ii) The limit as x tends to negative infinity of f is L if f (x) can be made arbitrarily close to L by

making x sufficiently small.

Notation 230:

(i) If the limit as x tends to infinity of f is L, then we write lim f (x) = L.

x→∞

(ii) If the limit as x tends to negative infinity of f is L, then we write lim f (x) = L.
x→−∞

Example 231: Evaluate the following limits.

3x2 + 3x + 1
3x3 + 4x2 − 172 3x2 + x − 1 (c) lim
(a) lim (b) lim
x→−∞ x2 + 1
x→∞ x4 + 1 x→∞ x+1 Consider the following.
Consider the following. Consider the following. 3x2 + 3x + 1
3x3 + 4x2 − 172 3x2 + x − 1 lim
lim lim
x→−∞ x2+ 1 
x→∞ x4 + 1 x→∞ x+ 1 2 3 1
4 172

1
 x 3+ + 2
x3 3 + − 3 x 3x + 1 − x x
x x x = lim  
= lim = lim
x→−∞
2
1
x→∞

1

x→∞

1
 x 1+ 2
x3 x + 3 x 1+ x
x x 3 1
4 172 1 3+ + 2
3+ − 3 3x + 1 − = lim x x
= lim x x x x→−∞ 1
1 = lim 1+ 2
x→∞ x→∞ 1 x
x+ 3 1+ = 3.
x x
= 0. = ∞.

55
 p(x)
Theorem 232: Let r(x) = be a rational function, where p(x) = am xm + am−1 xm−1 + . . . +
q(x)
a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 and q(x) = bn xn + bn−1 xn−1 + . . . + b2 x2 + b1 x + b0 .

(i) If m < n, then lim r(x) = 0.

x→∞
am
(ii) If m = n, then lim r(x) = .
x→∞ b
n




 ∞ if am > 0 and bn > 0;




∞
 if am < 0 and bn < 0;
(iii) If m > n, then lim r(x) =
x→∞ 



 −∞ if am > 0 and bn < 0;




−∞
 if am < 0 and bn < 0.
Proof: Apply the Leading Coefficient Test. ■

Example 233: Evaluate each of the following.

3x2 + x + 1
(a) lim =∞
x→∞ 100x + 10
30x + 1
(b) lim =0
x→∞ x2
2x + 5x3 + 10x
4
2
(c) lim = .
x→−∞ 3x4 + 38x 3
Definition 234: The horizontal line y = L is a horizontal asymptote of the function y = f (x) if

at least one of the following is true.

(i) lim f (x) = L;

x→∞

(ii) lim f (x) = L.

x→−∞
p(x)
Theorem 235: Let r(x) = be a rational function, where p(x) = am xm + am−1 xm−1 + . . . +
q(x)
a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 and q(x) = bn xn + bn−1 xn−1 + . . . + b2 x2 + b1 x + b0 .

(i) If m < n, then the horizontal line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote of r.

am
(ii) If m = n, then the horizontal line y = is a horizontal asymptote of r.
bn
(iii) If m > n, then the function r has no horizontal asymptotes.

Proof: Apply the theorem above and the definition of horizontal asymptote. ■

Example 236: For each of the following, find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes, if any, of the

graph of the given function. Then sketch a graph.

x2 − 1
(a) f (x) = 2
x − 3x + 2
Since deg(x2 − 1) = 2 = deg(x2 − 3x + 2), the line y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of

f . Also, if x = 2, then x2 − 1 = 3 ̸= 0 and x2 − 3x + 2 = 0, and so, the line x = 2 is a vertical

asymptote of the graph of f . A sketch of the graph is below.

56
 4x2
(b) f (x) =
x2
+1
Since deg(4x2 ) = 2 = deg(x2 + 1), there is a horizontal asymptote at y = 4. Also, since x2 + 1 ̸= 0

for all x ∈ R, there are no vertical asymptotes on the graph of f . A sketch of the graph is below.

Note 237: A function can have at most two horizontal asymptotes. There is no limit to the number

of vertical asymptotes a function can have, however.

Section 10.4: Oblique Asymptotes

Definition 238: Let m, b ∈ R with m ̸= 0. Then the line y = mx + b is an oblique asymptote of

the graph of a function y = f (x) if either lim f (x) − (mx + b) = 0 or lim f (x) − (mx + b) = 0.
x→∞ x→−∞
p(x)
Theorem 239: Let r(x) = be a rational function with deg(p) = m and deg(q) = n. Then the
q(x)
graph of r has an oblique asymptote if and only if m = n + 1.

Note 240: If a rational function has an oblique asymptote, apply the division algorithm. The

quotient will be the oblique asymptote.

57
Example 241: For each of the following functions, find all asymptotes and sketch a graph.
x2 + x + 1
(a) f (x) =
x−1
Note that there are no horizontal asymptotes, the line x = 1 is a vertical asymptote, and f (x) =
3
x+2+ , which means that the line y = x + 2 is an oblique asymptote. A sketch of the graph
x−1
is below.

x3 + 6x2 + 8x
(b) g(x) =
x2 + 3x + 2
Note that there are no horizontal asymptotes, the line x = −1 is a vertical asymptote, and g(x) =
−3x + 6
x+3+ 2 , which means that the line y = x + 3 is an oblique asymptote. A sketch of the
x + 3x + 2
graph is below.

58
 Chapter 11: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Section 11.1: Exponential Functions

Definition 242: Let a ∈ R+ \ {1}. The function f : R → R+ defined by f (x) = ax is an exponen-

tial function.

Example 243: The sketch of the function f (x) = 2x is given below.

Note 244: Define f : R → R+ by f (x) = bx for some b ∈ R+ \ {1}.

(i) If b > 1, then f is strictly increasing;

(ii) If b ∈ (0, 1), then f is strictly decreasing.

(iii) The graph of f has a horizontal asymptote at y = 0.

(iv) f is invertible.

Example 245: Solve the following equations.

 2x
1
(b) 7x+1 =
(a) 23x+1 = 25 7
Consider the following.
Consider the following.  2x
1
7x+1 = = 7−2x
23x+1 = 25 7
⇐⇒ 7x+1 = 7−2x
⇐⇒ 3x + 1 = 5
⇐⇒ x + 1 = −2x
⇐⇒ 3x = 4
4 ⇐⇒ 3x = −1
⇐⇒ x = .
3 −1
⇐⇒ x = .
3

59
  n
1
Definition 246: The number e = lim 1+ = lim (1 + x)1/x is called Euler’s number.
n→∞ n x→0

Section 11.2: Logarithmic Functions

Definition 247: Let a ∈ R+ \ {1}. The function loga : R+ → R defined by loga x = y if and only

if x = ay is called a logarithmic function of base a.

Proposition 248:

(i) Logarithmic functions are invertible.

(ii) Exponential and logarithmic functions are inverses.

Proof: Exercise. ■

Example 249: Calculate the following.

(a) log2 (8) = 3;

(g) loga (a5 ) = 5;
(b) log5 (25) = 2;
1 (h) loga (ax ) = x;
(c) log9 (3) = ;
2 (i) loga (a) = 1;
(d) log3 (9) = 2;
 
1 (j) loga (1) = 0;
(e) log3 = −2;
9 (k) loga (0) is undefined.
(f ) loga (a2 ) = 2;

Notation 250:

(i) The function log10 is denoted log;

(ii) The function loge is denoted ln.

Theorem 251 (Properties of Logarithms): Let a ∈ R+ \ {1}.

(i) loga (ax ) = x for all x ∈ R; (iv) loga (xy) = loga (x) + loga (y) for all x, y > 0;

(ii) aloga (x) = x for all x > 0; (v) loga (xr ) = r loga (x) for all x > 0 and all r ∈ R;
 
x
(iii) loga (1) = 0; (vi) loga = loga (x) − loga (y) for all x, y > 0.
y

Proof:

For (iii), consider the following. For (iv), consider the following.

loga (1) = x xy = aloga x · aloga y

⇐⇒ ax = 1 = aloga x+loga y

⇐⇒ x = 0. ⇐⇒ loga (xy) = loga x + loga y.

60
For (v), consider the following. For (vi), consider the following.
x aloga x
xr = aloga x

r = log y = aloga x · a− loga y
y a a
= ar loga x = aloga x−loga y
 
x
⇐⇒ loga (xr ) = r loga x. ⇐⇒ loga = loga x − loga y. ■
y

Example 252: Simplify the following.

(a) log6 (9) + log6 (4) = log6 (36) = 2.

√
 
1 1 1
(b) ln √ = ln(1) − ln( e) = − ln(e) = − .
e √ 2 2
(c) 10 logb (b3 ) − 4 logb ( b) = 30 − 2 = 28.

Theorem 253 (Change of Base for Logarithms): Let a, b ∈ R+ \ {1}. Then for any x > 0,
logb (x)
loga (x) = .
logb (a)
Proof: Consider the following.
aloga (x) = x ⇐⇒ (loga x) (logb a) = logb x
logb x


⇐⇒ logb aloga (x) = logb x ⇐⇒ loga x = . ■
log a b

Example 254: Calculate each of the following.

log27 (27) 1 ∼
(a) log4 (27) = = = 2.377443751.
log27 (4) log27 (4)
log18 (18) 1 ∼
(b) log3 (18) = = = 2.630929754.
log18 (3) log18 (3)
Example 255: Calculate each of the following without a calculator.
3
(a) e3 ln(x) = eln(x )
= x3 . (b) ln(e1000 ) = 1000.

Example 256: Solve the following equations for x.

(b) 5x+1 = 12
(a) 4x = 6
Consider the following.
Consider the following.
5x+1 = 12
4x = 6
⇐⇒ log5 (5x+1 ) = log5 (12)
⇐⇒ log4 (4x ) = log4 (6)
⇐⇒ x + 1 = log5 (12)
⇐⇒ x = log4 (6).
⇐⇒ x = log5 (12) − 1.
(c) e2x = 8x
⇐⇒ 2x − x ln(8) = 0
Consider the following.
⇐⇒ x(2 − ln(8)) = 0
e2x = 8x
⇐⇒ x = 0.
⇐⇒ ln(e2x ) = ln(8x )

⇐⇒ 2x = x ln(8)
Example 257: The bacteria population in a bottle at time t (in hours) has size P (t) = 1000e0.35t .

After how many hours will there be 5000 bacteria in the bottle?

61
 ln(5) ∼
Solving 1000e0.35t = 5000 for t, we obtain 0.35t = ln(5), or t = = 4.6 hours.
0.35

Section 11.3: Exponential Growth and Decay

Definition 258:

(i) A quantity Q grows exponentially if Q = Q0 ekt , where Q0 is the quantity at time t = 0 and

k > 0 is the growth constant.

(ii) A quantity Q decays exponentially if Q = Q0 e−kt , where Q0 is the quantity at time t = 0

and k > 0 is the decay constant.

Example 259: A bacteria culture containing 200 bacteria is growing at a rate proportional to its

size. In an hour the culture will contain 300 bacteria.

(a) Express the number of bacteria in the culture as a function of time.

Consider the following. 3

⇐⇒ = ek
2
Q(t) = Q0 ekt
 
3
⇐⇒ k = ln
2
⇐⇒ 300 = 200ek  t
3
⇐⇒ Q(t) = 200eln(3/2)t = 200 · .
2
(b) How many bacteria will the culture contain in three hours?
 3
3
Q(3) = 200 · = 675.
2
Theorem 260: Suppose the half-life of a substance is λ. If Q is the amount present at time t and
 t/λ
1
Q0 is the initial amount present at time t = 0, then Q = Q0 · = Q0 e−[ln(2)t]/λ .
2
Corollary 261: Suppose the half-life of a substance is λ and k is a decay constant. Then kλ = ln(2).
 t/λ
1
Proof: By the theorem above and the definition of exponential decay, Q(t) = Q0 = Q0 e−kt .
2
So,
 t/λ
1
Q0 = Q0 e−kt t
2 ⇐⇒ − ln(2) = −kt
 t/λ λ
1 ⇐⇒ ln(2) = kλ. ■
⇐⇒ = e−kt
2

Example 262: Find the half-life of a radioactive substance that decays from 100 g to 40 g in three

hours.

Consider the following.

 3/λ  
 t/λ 2 1 3 1
1 ⇐⇒ = = ln
Q(t) = Q(0) · 5 2  λ 2
2 1
 3/λ
1 3 ln
⇐⇒ 40 = 100 · 2 3 ln(2)
2 ⇐⇒ λ =   = hours.
2 ln(5) − ln(2)
ln
5

62
 Section 11.4: Logistic Functions
Definition 263: Let a, b, c, k ∈ R.
c
(i) A logistic growth function in x is a function of the form f (x) = or f (x) =
1 + a · bx
c
, where c is the growth constant.
1 + a · e−kx
(ii) If b > 1 or k < 0, the function in part (i) is called a logistic decay function.
1
(iii) The function f (x) = is called the logistic function.
1 + e−x
Proposition 264: Let f (x) denote a logistic growth function.

(i) lim f (x) = 0; (ii) lim f (x) = c, where c is the limit of growth.
x→−∞ x→∞

Proof: Exercise. ■

Section 11.5: Hyperbolic Functions

Definition 265: The hyperbolic functions are defined as follows.
ex − e−x 1 2
(i) sinh x = ; (iv) csch(x) = = x ;
2 sinh(x) e − e−x
ex + e−x 1 2
(ii) cosh x = ; (v) sech(x) = = x ;
2 cosh(x) e + e−x
x −x
sinh(x) e −e 1 ex + e−x
(iii) tanh x = = x −x
; (vi) coth(x) = = x .
cosh(x) e +e tanh(x) e − e−x

Proposition 266:

(i) The function sinh(x) is odd.

(ii) The function cosh(x) is even.

(iii) The function f (x) = 1 + tanh(x) is a logistic function.

Proof: Exercise. ■

Proposition 267:

(i) For any x ∈ R, sinh(x) + cosh(x) = ex .

(ii) For any x ∈ R cosh(x) − sinh(x) = e−x .

Proof: Exercise. ■

Corollary 268: cosh2 (x) − sinh2 (x) = 1 for all x ∈ R.

Proof: By the proposition above, cosh(x) + sinh(x) = ex and cosh(x) − sinh(x) = e−x . Hence,

[cosh(x) + sinh(x)][cosh(x) − sinh(x)] = ex · e−x

⇐⇒ cosh2 (x) − sinh2 (x) = 1,

as desired. ■

Theorem 269: Let x, y ∈ R.

(i) sinh(x + y) = sinh(x) cosh(y) + cosh(x) sinh(y);

(ii) cosh(x + y) = cosh(x) cosh(y) + sinh(x) sinh(y);

63
 tanh(x) + tanh(y)
(iii) tanh(x + y) = .
1 + tanh(x) tanh(y)
Proof: Exercise. ■

Corollary 270: Let x ∈ R.

(i) sinh(2x) = 2 sinh(x) cosh(x);

(ii) cosh(2x) = cosh2 (x) + sinh2 (x).

Proof: Exercise. ■

Chapter 12: Introduction to Trigonometry

Section 12.1: Radian and Degree Measure

Note 271: Recall the following for a circle with radius r, diameter d, circumference C, and area A.
(i) d = 2r; (iii) C = πd = 2πr;
C
(ii) =π∼ = 3.141592654; (iv) A = πr2 .
d
Definition 272: In a circle with radius r, the central angle θ of a sector with arc length s has

measure
C 2πr πr
(i) 1 radian if s = r; (ii) 1 degree if s = = = .
r 360 180
Note 273: A radian is illustrated below. (Why not a degree?)

Notation 274:

(i) The symbol ◦ is used to denote an angle measured in degrees. (e.g., 30◦ )
π
(ii) The symbol rad is used to denote an angle measured in radians. (e.g., rad)
6

64
Definition 275:
π
(i) An angle is acute if it measures less than rad.
2
π
(ii) An angle is obtuse if it measures less than rad.
2
π
(iii) An angle is right if it measures rad.
2
π
(iv) Two angles are complementary if the sum of their measurements is rad.
2
(v) Two angles are supplementary if the sum of their measurements if π rad.

Note 276: Some common angles are illustrated below.

(i) (Degree Measure)

(ii) (Radian Measure)

65
Note 277 (Degree and Radian Conversion):
180 ◦ π
(i) π rad = 180◦ ; (ii) 1 rad = ; (iii) 1◦ = rad.
π 180
Example 278: Convert the following from degrees to radians.
5π 5π
(a) 300◦ = rad; (b) −100◦ = − rad.
3 9
Example 279: Convert the following from radians to degrees.
7π
(a) rad = 210◦ ; (b) −4π = −720◦ .
6

Section 12.2: Area and Arc Length of a Sector

Definition 280: A sector of a circle is the region bounded by two radii of the circle and their

intercepted arc.

Proposition 281: In a circle of radius r,

θ
(i) the length of the arc with central angle θ rad is s = 2πr · = rθ;
2π
θ 1
(ii) the area of the sector with central angle θ rad is A = πr2 · = r2 θ.
2π 2
Proposition 282: In a circle of radius r,
θ πrθ
(i) the length of the arc with central angle θ◦ is s = 2πr · = ;
360 180
θ 1
(ii) the area of the sector with central angle θ◦ is A = πr2 · = πr2 θ.
360 360
Example 283: A circle has radius 4 cm. For each of the following, find the area of the sector with

the given central angle.

π
(a) rad
3
π/3 8π
The area A is 16π · cm2 = cm2 .
2 3
(b) 100◦
100 40π
The area A is 16π · cm2 = cm2 .
360 9
Definition 284: Suppose that an object is traveling around a circle.

(i) The linear speed is the rate of change of the arc length;

(ii) The angular speed is the rate of change of the central angle.

Example 285: The blades of a wind turbine are 116 feet long. The propeller rotates at 15 revolu-

tions per minute.

(a) Find the angular speed of the propeller in radians per minute.

Because each revolution generates 2π radians, it follows that the propeller turns 15(2π) = 30π radi-

ans per minute.

(b) Find the linear speed of the tips of the blades.

s rθ (116)(30π) ∼
The linear speed is given by = = = 10933 feet per minute.
t t 1

66
 Section 12.3: The Unit Circle
Definition 286: The unit circle is the circle centered at (0, 0) with radius 1.

Definition 287 (Trigonometric Values - Unit Circle): The trigonometric values of the angle

measure θ are given below.

y x
(a) sin θ = = y; (d) cot θ = ;
1 y
x 1
(b) cos θ = = x; (e) sec θ = ;
1 x
y 1
(c) tan θ = ; (f ) csc θ = .
x y

Note 288:

(i) For all θ ∈ R, (cos θ)2 + (sin θ)2 = x2 + y 2 = 1;

π
(ii) If θ = + nπ for any n ∈ Z, then cos θ = 0 and both tan θ and sec θ are undefined.
2
(iii) If θ = nπ for any n ∈ Z, then sin θ = 0 and both cot θ and csc θ are undefined.
11π
Example 289: Use the unit circle to find the six trigonometric values of .
6

67
 √
11π 1 11π 3 3 3 √
(a) sin =− ; (d) cot =√ = = 3;
6 √2 6 3 3
√
11π 3 11π 2 2 3
(b) cos = ; (e) sec =√ = ;
6 2 √ 6 3 3
11π 1 3 11π
(c) tan =√ = ; (f ) csc = −2.
6 3 3 6

Proposition 290: Let θ ∈ R.

(i) cos(−θ) = cos(θ);  π

(iv) cos(θ) = sin θ + ;
(ii) sin(−θ) = − sin(θ); 2
 π
(v) sin(θ) = cos θ − .
(iii) sin(π − θ) = sin(θ); 2

Proof: For (i)-(iii), see the figure below.

Note that cos(θ) = x = cos(−x), sin(−θ) = −y = − sin(θ), and sin(π − θ) = y.

For (iv) and (v), consider the figure below.

68
  π  π  π π
Note that cos(θ) = a = sin θ + and cos θ − = sin θ − + = sin(θ). ■
2 2 2 2

Section 12.4: Right Triangle Trigonometry

Definition 291 (Trigonometric Values - Right Triangle): Consider the right triangle below

with leg length o (opposite to θ) and a (adjacent to θ) and hypotenuse length h.

The trigonometric values, sine (sin), cosine (cos), tangent (tan), cotangent (cot), secant

(sec), and cosecant (csc) of angle measure θ are defined as follows.

o opposite
(i) sin θ = = ; 1 a adjacent
h hypotenuse (iv) cot θ = = ;
a adjacent tan θ o opposite
(ii) cos θ = = ; 1 h hypotenuse
h hypotenuse (v) sec θ = = = ;
sin θ o opposite cos θ a adjacent
(iii) tan θ = = = ; 1 h hypotenuse
cos θ a adjacent (vi) csc θ = = = .
sin θ o opposite
Example 292: For the triangle below, find the six trigonometric values of θ.

69
By the Pythagorean Theorem, the length of the hypotenuse is 10. Now,
6 3 4
sin(θ) = = ; cot(θ) = ;
10 5 3
8 4 5
cos(θ) = = ; sec(θ) = ;
10 5 4
6 3 5
tan(θ) = = ; csc(θ) = .
8 4 3
π π π
Note 293: The six trigonometric values of rad, rad, and rad are derived below.
6 3 4
(i) Begin with the following triangle.

Drop a perpendicular, as depicted below.

70
By the Angle-Side-Angle congruence theorem, the two smaller triangles are congruent. So the length

of each base is 1. See the figure below.

√
By the Pythagorean Theorem, the height of the triangle is given by 3, as depicted below.

71
By the final diagram, we obtain the following. √
π 1 π 3
(a) sin = ; (g) sin = ;
6 2√ 3 2
π 3 π 1
(b) cos = ; (h) cos = ;
6 2 √ 3 2
π 1 3 π √
(c) tan = √ = ; (i) tan = 3;
6 3 3 3 √
π 3 √ π 1 3
(d) cot = √ = 3; (j) cot = √ = ;
6 3 3 3 3√
π π 2 2 3
(e) csc = 2; (k) csc = √ = ;
6 √ 3 3 3
π 2 2 3 π
(f ) sec = √ = ; (l) sec = 2.
6 3 3 3

(ii) Now consider the following triangle.

By the diagram above,

√ we obtain the following.
π 1 2
(a) sin = √ = ; π
4 2 2
√ (d) cot = 1;
4
π
(b) cos = √ =
1 2
; π √
(e) csc = 2;
4 2 2 4
π π √
(c) tan = 1; (f ) sec = 2.
4 4

72
 Chapter 13: Trigonometric Functions and Identities

Section 13.1: Periodic Functions

Definition 294: Let f be a function and p ∈ R. Then

(i) p is the period of f if it is the smallest positive integer such that f (x + p) = f (x) for every

x ∈ dom(f );

(ii) f is periodic if it has a period.

Example 295:

(a) Polynomial functions are not periodic.

(b) The function x − ⌊x⌋ is periodic with periodic with period 1.

Section 13.2: Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

Note 296: The graphs of y = sin(x) and y = cos(x) are below.

Theorem 297: Let a, b, c, d ∈ R with a ̸= 0 and b > 0. Also, suppose that f (x) = a sin(bx + c) + d

or f (x) = a cos(bx + c) + d. Then,

(i) the amplitude of f is |a|; |c|

(iii) the phase shift of f is ;
2π b
(ii) the period of f is ;
b (iv) the average value of f is d.

73
Proposition 298:

(i) The functions sin(x) and tan(x) are odd.

(ii) The function cos(x) is even.

Note 299: The graphs of the other four trigonometric functions are below.

74
Note 300: The periods of tan and cot are π. The periods of the other four trigonometric functions

are 2π.

75
 Section 13.3: Trigonometric Identities
Theorem 301: For every θ ∈ R, sin2 (θ) + cos2 (θ) = 1.

Proof: Use the Pythagorean Theorem. ■

Corollary 302:

(i) For every θ ∈ dom(tan) ∩ dom(sec), tan2 (θ) + 1 = sec2 (θ).

(ii) For every θ ∈ dom(csc) ∩ dom(cot), cot2 (θ) + 1 = csc2 (θ).

Proof:

For (i), divide both sides of sin2 (θ) + cos2 (θ) = 1 by cos2 (θ).

For (ii), divide both sides of sin2 (θ) + cos2 (θ) = 1 by sin2 (θ). ■

Proposition 303 (Cofunction Identities): For any acute angle θ,

π  π 
(i) sin − θ = cos(θ); (iv) cot − θ = tan(θ);
2π   π2 
(ii) cos − θ = sin(θ); (v) sec − θ = csc(θ);
2π  2π 
(iii) tan − θ = cot(θ); (vi) csc − θ = sec(θ).
2 2

Example 304: Simplify the expressions.

1 1
(c) −
(a) cos(θ) + tan(θ) sin(θ) 1 − sin(x) 1 + sin(x)
  1 + sin(x) − (1 − sin(x))
sin(θ) =
= cos(θ) + sin(θ) [1 − sin(x)][1 + sin(x)]
cos(θ) 2 sin(x)
cos2 (θ) + sin2 (θ) =
= 1 − sin2 (x)
cos(θ) 2 sin(x)
= sec(θ). =
cos2 (x)
sin(θ) cos(θ) = 2 tan(x) sec(x).
(b) +
cos(θ) 1 + sin(θ) cos(θ)
sin(θ)[1 + sin(θ)] + cos2 (θ) (d)
= 1 − sin(θ)
cos(θ)[1 + sin(θ)] cos(θ) 1 + sin(θ)
sin2 (θ) + sin(θ) + cos2 (θ) = ·
= 1 − sin(θ) 1 + sin(θ)
cos(θ)[1 + sin(θ)] cos(θ)[1 + sin(θ)]
1 + sin(θ) =
= 1 − sin2 (θ)
cos(θ)[1 + sin(θ)] cos(θ)[1 + sin(θ)]
1 =
= cos2 (θ)
cos(θ) 1 + sin(θ)
= sec(θ). =
cos(θ)
= sec(θ) + tan(θ).
Theorem 305: For s, t ∈ R,

(i) cos(s + t) = cos(s) cos(t) − sin(s) sin(t); (iii) cos(s − t) = cos(s) cos(t) + sin(s) sin(t);

(ii) sin(s + t) = sin(s) cos(t) + cos(s) sin(t); (iv) sin(s − t) = sin(s) cos(t) − cos(s) sin(t).
Proof: For (i), see the figure below.

76
In the figure, the distances t, s + t, and −s have been marked on the unit circle, starting at

P0 = (1, 0) and terminating at Q1 , P1 , and Q0 , respectively. The coordinates of these points

are P0 = (1, 0), P1 = (cos(s + t), sin(s + t)), Q0 = (cos(−s), sin(−s)) = (cos(s), − sin(s)), and

Q1 = (cos(t), sin(t)). Note that the distances between P0 and P1 and between Q0 and Q1 mea-

sured along the arc of the circle are equal. Since equal arcs are subtended by equal chords, it follows

that d(P0 , P1 ) = d(Q0 , Q1 ). Now,

d(P0 , P1 ) = d(Q0 , Q1 )
p p
⇐⇒ [cos(s + t) − 1]2 + [sin(s + t) − 0]2 = [cos(t) − cos(s)]2 + [sin(t) + sin(s)]2

⇐⇒ cos2 (s + t) − 2 cos(s + t) + 1 + sin2 (s + t) = cos2 (t) − 2 cos(s) cos(t) + cos2 (s) + sin2 (t) +

2 sin(s) sin(t) + sin2 (s)

⇐⇒ 2 − 2 cos(s + t) = 2 − 2 cos(s) cos(t) + 2 sin(s) sin(t)

⇐⇒ cos(s + t) = cos(s) cos(t) − sin(s) sin(t).

For (ii), consider the following.

sin(s + t) h π i
h πi = cos(s) sin(t) − sin(s) − sin −t
= cos (s + t) − 2
2
h  π i = cos(s) sin(t) + sin(s) cos(−t)
= cos s + t −
 2π  π = cos(s) sin(t) + sin(s) cos(t).

= cos(s) cos t − − sin(s) sin t −
2 2

For (iii) and (iv), set t = −t and apply (i) and (ii). ■

Corollary 306 (Double-Angle and Half-Angle Formulas): For every x ∈ R,

(i) sin(2x) = 2 sin(x) cos(x);

(ii) cos(2x) = cos2 (x) − sin2 (x) = 2 cos2 (x) − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 (x);

77
 1
(iii) sin2 (x) = (1 − cos(2x));
2
1
(iv) cos2 (x) = (1 + cos(2x)).
2
Proof: For (i) and (ii), set s = x and t = x and apply the theorem above. ■

Corollary 307: For s, t ∈ R,

tan(s) + tan(t) 2 tan(s)
(i) tan(s + t) = ; (iii) tan(2s) = .
1 − tan(s) tan(t) 1 − tan2 (s)
tan(s) − tan(t)
(ii) tan(s − t) = ;
1 + tan(s) tan(t)
sin(s + t) sin(s − t)
Proof: For (i) and (ii), recall that tan(s + t) = and tan(s − t) = and apply
cos(s + t) cos(s − t)
the corollary above.

For (iii), set s = θ and t = θ and apply part (i). ■

Section 13.4: Trigonometric Equations

Example 308: Solve the given equation.
1
(a) sin(θ) =
2
Since the sine function has period 2π, we first find the solutions in the interval [0, 2π]. From the
1
unit circle, note that sin(θ) = is in quadrants I and II. So, the solutions on the interval [0, 2π) are
2
π 5π
θ = and θ = . Now, since the sine function has period 2π, we obtain that the solutions to the
6 6
π 5π
equation are θ = + 2kπ and θ = + 2kπ for k ∈ Z.
√6 6
2
(b) cos(θ) = − .
2
Since the cosine function has period √ 2π, we first find the solutions in the interval [0, 2π]. From the
2
unit circle, note that cos(θ) = − is in quadrants II and III. So, the solutions on the interval
2
π 5π
[0, 2π) are θ = and θ = . Now, since the sine function has period 2π, we obtain that the
6 6
3π 5π
solutions to the equation are θ = + 2kπ and θ = + 2kπ for k ∈ Z.
4 4
(c) tan2 (θ) − 3 = 0
√ π
Note that tan2 (θ) − 3 = 0 means tan2 (θ) = 3, and so, tan(θ) = ± 3, or θ = + kπ for k ∈ Z.
3
(d) 2 cos2 (θ) − 7 cos(θ) − 3 = 0.

Set u = cos(θ) and note the following.

0 = 2 cos2 (θ) − 7 cos(θ) − 3

= 2u2 − 7u − 3

= (2u − 1)(u − 3)

⇐⇒ 0 = 2u − 1 or 0 = u − 3
1
⇐⇒ u = or u = 3
2
1
⇐⇒ cos(θ) = or cos(θ) = 3
2

78
 π 5π
⇐⇒ θ = + 2kπ or θ = + 2kπ for k ∈ Z.
3 3
(e) cos(θ) + 1 = sin(θ) in the interval [0, 2π].

Consider the following.

cos(θ) + 1 = sin(θ)

⇐⇒ cos2 (θ) + 2 cos(θ) + 1 = sin2 (θ) = 1 − cos2 (θ)

⇐⇒ 2 cos2 (θ) + 2 cos(θ) = 0

⇐⇒ 2 cos(θ)[cos(θ) + 1] = 0

⇐⇒ cos(θ)[cos(θ) + 1] = 0

⇐⇒ cos(θ) = 0 or cos(θ) + 1 = 0
π 3π
⇐⇒ θ = or θ = or θ = −π
2 2
3π
Note that θ = is an extraneous solution.
2
(f ) 2 sin(3θ) − 1 = 0.

Consider the following.

2 sin(3θ) − 1 = 0
1
⇐⇒ sin(3θ) =
2
π 5π
⇐⇒ 3θ = + 2kπ or 3θ = + 2π for k ∈ Z
6 6
π 2 5π 2
⇐⇒ θ = + kπ or θ = + kπ for k ∈ Z.
18 3 18 3

Section 13.5: Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Theorem 309: The following functions are bijections, and hence invertible.
h π πi
(i) f : − , → [−1, 1] defined by f (y) = x if and only if sin(y) = x.
2 2
(ii) g : [0, π] → [−1, 1] defined by g(y) = x if and only if cos(y) = x.
h π πi
(iii) h : − , → (−∞, ∞) defined by h(y) = x if and only if tan(y) = x.
2 2
(iv) j : [0, π] → (−∞, ∞) defined by j(y) = x if and only if cot(y) = x.
h π   3π 
(v) k : 0, ∪ π, → (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞) defined by k(y) = x if and only if sec(y) = x.
2 2
 π i  3π 
(vi) ℓ : 0, ∪ π, → (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞) defined by ℓ(y) = x if and only if csc(y) = x.
2 2
Definition 310: Define functions f, g, h, j, k, ℓ as in the theorem above.

(i) f −1 is called the inverse sine (arcsine) function and is denoted by arcsin(x) or sin−1 (x).

(ii) g −1 is called the inverse cosine (arccosine) function and is denoted by arccos(x) or cos−1 (x).

(iii) h−1 is called the inverse tangent (arctangent) function and is denoted by arctan(x) or

tan−1 (x).

(iv) j −1 is called the inverse cotangent (arccotangent) function and is denoted by arccot(x)

79
or cot−1 (x).

(v) k −1 is called the inverse secant (arcsecant) function and is denoted by arcsec(x) or sec−1 (x).

(vi) ℓ−1 is called the inverse cosecant (arccosecant) function and is denoted by arccsc(x) or

csc−1 (x).

Note 311: The graphs of the inverse trigonometric functions are given below.

80
81
Example 312: Calculate each of the following.
h  π i π
(a) sin−1 sin = .
√ 2 2
(b) sec−1 ( 2)
√ 1 π
Set θ = sec−1 ( 2). Then cos(θ) = √ , which means that θ = .
   2 4
1
(c) tan cos−1
2
 2 √
1 1 2 1 2 2 3 3
If x = , then + y = 1, which means that + y = 1, or y = , or y = . Now,
2 √ 2 4 4 2
3
y 2 √
tan(θ) = = = 3.
x 1
2
(d) cos[sin−1 (x)]
q √
Set θ = sin−1 (x). Then x = sin(θ), and so, cos[sin−1 (x)] = cos(θ) = 1 − sin2 (θ) = 1 − x2 .

(e) tan[sin−1 (x)]

sin(θ) x
Set θ = sin−1 (x). Then x = sin(θ), and so, tan[sin−1 (x)] = tan(θ) = =√ .
cos(θ) 1 − x2
(f ) sec2 [tan−1 (x)]

Set θ = tan−1 (x). Then tan(θ) = x, and so, sec2 (tan−1 (x)) = sec2 (θ) = tan2 (θ) + 1 = x2 + 1.

82
 Chapter 14: Additional Topics in Trigonometry

Section 14.1: The Law of Sines

Theorem 313 (Law of Sines): Suppose a triangle has sides of lengths a, b, c that are opposite
sin(α) sin(β) sin(γ)
angles of measures α, β, γ, respectively. Then = = .
a b c
Proof: Consider three cases.

Case 1: The triangle is an acute triangle.

Drop a perpendicular from the angle of measure β to the side of length b and set d to be the length

of the resulting line segment, as in the figure below.

d sin(α) d d sin(γ) d
Then sin(α) = , which implies that = . Also, sin(γ) = , which means that = .
c a ac c c ac
sin(α) sin(γ)
Therefore, = . Now drop a perpendicular from the angle of measure α to the side of
a c
length a and set e to be the length of the perpendicular line segment, as in the figure below.

e sin(β) e e sin(γ) e
Then, sin(β) = , which means that = . Also, sin(γ) = , which means that = .
c b bc b c bc
sin(β) sin(γ) sin(α) sin(β) sin(γ)
Therefore, = , and hence, we obtain that = = .
b c a b c
Case 2: The triangle is a right triangle with a hypotenuse of length h.

83
 π sin(α) sin(β) sin(γ) 1
In this case, one of α, β, or γ is, and so, = = = .
2 a b c h
Case 3: The triangle is an obtuse triangle.
π
Without loss of generality, suppose that γ > . Extend the line segment of length b and drop a
2
perpendicular from the angle of measure β to the extended line segment and set d to be the length

of the extension of the extended line segment and e to be the length of the line segment that is

perpendicular to the extension, as in the figure below.

e sin(γ) e e
Recall that sin(γ) = sin(π − γ) = , which means that = . Also, sin(α) = , which means
a c ac c
sin(α) e sin(α) sin(γ)
that = . So, = . Now, drop a perpendicular from the angle of measure γ
a ac a c
to the side of length c and set d to be the length of the perpendicular line segment, as in the figure

below.

d sin(α) d d sin(β) d
Then, sin(α) = , which means that = . Also, sin(β) = , which means that = .
b a ab a b ab
sin(α) sin(β) sin(α) sin(β) sin(γ)
Therefore, = , and so, = = , as desired. ■
a b a b c
Example 314: A satellite orbiting the earth passes directly overhead at observation stations in

Phoenix and Los Angeles, 340 miles apart. At an instant when the satellite is between these two

stations, its angle of elevation is simultaneously observed to be 60◦ at Phoenix and 75◦ at Los An-

geles. How far is the satellite from Los Angeles?

Consider the figure below.

84
 b a

75◦ 60◦
340

To solve the problem, we find the distance b. Since the sum of the angles in a triangle is 180◦ , the
sin 60◦ sin 45◦
angle C measures 180◦ − (75◦ + 60◦ ) = 45◦ . By the Law of Sines, = , which means
√ b 340
3 √
340 sin 60◦ 2 6 √
∼ 416 miles.
that b = ◦
= 340 · √ = 340 · = 170 6 =
sin 45 2 2
2

Section 14.2: The Law of Cosines

Theorem 315 (Law of Cosines): Suppose a triangle has sides of lengths a, b and c that are

opposite angles of measures α, β, and γ, respectively. Then a2 + b2 − 2ab cos(γ) = c2 .

Proof: Exercise. ■

Example 316: A tunnel is to be built through a mountain. To estimate the length of the tunnel, a

surveyor makes the measurements shown in the figure below. Use the surveyor’s data to approximate

the length of the tunnel.

c ft

388 ft 212 ft

82.4◦

To approximate the length of the tunnel, we use the Law of Cosines.

c2 = 3882 + 2122 − 2(388)(212) cos(84.2◦ ) ∼

= 173730.2367
√
⇐⇒ c ∼= 173730.2367 ∼ = 416.8 feet.
Thus, the tunnel is approximately 417 feet long.

Corollary 317 (Converse of the Pythagorean Theorem): If the lengths of the sides of a

triangle are a, b, and c and a2 + b2 = c2 , then the triangle is a right triangle.

85
Proof: Set α, β, and γ to be the measures of the angles opposite the sides of lengths a, b, and c,

respectively. By the Law of Cosines, a2 + b2 − 2ab cos(γ) = c2 . Since a2 + b2 = c2 , 2ab cos(γ) = 0,

π
which means cos(γ) = 0. So, γ = . ■
2

Section 14.3: Heron’s Formula

a+b+c
Definition 318: The semiperimeter of a triangle with legs of length a, b, c is s =.
2
Theorem 319 (Heron’s Formula): The area A of the triangle with sides of length a, b, c is
p
A = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c), where s is the semiperimeter of the triangle.

Proof: Consider the figure below.

E x B D

c a
h

A b C

b2 + c2 − a2
Claim 1: x = .
2b
Proof (Claim 1): Exercise. ■Claim 1
1 p 2
Claim 2: The area of the triangle ∆ABC = b c − x2 .
2
Proof (Claim 2): Apply the Pythagorean Theorem and the area formula for a triangle. ■Claim 2

Let K denote the area of the triangle ∆ABC and consider the following.
1 p
K = b c2 − x2
2
s
2 1p 2
= [b + 2bc + c2 − a2 ][−b2 + 2bc − c2 + a2 ]
 2
1 b + c2 − a2
= b c − 2 4
2 2b 1p
r = [(b + c)2 − a2 ][a2 − (b2 − 2bc + c2 )]
1 4b2 c2 − (b2 + c2 − a2 )2 4
= b 1p
2 p 4b2 = [(b + c)2 − a2 ][a2 − (b − c)2 ]
4
b 4b2 c2 − (b2 + c2 − a2 )2 1 p
= · = (b + c + a)(b + c − a)[a − (b − c)][a + (b − c)]
2 2b 4
1p 2 2 1 p
= 4b c − (b2 + c2 − a2 )2 = (b + c + a)(b + c − a)(a − b + c)(a + b − c).
4 4
1 p
= [2bc + (b2 + c2 − a2 )][2bc − (b2 + c2 − a2 ]
4
a+b+c
Set s = . Then
2
1 p
K= 2s(2s − 2a)(2s − 2b)(2s − 2c)
4
1 p
= 16s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
4
p
= s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c). ■

86
Example 320: A businessperson wishes to buy a triangular lot in a busy downtown location. The

lot frontages on the three adjacent streets are 125, 280, and 315 feet. Find the area of the lot.
125 + 280 + 315
The semiperimeter of the lot is = 360. By Heron’s Formula, the area of the lot is
2 p √
360(360 − 125)(360 − 280)(360 − 315) = 360(235)(80)(45) = 304560000 ∼
p
= 17451.6. Thus, the
area is approximately 17452 square feet.

Corollary 321 (The Pythagorean Theorem): Suppose the legs of a right triangle have lengths

a, b and the hypotenuse has length c. Then a2 + b2 = c2 .

Proof: Exercise. ■

Chapter 15: Vectors

Section 15.1: Introduction

⃗ is the directed line segment starting at A and
Definition 322: Let A, B ∈ Rn . The vector AB

terminating at B.
⃗ corresponds to the displacement from A to B.
Note 323: Let A, B ∈ Rn . Then the vector AB

Definition 324: A vector whose initial point is the origin is called a position vector.

Definition 325: For a vector ⃗v = ⟨v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ⟩, the v1 , v2 , . . . , vn are called the components of

⃗v .

Example 326: The vector ⟨1, 4⟩ is illustrated below.

87
Definition 327: Two vectors are equal if they have the same length and direction.

Section 15.2: Vector Arithmetic

Definition 328: Let ⃗v = ⟨v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ⟩, w
⃗ = ⟨w1 , w2 , . . . , wn ⟩ ∈ Vn and a ∈ R.

(i) The sum of ⃗v and w

⃗ is the vector ⃗v + w
⃗ = ⟨v1 + w1 , v2 + w2 , . . . , vn + wn ⟩.

(ii) The difference of ⃗v and w

⃗ is the vector ⃗v − w
⃗ = ⟨v1 − w1 , v2 − w2 , . . . , vn − wn ⟩.

(iii) the scalar multiple is the vector a⃗v = ⟨av1 , av2 , . . . , avn ⟩.

Example 329: Set ⃗v = ⟨−1, 3⟩ and w

⃗ = ⟨2, 7⟩.

(a) ⃗v + w
⃗ = ⟨1, 10⟩;

(b) ⃗v − w
⃗ = ⟨−3, −4⟩.

(c) If ⃗v = ⟨−1, 5⟩, then 4⃗v = ⟨−4, 20⟩.

(d) If ⃗v = ⟨4, 8, −3⟩ and w

⃗ = ⟨−1, 3, 2⟩, then 2⃗v − w
⃗ = ⟨9, 13, −8⟩.

Note 330: The geometric interpretation of vector addition in R2 is illustrated below.

Theorem 331: Let ⃗u, ⃗v , w

⃗ ∈ Vn and a, b ∈ R. Then,

(i) ⃗v + w
⃗ =w
⃗ + ⃗v ; (v) ⃗v + (−⃗v ) = 0;

(ii) (⃗u + ⃗v ) + w
⃗ = ⃗u + (⃗v + w);
⃗ (vi) a(⃗v + w)
⃗ = a⃗v + aw;
⃗

(iii) ⃗v + ⃗0 = ⃗0 + ⃗v = ⃗v ; (vii) (a + b)⃗v = a⃗v + b⃗v ;

(iv) 1⃗v = ⃗v ; (viii) (ab)⃗v = a(b⃗v ).

Section 15.3: The Dot Product and Norm

Definition 332: Let ⃗v = ⟨v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ⟩, w
⃗ = ⟨w1 , w2 , . . . , wn ⟩ ∈ Vn . The dot (inner/scalar)

product of ⃗v and w
⃗ is ⃗v · w
⃗ = v1 w1 + v2 w2 + . . . + vn wn .

Example 333: Set ⃗v = ⟨2, 0, −1⟩ and w

⃗ = ⟨1, −1, 4⟩. Then ⃗v · w
⃗ = 2 + 0 − 4 = −2.

88
Theorem 334: Suppose that ⃗u, ⃗v , w
⃗ ∈ Vn and α ∈ R. Then

(i) ⃗v · w
⃗ =w
⃗ · ⃗v ; (iii) (α⃗v ) · w
⃗ = α(⃗v · w)
⃗ = ⃗v · (αw);
⃗

(ii) ⃗u · (⃗v + w)
⃗ = (⃗u · ⃗v ) + (⃗u · w);
⃗ (iv) ⃗v · ⃗0 = 0.

Proof: For (i), note that ⃗v · w

⃗ = v1 w1 + . . . + vn wn = w1 v1 + . . . + wn vn = w
⃗ · ⃗v .

The remaining proofs are left as exercises. ■

Corollary 335: For any ⃗u, ⃗v , w,

⃗ ⃗x ∈ Vn , (⃗u + ⃗v ) · (w
⃗ + ⃗x) = (⃗u · w)
⃗ + (⃗u · ⃗x) + (⃗v · w)
⃗ + (⃗v · ⃗x).

Proof: Exercise. ■

Definition 336:
√
(i) The norm (length/magnitude) of a vector ⃗v ∈ Vn is ∥⃗v ∥ = ⃗v · ⃗v .

(ii) A unit vector is a vector with norm 1.

√ √
Example 337: If ⃗v = ⟨2, 0, −1⟩, then ∥⃗v ∥ = 4 + 0 + 1 = 5.

Note 338: Let ⃗v ∈ Vn . Since ∥⃗v ∥ = v12 + . . . + vn2 , ∥⃗v ∥ = 0 if and only if ⃗v = ⃗0.
p

Proposition 339: If ⃗v ∈ Vn and c ∈ R, then ∥c⃗v ∥ = |c| · ∥⃗v ∥.

p p √
Proof: By the theorem above, ∥c⃗v ∥ = (c⃗v ) · (c⃗v ) = c2 (⃗v · ⃗v ) = |c| ⃗v · ⃗v = |c| · ∥⃗v ∥. ■

Section 15.4: Angles Between Vectors

Definition 340:

(i) Two nonzero vectors in V2 or V3 are parallel if the angle between them is either 0 or π.
π
(ii) Two nonzero vectors in V2 or V3 are orthogonal if the angle between them is .
2
Theorem 341 (Cosine Formula): If ⃗v , w ⃗ ∈ V2 or ⃗v , w
⃗ ∈ V3 and θ is the angle between ⃗v and w,
⃗
⃗v · w
⃗
then cos(θ) = .
∥v∥ · ∥w∥
Proof: By the Law of Cosines, we obtain the following.

∥v∥2 + ∥w∥2 − 2∥v∥ · ∥w∥ cos(θ)

= ∥v − w∥2

= (v − w) · (v − w)

=v·v−v·w−w·v+w·w

= ∥v∥2 − 2v · w + ∥w∥2 .
v·w
So, −2∥v∥ · ∥w∥ cos(θ) = −2v · w, which means that cos(θ) = . ■
∥v∥ · ∥w∥
Corollary 342: Two vectors in Vn for n = 2, 3 are orthogonal if and only if their dot product is

zero.

Proof: Suppose that ⃗v , w

⃗ ∈ Vn for n = 2, 3 and let θ denote the angle between ⃗v and w.
⃗ Then the

following are equivalent.

89
(i) ⃗v and w⃗ are orthogonal;
⃗v · w
⃗
π (iv) = 0;
(ii) θ = ; ∥⃗v ∥ · ∥w∥
⃗
2
(v) ⃗v · w
⃗ = 0. ■
(iii) cos(θ) = 0;
  * √
4
√
4
+
1 2 2
Example 343: Find the angle between the vectors 0, , 0 and √ , 0, √ .
2 2 2
  *√4
√4
+
1 2 2
Since 0, , 0 · √ , 0, √ = 0, the vectors are orthogonal.
2 2 2
Theorem 344: Two nonzero vectors in Vn for n = 2, 3 are parallel if and only if they are scalar

multiples of each other.

Proof: (=⇒) Suppose that ⃗v , w

⃗ ∈ Vn are nonzero, α ∈ R, and ⃗v = αw
⃗ and let θ denote the angle

between ⃗v and w.
⃗ By the cosine formula, we obtain the following.

cos(θ) α∥w∥⃗ 2
(αw)
⃗ ·w ⃗ =
= ⃗ 2
|α| · ∥w∥
∥αw∥
⃗ · ∥w∥ ⃗ α
=
α(w ⃗ · w)
⃗ |α|
=
|α| · ∥w∥
⃗ · ∥w∥⃗ = ±1.
Since cos(θ) = ±1, θ = 0 or θ = π, which means that ⃗v and w
⃗ are parallel.

(⇐=) Suppose that ⃗v and w ⃗ are nonzero parallel vectors. Then the directions of ⃗v and w ⃗ are either
∥w∥
⃗
the same or opposite. If ⃗v and w⃗ have the same direction, then the vector ⃗v is a vector in the
∥⃗v ∥
∥w∥
⃗
same direction of ⃗v with the same norm as w, ⃗ which means that ⃗v = w.
⃗ Now suppose that ⃗v
∥⃗v ∥
∥w∥
⃗
and w⃗ have opposite directions. Then − ⃗v is a vector in the opposite direction of ⃗v with the
∥⃗v ∥
∥w∥
⃗
same norm as w.
⃗ In other words, − ⃗v = w.⃗ ■
∥⃗v ∥

Section 15.5: The Triangle Inequality

Lemma 345: If ⃗v , w
⃗ ∈ Vn are unit vectors, then |⃗v · w|
⃗ ≤ 1.

Proof: Note the following.

⃗ 2
0 ≤ ∥⃗v − w∥ = (⃗v · ⃗v ) − 2(⃗v · w) ⃗ 2
⃗ + ∥w∥

= (⃗v − w)
⃗ · (⃗v − w)
⃗ = 2 − 2(⃗v · w).
⃗

Since 0 ≤ 2 − 2(⃗v · w),

⃗ we obtain that 0 ≤ 1 − (⃗v · w),
⃗ or (⃗v · w)
⃗ ≤ 1.

Also, by an argument similar to the one above, we obtain that −1 ≤ (⃗v · w).
⃗

Therefore,−1 ≤ (⃗v · w)
⃗ ≤ 1, and so, |⃗v · w|
⃗ ≤ 1, as desired. ■

Theorem 346 (Cauchy-Bunyakovsky-Schwarz Inequality): If ⃗v and w

⃗ ∈ Vn , then |⃗v · w|
⃗ ≤

∥⃗v ∥ · ∥w∥.
⃗

Proof: Exercise. ■

90
Corollary 347 (The Triangle Inequality): For each ⃗v , w
⃗ ∈ Vn , ∥⃗v + w∥
⃗ ≤ ∥⃗v ∥ + ∥w∥.
⃗

Proof: Let v, w ∈ Vn . Then,

⃗ 2 = (⃗v + w)
∥⃗v + w∥ ⃗ · (⃗v + w)
⃗ ≤ ∥⃗v ∥2 + 2|⃗v · w| ⃗ 2
⃗ + ∥w∥

= (⃗v · ⃗v ) + 2(⃗v · ⃗v ) + (w
⃗ · w)
⃗ ≤ ∥⃗v ∥2 + 2∥⃗v ∥ · ∥w∥ ⃗ 2
⃗ + ∥w∥

= ∥⃗v ∥2 + 2(⃗v · w) ⃗ 2
⃗ + ∥w∥ ⃗ 2.
= (∥⃗v ∥ + ∥w∥)

⃗ 2 ≤ (∥⃗v ∥ + ∥w∥)
Now, since ∥⃗v + w∥ ⃗ 2 , we obtain that ∥⃗v + w∥
⃗ ≤ ∥⃗v ∥ + ∥w∥,
⃗ as desired. ■

Chapter 16: Trigonometry and Complex Numbers

Section 16.1: The Complex Plane

Note 348: Consider the complex plane.

(i) The horizontal axis is called the real axis;

(ii) The vertical axis is called the imaginary axis.

Example 349: Graph each of the following.

(a) 2 + 3i; (b) 2 − 3i; (c) −2 + 3i.

Section 16.2: The Trigonometric Form of a Complex

Number
Definition 350: Let z = a + bi ∈ C.
√
(i) The modulus (absolute value) of z is |z| = a2 + b2 .

(ii) The trigonometric form of z is z = r(cos θ +i sin θ), where r = |z|, a = r cos θ, and b = r sin θ.

Note 351: In the definition above,

b
(i) tan θ = ; (ii) θ is called the argument.
a
Example 352: For each of the following, find the trigonometric form of the given complex number.
√
(a) z = 4 − 4 3i
√
 
1 π
First, |z| = 16 + 48 = 8. Also, 4 = 8 cos θ, or θ = cos−1 = . Therefore, the trigonometric
2 3
 π π
form of z is z = 8 cos + i sin .
3 3
(b) z = 12i
π
First, |z| = 12. Also, 0 = 12 cos θ, or θ = . Therefore, the trigonometric form of z is z =
2

91
  π π
12 cos + i sin .
2 2
Example 353: For each of the following, find the standard form of the given complex number.
√
 
5π 5π
(a) z = 8 cos + i sin
4 √ 4 √
5π 2 5π 2
Recall that cos =− and sin =− . So,
√ 4 √ !2 4 2
√ 2 2
z= 8 − −i
2 2
√ √
16 16
=− −i
2 2
= −2 − 2i.
 π π
(b) z = 8 cos + i sin .
2 2
π π
Recall that cos = 0 and sin = 1. So, z = 8[0 + 1(i)] = 8i.
2 2

Section 16.3: Multiplying and Dividing Complex Numbers

Definition 354: Suppose z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ), z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) ∈ C. Then,

(i) z1 z2 = r1 r2 [cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 )];

z1 r1
(ii) = [cos(θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 − θ2 )], provided z2 ̸= 0.
z2 r2
Example 355: Perform the indicated operation and leave the result in trigonometric form.
  
1 ◦ ◦ 4 ◦ ◦
(a) (cos 100 + i sin 100 ) (cos 300 + i sin 300 )
2 5
2
= [cos(400◦ ) + i sin(400◦ )].
5
cos 120◦ + i sin 120◦
(b)
2(cos 40◦ + i sin 40◦ )
1
= (cos 80◦ + i sin 80◦ ).
2

Section 16.4: DeMoivre’s Theorem

Theorem 356 (DeMoivre’s Theorem): If z = r[cos(θ) + i sin(θ)] ∈ C, then z n = rn [cos(nθ) +

i sin(nθ)] for any n ∈ N.

Proof: Use induction on n. ■

√
Example 357: Calculate (−1 + i 3)12 .
√
Set z = −1 + i 3. Then

√
z = −1 + i 3  

2π 2π

12 12(2π) 12(2π)
= 2 cos + i sin =2 cos + i sin
3 3 3 3
 
2π 2π
12 = 4096(cos 8π + i sin 8π)
12
⇐⇒ z = 2 cos + i sin
3 3 = 4096.

92
 Chapter 17: Conic Sections

Section 17.1: Parabolas

Definition 358: A parabola is the set of points in R2 that are equidistant from a fixed point F

(called the focus) and a fixed line l (called the directrix).

Theorem 359: The graph of the equation x2 = 4py is a parabola with vertex (0, 0), focus (0, p),

and directrix y = −p.

Example 360: Find the focus and directrix of the parabola y = −x2 .
 
1 1
Note that x2 = −y. By the theorem above, p = − . So the focus is the point 0, − and the
4 4
1
directrix is the line y = − .
4
Theorem 361: The graph of the equation y 2 = 4px is a parabola with vertex (0, 0), focus (p, 0),

and directrix x = −p.

Section 17.2: Ellipses

Definition 362: An ellipse is the set of all points P such that the sum of the distances to two

fixed points F1 and F2 , called the foci is a constant K > 0. In other words, P F1 + P F2 = K.
x2 y2
Theorem 363: The graph of the equation 2 + 2 = 1 is an ellipse with vertices (±a, 0), foci
√ a b
(±c, 0) with c = a2 − b2 , a horizontal major axis of length 2a, and a vertical minor axis of length

2b.

Example 364: Find the foci of the ellipse 16x2 + 9y 2 = 144.

x2 y2
Dividing by 144, we obtain + = 1. Since 16 > 9, this is an ellipse with its foci on the y-axis
9 16 √ √
and with a = 4 and b = 3. Hence, c = 7, and so the foci are the points (0, ± 7).
x2 y2
Theorem 365: The graph of the equation 2 + 2 = 1 is an ellipse with vertices (0, ±a), foci
√ b a
(0, ±c) with c = a2 − b2 , a vertical major axis of length 2a, and a horizontal minor axis of length

2b.

Section 17.3: Hyperbolas

Definition 366: A hyperbola is the set of all points P in a plane, the difference of whose distances

from two fixed points F1 and F2 , called the foci, is a constant K > 0. In other words, P F1 − P F2 =

±K.
x2 y2
Theorem 367: The graph of the equation − = 1 is a hyperbola with vertices (±a, 0), a
a2 b2
b
horizontal transverse axis of length 2a, asymptotes y = ± x, and foci (±c, 0), where a, b > 0 and
a

93
 √
c= a2 + b2 .
y2 x2
Theorem 368: The graph of the equation − = 1 is a hyperbola with vertices (0, ±a), a
a2 b2
a
vertical transverse axis of length 2a, asymptotes y = ± x, and foci (0, ±c), where a, b > 0 and
√ b
c = a2 + b2 .

Example 369: For each of the following, find the vertices, foci, center, and equations of the

asymptotes. Sketch the graph of the hyperbola and the asymptotes.

x2 y2
(a) − =1
16 25 √
Note that a = 4, b = 5, and c = 41. So, the vertices are the points (−4, 0) and (4, 0), the foci are
√ √
the points (− 41, 0) and ( 41, 0). Also, the center is the point (0, 0) and the asymptotes are the
5
lines y = ± x. The hyperbola is sketched below.
4

y2 x2
(b) − =1
9 25 √
Note that a = 3, b = 5, and c = 34. So, the vertices are the points (−3, 0) and (3, 0), the foci are
√ √
the points (− 34, 0) and ( 34, 0). Also, the center is the point (0, 0) and the asymptotes are the
5
lines y = ± x. The hyperbola is sketched below.
3

94
Example 370: For each of the following, find the equation of the hyperbola and the equation of

the asymptotes. Then sketch the graph.

(a) The vertices are the points (−3, 0) and (3, 0) and the foci are the points (−5, 0) and (5, 0).
x2 y 2
Note that a = 3 and c = 5. This means b = 4. Hence, the equation of the hyperbola is − =1
9 16
4
and the asymptotes are the lines y = ± x. A sketch of the graph is below.
3

(b) The foci are the points (0, −6) and (0, 6) and the endpoints of the conjugate axis are the points

95
(−5, 0) and (5, 0).
√
Note that the above implies that b = 5 and c = 6, which implies that a = 11. So,
√ the equation of
y2 x2 11
the hyperbola is given by − = 1 and the asymptotes are the lines y = ± x. A sketch of
11 25 5
the graph is below.

Section 17.4: Translations of Conics

Example 371: Give the equation of the indicated conic section and sketch the graph.

(a) Parabola with focus (3, 2) and vertex (−1, 2)

Note that p = 4, so the equation is (y − 2)2 = 16(x + 1), as depicted below.

(b) Ellipse with foci (1, 4) and (5, 4) and vertices (0,4) and (6,4)

96
 √ (x − 3)2
Note that c = 2, a = 3, b = 5, and the center is the point (3, 4). So, the equation is +
9
(y − 4)2
= 1, as depicted below.
5

(c) Hyperbola with foci (0, −2) and (4, −2) and vertices (1, −2) and (3, −2)
√
Note that a = 1, c = 2, b = 3, and the center is the point (2, −2). So, the equation is (x − 2)2 +
(y + 2)2
= 1, as depicted below.
3

97
 Chapter 18: Plane and Polar Curves

Section 18.1: Plane Curves

Definition 372: Let I ⊆ R be a (possibly infinite) interval and suppose f, g ∈ RI are continuous.

(i) A set C = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | x = f (t), y = g(t), t ∈ I} is called a plane curve;

(ii) x = f (t) and y = g(t) are called parametric equations for C ;

(iii) c(t) = (f (t), g(t)) is called a parametrization;

(iv) t is called a parameter.

Example 373: For each of the following, eliminate the parameter to find a Cartesian equation of

the curve and sketch the curve.

√ t
(a) x = t − 2 and y = − 7, t ≥ 0
2
Note the following.
√
x= t−2

⇐⇒ t = (x + 2)2
1
⇐⇒ y = (x + 2)2 − 7
2
1
= x2 + 2x − 5.
2
The curve is sketched below.

√
(b) x = t, y = 2 ln t, t > 0

Note the following.

√
x= t

98
⇐⇒ x2 = t

⇐⇒ y = 2 ln(x2 ) = 4 ln(x).

The curve is sketched below.

π
(c) x = sin(t), y = cos2 (t), 0 ≤ t ≤
2
Note the following.

1 = cos2 (t) + sin(t) = y + x2

⇐⇒ y = 1 − x2 .

Start at (0, 1) and end at (1, 0). The curve is sketched below.

99
 Section 18.2: Polar Coordinates
Note 374:

In the figure above, note the following.

(i) r is the distance from the origin to the point (x, y);

(ii) θ is the angle made by the x-axis and the line segment of length r.

Definition 375: In the figure above,

(i) The ordered pair (r, θ) in the figure above is a polar coordinate representation of a point

(x, y);

(ii) r is called the radial coordinate;

(iii) θ is called the angular coordinate.

Note 376:

(i) Polar coordinate representations of a point (x, y) are not unique.

(ii) We may choose to specify unique polar coordinates for points other than the origin by placing

restrictions on r and θ;

(iii) The origin does not have a well-defined polar coordinate representation.

(iv) When plotting points in polar coordinates, the x-axis is called the pole or the polar axis;

(v) We usually do not include a y-axis when plotting points in polar coordinates.

Proposition 377: Let (x, y) ∈ R2 and suppose (r, θ) is a corresponding polar coordinate represen-

tation for (x, y).

(i) x = r cos(θ); (iii) x2 + y 2 = r2 ;

y
(ii) y = r sin(θ); (iv) tan(θ) = , provided x ̸= 0.
x

100
Proof:

For (iii), use the Pythagorean Theorem.

y r sin(θ)
For (iv), note that = = tan(θ). ■
x r cos(θ)
Example 378: Plot the given points.
 π
(a) 2,
4

 π
(b) 3,
3

 π
(c) 2, −
2

101
  π
(d) 0,
6

(e) (0, 4)

102
Note 379: If r < 0, then (r, θ) and (−r, θ + π) give the same polar coordinate representation of a

given point.

Example 380: Plot the following points.

 π
(a) −3,
6

 
5π
(b) −2, −
6

103
Example 381:

(a) Give a polar coordinate representation for the point (1, 1).
√ π  π
First, note that r2 = 2, which means r = 2 and that θ = tan−1 (1) = . Thus, the point 2,
4 4
is a polar coordinate representation for (1, 1).
 
5π
(b) Find a rectangular coordinate representation of the point 3, .
6
  √ √ !
5π 3 π 3 3 3 3
Note that x = 3 cos = −3 and y = 3 sin = . Thus, the point − , is a
6 2 6 2 2 2
 
5π
rectangular coordinate representation of the point 3, .
6

Section 18.3: Polar Curves

Definition 382:

(i) A polar equation is an equation that describes a curve using polar coordinates.

(ii) The graph of a polar equation is {(x, y) ∈ R2 | x = r cos(θ), y = r sin(θ), and r = f (θ)}.

(iii) The graph of a polar equation is called a polar curve.

Example 383: Find a polar equation for the curve described by the given Cartesian equation.

x2
(b) y = .
(a) y = 5 4
Consider the following.
Consider the following. x2
y=
y=5 4
r2 cos2 θ
⇐⇒ r sin θ =
⇐⇒ r sin θ = 5 4
5 1 cos2 θ
⇐⇒ r = = 5 csc θ. ⇐⇒ =
sin θ r 4 sin θ
4 sin θ
⇐⇒ r = = 4 tan θ sec θ.
cos2 θ

104
Example 384: Find a Cartesian equation for the curve described by the given polar equation and

sketch a graph.
√
(a) r = 5 2
√
This is a circle of radius 5 2 centered at the point (0, 0). The graph is sketched below.

(b) r2 cos(2θ) = 1.

Note the following.

r2 cos(2θ) = 1

⇐⇒ r2 (cos2 θ − sin2 θ) = 1

⇐⇒ r2 cos2 θ − r2 sin2 θ = 1

⇐⇒ x2 − y 2 = 1.

This is a hyperbola. The curve is sketched below.

105
(c) Determine the curve given by the polar equation r = θ for θ ≥ 0.

As θ increases, r also increases. Thus, the polar curve is a spiral, called an Archimedian spiral,

and is sketched below.

105 90 75
120 60

135 45

150 30

165 15

0 200 400 600

180 0

195 345

210 330

225 315

240 300
255 270 285

106
 Chapter 19: Conic Sections Revisited

Section 19.1: Rotations of Axes

Theorem 385: Suppose that the x- and y-axes in R2 are rotated by an acute angle ϕ to produces

axes u and v. Then the coordinates of the point (x, y) ∈ R2 in the xy-plane and (u, v) ∈ R2 in the

uv-plane are related as follows.

(i) x = u cos ϕ − v sin ϕ; (iii) u = x cos ϕ + y sin ϕ;

(ii) y = u sin ϕ + v cos ϕ; (iv) v = −x sin ϕ + y cos ϕ.

π
Example 386: If the x- and y-axes in R2 are rotated by rad, find the new coordinates of the
6
point (2, −4).
π
Set x = 2, y = −4, and ϕ = . Then,
6
π π π π
u = 2 cos − 4 sin v = −2 sin − 4 cos
√ 6 6 6√ 6
3 1 1 3
=2· −4· = −2 · − 4 ·
√ 2 2 2√ 2
= 3−2 = −1 − 2 3.
√ √
Hence, the new point is ( 3 − 2, −1 − 2 3).

Theorem 387: Consider a conic Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0, where A, B, C, D, E, F ∈ R.

A−C
To eliminate the xy-term, it suffices to rotate the axes by an acute angle ϕ such that cot 2ϕ = .
B
Proof: We apply the theorem above to rotate the axes by an acute angle ϕ to create the uv-plane

as follows.

(i) x = u cos ϕ − v sin ϕ;

(ii) y = u sin ϕ + v cos ϕ.

Now,

0 = Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F

= A(u cos ϕ − v sin ϕ)2 + B(u cos ϕ − v sin ϕ)(u sin ϕ + v cos ϕ) + C(u sin ϕ + v cos ϕ)2 + D(u cos ϕ −

v sin ϕ) + E(u sin ϕ + v cos ϕ) + F

= (A cos2 ϕ + B sin ϕ cos ϕ + C sin2 ϕ)u2 + [2(C − A) sin ϕ cos ϕ + B(cos2 ϕ − sin2 ϕ)]uv

+ (A sin2 ϕ − B sin ϕ cos ϕ + C cos2 ϕ)v 2 + (D cos ϕ + E sin ϕ)u + (−D sin ϕ + E cos ϕ)v + F .

To eliminate the xy-term, we choose ϕ such that [2(C − A) sin ϕ cos ϕ + B(cos2 ϕ − sin2 ϕ)] = 0. In

other words,

107
0 = [2(C − A) sin ϕ cos ϕ + B(cos2 ϕ − sin2 ϕ)]

= (C − A) sin 2ϕ + B cos 2ϕ

⇐⇒ B cos 2ϕ = (A − C) sin 2ϕ
A−C
⇐⇒ cot 2ϕ = . ■
B √ √ √
Example 388: Eliminate the xy-term in the equation 6 3x2 + 6xy + 4 3y 2 = 21 3.

By the theorem above, we define the uv-axes by rotating the xy-axes

√ √as follows.
√
6 3−4 3 3
Rotate the xy-axes by an acute angle ϕ such that cot 2ϕ = = . This implies that
6 3
π
ϕ = . Now,
6 √ !  
3 1
(i) x = u −v ;
2 2
  √ !
1 3
(ii) y = u +v .
2 2
This implies the following.
√
21 3
√ √
= 6 3x2 + 6xy + 4 3y 2
" √ !  #2 " √ !  # "   √ !# "   √ !#2
√ 3 1 3 1 1 3 √ 1 3
=6 3 u −v +6 u −v u +v +4 3 u +v
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
√ √
= 7 3u2 + 3 3v 2
u2 v2
⇐⇒ + = 1.
3 7
Note 389: The graph of the equation Ax2 +Bxy+Cy 2 +Dx+Ey+F = 0, where A, B, C, D, E, F ∈ R

with A, C not being both zero, is

(i) a parabola if one of A or C is zero.

(ii) a circle if A = C.

(iii) an ellipse if A and C have the same sign.

(iv) a hyperbola if A and C have opposite signs.

Definition 390: A conic section is

(i) degenerate if the graph of the equation is either a pair of lines, a single line, or a single point.

(ii) non-degenerate if it is not degenerate.

Theorem 391: The graph of the equation Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 is a conic. In the

non-degenerate cases, the graph is

(i) a parabola if B 2 − 4AC = 0;

(ii) an ellipse if B 2 − 4AC < 0;

(iii) a hyperbola if B 2 − 4AC > 0.

Proof: We proceed as in the proof of the theorem above to rotate the axes by an acute angle ϕ. A

108
straightforward calculation, which is left to the reader, shows that

[2(C − A) sin ϕ cos ϕ + B(cos2 ϕ − sin2 ϕ)]2 − 4(A cos2 ϕ + B sin ϕ cos ϕ + C sin2 ϕ)

(A sin2 ϕ − B sin ϕ cos ϕ + C cos2 ϕ) = B 2 − 4AC.

This implies that the quantity B 2 − 4AC remains unchanged for any rotation. So, without loss of

generality, rotate the axes so that the xy term of the conic is eliminated. In other words, choose an

angle ϕ such that the equation below is satisfied.

(A cos2 ϕ + B sin ϕ cos ϕ + C sin2 ϕ)u2 + (A sin2 ϕ − B sin ϕ cos ϕ + C cos2 ϕ)v 2

+ (D cos ϕ + E sin ϕ)u + (−D sin ϕ + E cos ϕ)v + F = 0.

This implies that B 2 −4AC = −4(A cos2 ϕ+B sin ϕ cos ϕ+C sin2 ϕ)(A sin2 ϕ−B sin ϕ cos ϕ+C cos2 ϕ).

To complete the proof, we consider three cases.

Case 1: Either A cos2 ϕ + B sin ϕ cos ϕ + C sin2 ϕ = 0 or A sin2 ϕ − B sin ϕ cos ϕ + C cos2 ϕ = 0.

In this case, B 2 − 4AC = 0 and the graph of the equation is a parabola.

Case 2: The quantities A cos2 ϕ + B sin ϕ cos ϕ + C sin2 ϕ and A sin2 ϕ − B sin ϕ cos ϕ + C cos2 ϕ have

the same sign.

In this case, B 2 − 4AC < 0 and the graph of the equation is an ellipse.

Case 3: The quantities A cos2 ϕ + B sin ϕ cos ϕ + C sin2 ϕ and A sin2 ϕ − B sin ϕ cos ϕ + C cos2 ϕ have

opposite signs.

In this case, B 2 − 4AC > 0 and the graph of the equation is a hyperbola. ■

Section 19.2: Conic Sections and Polar Coordinates

 
d(P, F )
Theorem 392: Let F ∈ R2 , ℓ ⊆ R2 be a line, and e ∈ R+ . Then the set P ∈ R2 | =e
d(P, ℓ)
is a conic.

Proof: If e = 1, then d(P, F ) = d(P, ℓ), which defines a parabola. So suppose that e ̸= 1. Set

F = (0, 0) and suppose ℓ is a line parallel to the y-axis d units to the right. In other words, set ℓ to

be the vertical line x = d, where d > 0. If the point P has polar coordinates (r, θ), then d(P, F ) = r

and d(P, ℓ) = d − r cos θ. Now,

d(P, F )
=e ⇐⇒ x2 + y 2 = e2 (d − x)2
d(P, ℓ)
⇐⇒ d(P, F ) = e · d(P, ℓ) ⇐⇒ (1 − e2 )x2 + 2de2 x + y 2 = e2 d2
2
e2 d y2 e2 d2

⇐⇒ r = e(d − r cos θ) ⇐⇒ x + + = .
1−e 2 1−e 2 (1 − e2 )2

109
Consider two cases.

Case 1: e < 1

Note the following.

2
e2 d y2 e2 d2

x+ 2
+ 2
=
1 − e 2 1 − e (1 − e2 )2
e d
x+
1 − e2 y2
⇐⇒ 2 2 + 2 2 = 1.
e d e d
(1 − e )2 2 1 − e2
2
e d ed ed
Set h = − ,a= , and b = √ .
1 − e2 1 − e2 1 − e2
Then,
e2 d
 
x+
1 − e2 y2
2 2 + 2 2 =1
e d e d
(1 − e2 )2 1 − e2
(x − h)2 y2
⇐⇒ + = 1.
a2 b2
This is an equation for an ellipse with center (h, 0). Now,
e4 d2
c2 = a2 − b2 = = −h2
(1 − e2 )2
⇐⇒ c = −h.
c
This implies that the point c, the origin, is a focus of a conic section. It also follows that e = .
a
Case 2: e > 1

An argument similar to the one in case 1 shows that the graph of the equation is a hyperbola with
c
e = , where c2 = a2 + b2 . ■
a
Definition 393: In the theorem above, the constant e is called the eccentricity of the conic.
ed ed
Theorem 394: A polar equation of the form r = or r = represents a conic
1 ± e cos θ 1 ± sin θ
with one focus at the origin and with eccentricity e.

(i) If e = 1, then the conic section is a parabola.

(ii) If e < 1, then the conic section is an ellipse.

(iii) If e > 1, then the conic section is a hyperbola.

110
Example 395:
10
(a) Show that the conic given by the equation r = is an ellipse.
3 − 2 cos θ
Proof: Consider the following.
10 10/3
r= = .
3 − 2 cos θ 1 − 2/3 cos θ
2
Since < 1, the equation represents an ellipse. ■
3
The curve is sketched below.
105 90 75
120 60

135 45

150 30

165 15

0 5 10
180 0

195 345

210 330

225 315

240 300
255 270 285

111
 π
(b) Rotate the ellipse by an angle rad about the origin. Find a polar equation for the resulting
4
ellipse.
π 10
Replace θ with θ − . So the new equation is r =  π.
4 3 − 2 cos θ −
4
105 90 75
120 60

135 45

150 30

165 15

0 5 10
180 0

195 345

210 330

225 315

240 300
255 270 285

112
 Chapter 20: Induction

Note 396: Let P (n) denote a statement about n ∈ N.

(i) (Basis Step) Show that P (1) is true.

(ii) (Induction Hypothesis) Suppose that P (k) is true and use P (k) to show that P (k + 1) is

true.
n
X n(n + 1)
Example 397: Show that i= for every n ∈ N.
i=1
2
n
X n(n + 1)
Proof: We will proceed by induction on n. Let P (n) denote the statement “ i = .”
i=1
2
1
X 1+1
Since i=1= , P (1) is true. Now suppose that k ∈ N such that P (k) is true. To see that
i=1
2
P (k + 1) is true, consider the following.
k+1
X
i
i=1
k
X
=k+1+ i
i=1
k(k + 1)
=k+1+
2
2(k + 1) k(k + 1)
= +
2 2
2(k + 1) + k(k + 1)
=
2
(k + 2)(k + 1)
= .
2
Therefore, P (k+1) is true, and so, the theorem is proved by the Principle of Mathematical Induction.

Definition 398: Let n ∈ N. Then the factorial of n is n! = n(n − 1)(n − 2) . . . (3)(2)(1).

Example 399: Prove that for any n ∈ N with n ≥ 4, 2n < n!.

Proof: We will proceed by induction on n. For each n ∈ N, let P (n) be the statement “2n < n!.”

Note that P (4) is true since 24 = 16 < 24 = 4!. Now suppose that P (k) is true for some k ∈ N. To

see that P (k + 1) is true, consider the following.

2k < k!

⇐⇒ 2 · 2k < (k + 1)k!

⇐⇒ 2k+1 < (k + 1)!.

Therefore, P (k+1) is true, and so, the theorem is proved by the Principle of Mathematical Induction.

113