​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rishi Yadav ( 8957457764 )

INDIAN
GEOGRAPHY
-​ Notes By : Rishi Yadav ( 8957457764 )
-​ Date: 19 March 2025 - 29 March 2025
-​ Source - Youtube ( Parmar Sir 3.0 ) , Chat GPT , Google , PYQS

Topics to be Covered are

-​ INDIA AND ITS LOCATION

-​ HIMALAYAS
-​ PENINSULAR PLATEAU
-​ ISLANDS / PLAINS
-​ INDIAN RIVER SYSTEM
-​ DAMS , LAKES AND WATERFALL
-​ CLIMATE OF INDIA
-​ FOREST AND GRASSLANDS
-​ SOIL AND AGRICULTURE
-​ MINERALS
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rishi Yadav ( 8957457764 )

TOPIC - 1 INDIA AND ITS

LOCATION
SOME FACTS ABOUT INDIA

-​ India is the 7th largest Country in the World in terms of Area

-​ India is the most populous country in the world ( 2011 ) - 1.21 Billion
-​ Total World's area that India cover - 2.4%
-​ India Population percentage in World - 17.78%
-​ There are 28 States and 8 Union Territories

Area

-​ Largest State - Rajasthan

-​ Largest Union Territories - Ladakh
-​ Smallest State - Goa
-​ Smallest UT - Lakshadweep

Population

-​ Largest State - Uttar Pradesh

-​ Smallest - Sikkim
-​ Largest UT - Delhi
-​ Smallest UT - Lakshadweep

Extreme Point of India

-​ Northernmost Point - IndiraCol , Siachen ,Ladhak

-​ Southernmost Point - KanyaKumari ( Tamil Nadu ) , Indira Point ( Great
Nicobar )
-​ Westernmost Point - Guhar Moti ( Gujrat )
-​ Easternmost Point - Kibithu ( Arunachal Pradesh )

Extreme Point of India

-​ North - Himachal Pradesh

-​ South - Tamil Nadu
-​ East - Arunachal Pradesh
-​ West - Gujrat
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LATITUDINAL AND LONGITUDINAL EXTENT

-​ Latitudinal Extent - 8 Degree 4 Min North - 37 Degree 6 Min North

-​ Longitudinal Extent - 68 Degree 7 Min East - 97 Degree 25 Min East
-​ North - South - 3214 KiloMeter
-​ East - West - 2933 KiloMeter
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TROPIC OF CANCER

-​ Passes through 8 States of India

-​ Gujrat
-​ Rajasthan - Jaipur
-​ Madhya Pradesh
-​ ChhattisGarh
-​ Jharkhand
-​ West Bengal
-​ Tripura - Agartala
-​ Mizoram - Aizawl
-​ 3 States Capital is Above the Equator

INDIAN STANDARD TIME ( IST )

-​ 1 Hour - 15 Degree
-​ France has most Time Zones counted to 12
-​ Russia has 11 Time Zones
-​ We Considered IST ( 82 Degree 30 Degree East )
-​ It passes through - Uttar Pradesh ( Mirzapur ) , Madhya Pradesh ,
Chhattisgarh , Orissa , Andhra Pradesh
-​ Trick - MOUCA
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-​ IST and TOC meet at - Korea ( Chhatisgharh )

INDIA'S INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES

-​ Border Area Development Program(BADP) - Runs In all Border Area ,
Road Manufacturing, Village Establishment etc.
-​ Oldest and Largest force - CRPF
-​ Oldest force - Assam Rifle ( Under Home Minister and Defence )
-​ State sharing boundary with maximum number of states - Uttar Pradesh (8
States and 1 UT )
-​ State sharing Border with 1 state - Meghalaya ( Assam ) , Sikkim ( West Bengal
)
-​ State sharing Border with 3 Countries - Arunachal Pradesh , Sikkim and West
Bengal

Trick - Bachpan me MBA ( With Length)

BANGLADESH

-​ Length - 4096 Km
-​ Trick - MAM take Water - ( Mizoram , Assasm , Meghalaya , Tripura and West Bengal
)
-​ Tripura - surrounded from 3 Side with Bangladesh
-​ Mongla Port - 1 Terminal operational Right taken by India
-​ New More Island - Disputed area between India and Bangladesh

CHINA
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-​ Length - 3488 Km
-​ Border is Divided into 3 Sectors
1.​ Western Sector - Jammu s Kashmir , Ladhak , Himachal pradesh ,
Uttrakhand
2.​ Central sector - Sikkim
3.​ Eastern Sector - Arunachal pradesh
-​ Aksai Chin - Part of India illegally occupied by China
-​ Some part of POK is given to China by Pakistan
-​ Aksai Chin and India Border - Line of Actual Control
-​ China - India border - MacMohan Line
-​ But China Believe in Johnson Line
-​ These Border is Known as - Northern Border ( Nepal , China and Bhutan )
-​ India Started “ Vibrant villages Program “ ( 2022 ) to Develop India - China
Border - Centrally Sponsored Policy
-​ CAPF - ITBP ( Indo - Tibetan Border Police ) - As we considered Tibet as Different
Country

PAKISTAN

-​ Total Border Length - 3223 km

-​ States / UT - Punjab , Rajasthan , Gujrat , Ladhak and Jammu and Kashmir
-​ Border name is - Red Cliff Line
-​ LOC - Line of Control (Ceasefire Agreement) - Ladhak - Pak border
-​ Force - BSF ( Border Security Force )

NEPAL

-​ Border State - Uttarakhand , Sikkim , Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal
-​ Uttarakhand 3 Territories - Disputed
1.​ Kala Pani - Most disputed
2.​ Limpia Dhura
3.​ Lipulekh
-​ Treaty of Sugauli 1816 - Divide India and Nepal Border
-​ Open Border - Free movement is Allowed
-​ Force - SSB ( Sashtra Seema Bal )

BHUTAN

-​ Official Language - Dzongkha

-​ Capital - Thimphu
-​ Currency - Ngultrum
-​ Also Known as - Land of ThunderBolt
-​ National Sport - Archery
-​ Border - Sikkim , Arunachal Pradesh , Assam , West Bengal
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-​ Open Border - SSB

MYANMAR

-​ State - Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram and Manipur

-​ Capital - Naypyidaw
-​ Currency - Kyat
-​ Old Name - Burma
-​ Mostly Buddhist people
-​ Sport - Chinlone ( Cane Ball )

AFGHANISTAN

-​ Length - 106 km
-​ Capital - Kabul
-​ Currency - Afghani
-​ Parliament - Shora
-​ Language - Dari or Pashto

SEA BORDER OF INDIA

-​ Not directly touch the Border but a narrow water channel divide the Countries ( Palk
Strait)
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-​ Strait - A narrow water bodies which connect to Large water bodies pr separate 2
land mass
-​ Gulf of Mannar - West of Sri Lanka ( Small Opening as compared to Bay )
-​ Largest Gulf - Gulf of Mexico

SRI LANKA

-​ Capital - Colombia
-​ Language - Sinhala , Tamil
-​ Old name - Ceylon
-​ Divided from India by Palk Strait

MALDIVES

-​ Island Country ( Start Just after Lakshadweep) - 8 Degree Channel

-​ Capital - Maale
-​ Language - Dhivehi
-​ President - Mohammad Musi

INDIA COASTAL BOUNDARIES

-​ 9 States and 4 Union Territories

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-​ States - Goa , Gujrat, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu ,Karnataka, Odisha
,Kerala And Andhra Pradesh
-​ UT - Dadra and Nagar Haveli Daman and Diu , Puducherry , Lakshadweep and
Andaman and Nicobar
-​ Total Length - 7516 km ( Include Island)
-​ Mainland - 6100 km
-​ Longest CoastLine Overall - Andaman and Nicobar Islands ( UT ) - 1916 Km
-​ Longest CoastLine Mainland - Gujarat ( 1214 km , 1600 km )
-​ States - Gujarat > Andhra Pradesh > Tamil Nadu
-​ Shortest Coastline - Goa

Puducherry

-​ Present in 3 States - Because of French Establishment

-​ Andhra, Tamil Nadu and Kerala
-​ Have 4 Territories ( Yanam , Puducherry, Karaikal and Maahe )

COASTAL BOUNDRY

-​ How much a country can claim in Water Terrority

-​ UNCLOS - United Nations Convention of Law of Seas 1982
-​ Water Bodies are Divided in 5 Zones
-​ Internal Water - Land Water ( Lakes )
-​ Territorial Sea - Up to 12 NM
-​ Contagious Zone - Up to 24 NM
-​ Exclusive Economic Zone - Up to 200 UN
-​ High Seas - Open Terrority
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TOPIC - 2 THE GREAT

HIMALAYAS
TOPICS TO BE COVERED ARE

1.​ Types of Mountains

2.​ Formation of Indian Subcontinent
3.​ Formation of Himalayas
4.​ Phases of Himalayan Formation
5.​ Himalayas additional facts
6.​ Protected areas in the Himalayas
7.​ Trans Himalayas
-​ Karakoram , Ladakh , Zanksar
8.​ Himalayas
9.​ Greater Himalayas
10.​ Middle Himilyas
11.​ Shivaliks
12.​ Purvanchal Himalayas
-​ Garo , Khashi , Jantia
-​ Mawsynram - 400 cm + rainfall - World’s highest rainfall area
13.​ Eastern and Western Himalayas difference
14.​ Important Passes
15.​ Most Important Facts and Points from Exam POV
16.​ Quick Summary

TYPES OF MOUNTAINS
1.​ FOLDED - When the tectonic plates go upwards and form mountains knows as folded
mountains (THE GREAT HIMALAYAS )
-​ Collision of Eurasian Plate and Indian Plate
-​ These folds are GH > LH > Shivaliks in HImalayas
-​ They are seen along the Convergent Plate Boundary
-​ 1 part of land is lifted up - Fold Mountains
-​ Downside part form - Subduction Zone

They are divided into two parts -

1.​ Young - Still Increasing its height ( Endogenic and Exogenic Forces )
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2.​ Old - Not Increasing - Aravali Mountains

2.​ BLOCK - When tectonic plates go downwards and form a mountains knows as
-​ Example - Vindhya ,Satpura ,Nilgiri . Vosges Mountain ( France ) , Harza
Mountain ( Germany )
-​ Vertical Slippage in Tectonic Plates
-​ Graben - the part which go downwards and make a Rift Valley
-​ Horst - The part which is lifted up made a Block Mountain
3.​ RESIDUAL - Mountains which are remnants of the previously existing mountains
because of weathering and erosion process for millions of years.(ARAVALLI ,
PARASNATH in Bihar)
4.​ VOLCANIC - Volcanic mountains are formed when magma, or molten rock, erupts
from the Earth's surface and builds up over time. ( BARREN ISLAND , DHINODHAR
HILLS in Gujarat )
-​ Magma - Inside the Earth
-​ Lava - Outside the Earth
-​ Example - Mount Stromboli ( LightHouse of Mediterranean ) , Mount Cotopaxi ,
Barren And Narcondam ( India )
5.​ SEDIMENTARY - formed from deposits of pre-existing rocks or pieces of once-living
organisms that accumulate on the Earth's surface. (Shivalik)

FORMATION OF INDIAN SUBCONTINENT AND

HIMALAYAS

-​ There is one continent that existed around 250 MIllion years ago known as PANGEA
Surrounded by the Global Vast ocean called PANTHALASSA
-​ With time It break down or is divided into two parts known as -
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1.​ ANGARA LAND ( NORTH AMERICA ,EURASIA ) - aka Laurasia or Laurentia

2.​ GONDWANA LAND ( SOUTH AMERICA , AFRICA, INDO - AUSTRALIAN
PLATE , ANTARCTICA )

AFTER SOME MILLIONS OF YEAR

-​ The INDO-AUSTRALIAN PLATE( GONDWANA) merged with EURASIA.

-​ This lead to form THE GREAT HIMALAYAS these two also have an ocean
between them named as TETHYS( GONDWANA and EURASIA )
-​ Series of Mountain Ranges formed
-​ IND0 PLATE merged to EURASIAN PLATE but before that mountains known as
THE TRANS HIMALAYAS existed.

There are basically 2 theories which we considered to study about the formation of
Himalayas.

1.​ PLATE TECTONIC THEORY BY HARRY HAZE is the most accepted one.
2.​ Another is the GEOSYNCLINE theory of KOBER.

MOUNTAIN RANGES

1.​ GREAT HIMALAYAS

2.​ MIDDLE HIMALAYAS
3.​ SHIVALIK
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PHASES OF HIMALAYAN FORMATION

The Himalayan orogeny is a result of the collision between the Indian Plate and the Eurasian
Plate. This process took millions of years and can be divided into several phases:

1. Pre-Collision Phase (Before 100 million years ago)

●​ The Tethys Sea existed between the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate.
●​ The Indian Plate was moving northward at a rapid speed (~15 cm/year).

2. Initial Collision Phase (50-60 million years ago)

●​ The Indian Plate collided with the Eurasian Plate after the Tethys Sea started closing.
●​ Marine fossils of the Tethys Sea are found in the Himalayas today, proving its past
existence.

3. Main Himalayan Orogeny Phase (40-50 million years ago)

●​ Intense folding, faulting, and upliftment began.

●​ The Greater Himalayas (Himadri) started rising first.

4. Post-Collision Phase (20-25 million years ago)

●​ Formation of Lesser Himalayas (Himachal Himalayas) due to continuous

compression.
●​ Siwalik Hills (outermost range) formed from river sediments (alluvial deposits).

5. Present & Ongoing Phase

●​ The Himalayas are still rising at a rate of 5-10 mm per year.

●​ The region is seismically active, leading to frequent earthquakes.
●​ Rivers like Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra continue to shape the mountains through
erosion and deposition.
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Key Points to Remember for Exams:

1.​ Himalayas are fold mountains formed due to the collision of the Indian & Eurasian
Plates.
2.​ The Tethys Sea was once present where the Himalayas stand today.
3.​ Greater Himalayas (Himadri) are the oldest and highest part, followed by Lesser
Himalayas (Himachal) and Siwalik Hills.
4.​ Earthquakes and landslides are common due to ongoing tectonic activity.
5.​ Youngest mountain range in the world and still growing.

THE HIMALAYAS
Additional Facts Or Points to Keep In Mind
-​ Also known as “ The Abode of Snow “ in Sanskrit and Sagar Matha
-​ Western most boundary of Himalayas marked by river INDUS
-​ National park in Himalayan region - Corbett National Park
-​ UNESCO World Heritage Site - Nanda Devi Valley Of Flowers National Park
-​ Himadri Range prominent features - High Altitude, Glaciers , Snow capped
peaks
-​ The Himalayas Separate Indian subcontinent from Central Asia.
-​ Known as Himilyan foothills - Shivalik
-​ Known as Third pole because of so many Glaciers And Ice reserves.
-​ There are 100 + mountains which are 7000 + meter
-​ It has Spiritual Significance
-​ Himalayas are still increasing at the rate of about five cm per year
-​ The Indo - Gangetic Plain was formed due to the consolidation of Alluvium
brought down by the rivers flowing form the Himilyas
-​ If you want to climb Himalayas you must considered to go from south as in
North it is straight ( Hogback Structure )
-​ Hogback - A geological term for steep , straight slopes
-​ Pass connecting India and China - Lipulekh pass.
-​ Himilyas extend across 5 Countries ( India, Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan, China )

Protected Areas In the HImalayas

1.​ Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve - UNESCO Heritage Site

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2.​ Valley of Flowers National Park - Known for endemic Flora

3.​ Khangchendzonga National Park - Indi’s first “ Mixed heritage Site “

TRANS HIMALAYAS ( North To South )

-​ There are 4 Major ranges In Trans Himalayas

1.​ Karakoram Range
2.​ Ladakh Range
3.​ Zanskar Range
4.​ Kailash Range

HIMALAYAS ( North To South )

1.​ Great /Outer Himalayas

2.​ Middle / Inner / Mid / Lesser
3.​ Shivalik
4.​ Purvanchal (Additional )

The Himalayas influence the climate of India by -

-​ Blocking cold winds from Central Asia.

-​ Preventing the Monsoon winds From leaving India.

TRANS HIMALAYAS ( Tibetan Himalayas )

Karakoram Ranges

-​ Meaning - Kala Parvat

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-​ AKA - Krishnagiri
-​ Top peak - K2 ( Godwin Austen ) , Height - 8611 m , India's Highest peak but in
POK (Pakistan occupied Kashmir) - World Highest 2nd Mountain
-​ Glaciers - Saichin( Largest ), Viafo , Hispar , Balltoro , Saltoro

Siachen

-​ World's largest 2nd non Polar Glacier

-​ World’s highest battlefield
-​ 1984 - Operation Meghdoot
-​ Altitude - 5700 Meter
-​ Pamir Knot - Roof of the World
-​ Longest glacier - Lambert Glacier
-​ Karakoram anomaly - The term used to describe the unusual behavior of
glaciers in the Karakoram mountain range, which spans the borders of
Pakistan, India, and China.
1.​ High - Altitude and Climate
2.​ Winter accumulation exceeding summer melting
3.​ Presence of Debris - Covered glaciers , showing ice loss

Ladakh Ranges

-​ Highest peak - Mt. Rakaposhi (Sharpest slope )

-​ Nubra river is found between Karakoram and Ladhak.
-​ Turtuk village in Ladakh famous for its natural beautiful landscapes and is the
northernmost village of india , captured form Pakistan in 1971
-​ Khardung-la-Pass pass - Highest motorable road in the world after Uliming la.
-​ NATHU- LA - This pass connects India and Tibet.

Zanskar Ranges

-​ Himalayas start from here

-​ located in Jammu & Kashmir
-​ Separate the Kashmir valley from Ladakh
-​ Highest peak Doda peak 6570 m
-​ Zanskar river and tributary of The Indus river flows from here
-​ Pong gong lake is situated here.
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HIMALAYAS

The four main faults in the Himalayas are:

-​ The Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone (ITSZ) Ladakh region to the Himilyas

-​ Main Central Thrust (MCT) Shivalik and M Himalayas
-​ Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) Lesser and Outer Himalayas
-​ Himalayan Frontal Fault (HFF) Northern Plains and Shivalik

GREAT HIMALAYAS ( Himadri )

-​ Spread from Nanga in the west to Namcha Barwa or Mishmi hills in the east.
-​ Mostly is in Nepal
-​ Aka - Himadri or inner Himalayas
-​ Nepal called it - Sagarmatha
-​ Tibet / China called it - Chomolungma
-​ Average height 6100 m ( World's highest ranges )
-​ Length ( Central Axial Length ) - 2500 KM
-​ Width - 120 - 190 KM
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-​ Stretch - India , Nepal , Bhutan , Pakistan , Tibet

-​ Mountain Ranges - Himadri , Himachal , Shivalik
-​ Other notable peaks from West to East - Nanda Devi , kamet , Dhaulagiri
(8176 Meter ) , Anpuri (8078 Meter ) , Mansalu , Great Himalaya , Makalu(
8481 meter ) , Khangchendzonga ( In Sikkim ) - Highest peak of India , Highest
peak of Himalayas In India.

MIDDLE HIMALAYAS
-​ Also known as Middle , Lesser , Inner , Himadri , Himachal
-​ Non - contiguous ranges
-​ Width - 60 - 80 KM
-​ Average height 3500-4500 m

IT IS DIVIDED INTO 4 PARTS

-​ Pir panjal in Jammu

-​ Dhauladhar in Himachal Pradesh
-​ Nag Tibba in Uttarakhand
-​ Mahabharata in Nepal

Valleys between Great Himalayas and Middle Himilyas

-​ Kashmir valley b\w Pir Panjal (Jammu) and GH

-​ Kallu kangada valley b/w Dhaulagarh (Himachal pradesh) and GH
-​ Gadwal valley b/w Nagarna ( Uttarakhand ) and GH
-​ Kathmandu valley b/w Mahabharat ( Nepal ) and GH

MARG

-​ Marg are found between Pir in Jammu and Great himalayas

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-​ The word marg in Kashmir refers to small grasslands on the slopes of the Lesser
Himalayas
-​ Marg are known as Bogyar/Paiyar in Uttarakhand
-​ Karewas are lacustrine deposits [deposits in lakes] in the Valley of Kashmir and in
Bhaderwah Valley of the Jammu Division [ saffron vegetation]
-​ Zaffron - Variety of Saffron

THE SHIWALIKS (Sedimentary mountains)

-​ Average height - 1200 m
-​ Width - 10-15 km
-​ Formed about 70 lakh years ago
-​ In the Eastern part - It disappears and Duars take its place
-​ Also Known As - Jammu Hills in Jammu , Dhang Ranges in Uttrakhand , Dudhwa in
Uttar Pradesh , Dhuria - Churia in Nepal
-​ There is a bridge on Chenab ( Golden Arch Bridge ) 400+ meter
-​ Lacustrine Basins - Between Shivalik and Middle Himalayas. These are formed out of
lakes which dried up with time. These are also known as Doon and Dwar. Ex .
Dehradun, Haridwar , Kotili Dun and Patli Dun

PURVANCHAL HIMALAYAS

-​ Important Hills to remember ( West to East )

-​ Expansion of Himalayas in Eastern Side
-​ Dafla Hills - Miri Hills - Abor Hills - Mishmi Hills - Patkai Bum - Naga Hills - East
Manipuri Hills , Mezo Hills ( Lushai Hills )
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GARO HILLS , KHASI HILLS AND JAINTIA HILLS

-​ Not a part of Himalayas

-​ There is a place between them known as MAWSYNRAM which is famous all over the
world for the highest rain throughout the year crossing 1200 CM.
-​ This happens because of The Funnel Effect.
-​ Funnel Effect - The funnel effect in geography can cause excessive rainfall in areas
with a funnel-shaped topography that forces moist winds to rise. For example, the
Garo and Khasi hills in Meghalaya experience the funnel effect during the
southwest monsoon season.
-​ MAWSYNRAM is part of the Deccan plateau. The Deccan Plateau of peninsular
India extends further east beyond the Rajmahal hills to Meghalaya or the Shillong
plateau.

HIGHEST PEAKS

-​ Highest peak in World - Mount Everest

-​ 2nd Highest In World - Edwin Austin K2
-​ India’s highest - Kanchanganga
-​ Arunachal Pradesh - Kangto ( 7090 Meter )
-​ Nagaland - Saramati Peak
-​ Manipur - Mount Esii ( Tenipuri )
-​ Mizoram - Phawngpui ( Blue Mountain )
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HIMALAYAN REGION ( REGIONAL DIVISION OF

HIMALAYAS )

-​ SYDNY BURRAD - Classified Himalayas On The Basis Of River Division.

SINDH ( INDUS ) - SUTLEJ - KALI - KOSHI (Sorrow Of Bihar) - TEESTA -

BRAHMAPUTRA ( West To East )

-​ Between Sindh And Sutlej - Punjab Himalaya

-​ Between Sutlej and Kali - Kumaon Gadwal
-​ Between Kali and Teesta - Nepal Himalaya
-​ Between Koshi And Teesta - Sikkim Himalaya ( Latest Classified )
-​ Between Teesta and Brahmaputra (Dihang) - Assam HImalaya

KASHMIR HIMALAYAS

-​ Formation of Kareva is found

-​ Kareva - lacustrine deposit, Glacial Deposits
-​ Kareva is useful for Zefron Cultivation ( Variety of Saffron)
-​ Zheleum meander in its youthful state
-​ Dull lake , Wular Lake ( India's biggest freshwater lakes ) - Get water from Jhelum
-​ Salt water Lake - Pong Two , Tso Morari
-​ Kashmir valley lies between Great and lesser Himalayas
-​ Important Passes - Banihal , Kharidungala (Ladhak Range ), Photo La ( Zanskar
Range)
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-​ Jhelum bank - Srinagar

-​ Vaisno Devi , Amarnath Gufa

HIMACHAL/ UK HIMALAYAS

-​ Lies between kali river in East and Ravi in West

-​ Formation of Doon is seen here
-​ Doon - Longitudinal Valleys between Lesser Himilyas and Shivaliks Example - Kotli
Doon ,Patlidun , Dehradun ( Largest) 35-45 Km
-​ Valley of Flowers ( National Park )
-​ Tribe reside hear - Bhotiya ( Nomadic Tribe ) , Summer - Bhogal ( Summer
Grasslands) , Winter - Valley
-​ Panch Prayag located here
-​ Important hill stations - Dharamshala ,Massorie, Shimla , Kaushali

DARJEELING / SIKKIM HIMALAYAS - Formation of Dwara ( Soft unconsolidated

Deposits )Seen Here - help in Tea Cultivation , Tribe - Lepcha , Bhutia

ARUNACHAL HIMALAYAS - Important peaks seen here like - Kangtu , Namcha Barwa ,
Dafla , Miri ,Abor , Mishmi and Nyishi - Important Hills or Tribes

WESTERN HIMALAYAS ( SINDH TO KALI ) AND SOUTHERN

HIMALAYAS ( KALI TO BRAHMAPUTRA )

WESTERN HIMALAYAS

-​ Less height
-​ Less vegetation
-​ More landslides
-​ Less Bio- Diversity
-​ Less Rainfall

EASTERN HIMALAYAS

-​ More Height
-​ More Green Vegetation
-​ Less landslides
-​ More Bio- Diversity
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-​ More Rainfall

IMPORTANT PASSES

PASSES CONNECTING INDIA AND CHINA

1.​ Nathu La ( Sikkim) - Trade route to TIbet

2.​ Lipulekh Pass ( Uttarakhand ) - Route for Kailash Mansarovar Yatra
3.​ Shipki La ( Himachal Pradesh )

PASSES CONNECTING INDIA AND PAKISTAN

1.​ Karakoram Pass - Ancient Sikh route

2.​ Hajipur Pass - Located in Jammu and Kashmir

KASHMIR

Jammu And SriNagar SriNagar to Gilgit Baltistan

Umling la (Highest Motorable Pass)

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HIMACHAL PRADESH

1.​ Rohtang Pass - Manali to Lahore Spiti Valley , World’s Highest tunnel -Atal Tunnel (
9.02Km ) - Longest Highway Single tube tunnel In the World ( 3000 Meter )
2.​ Bara Lachala Pass - Lahore Spiti Valley to Leh
3.​ Shipki La Pass - A river pass from here - Sutlej

UTTRAKHAND
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SIKKIM

1.​ Nathu La pass - Mount Kanchenjunga Located in SIkkim

2.​ Jelep La Pass - Trijunction of India , China and Bhutan

ARUNACHAL PRADESH

1.​ Bum La Pass

2.​ Dihang Pass
3.​ Yangyup Pass
4.​ Diphu
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MOST IMPORTANT POINTS ABOUT HIMALAYAS

1. Basic Information

1.​ The Himalayas are the youngest and highest fold mountains in the world.
2.​ They were formed due to the collision of the Indian Plate and Eurasian Plate about
50 million years ago.
3.​ The Himalayas stretch for about 2,400 km from Nanga Parbat (Pakistan) to
Namcha Barwa (Tibet, China).
4.​ The average width is 400 km in Kashmir, 150 km in Arunachal Pradesh, and
about 200-300 km in Nepal & Uttarakhand.
5.​ The Himalayas act as a climatic barrier, preventing cold winds from Siberia and
stopping the monsoon winds from crossing over to Central Asia.

2. Major Ranges of the Himalayas

6.​ The Himalayas are divided into 3 parallel ranges:

○​ Greater Himalayas (Himadri) – Highest and oldest range.
○​ Lesser Himalayas (Himachal) – Known for valleys and hill stations.
○​ Shivaliks – The youngest and lowest range.
7.​ Trans-Himalayas (Karakoram, Ladakh, Zanskar, and Kailash ranges) are northern
extensions of the Himalayas and lie in Ladakh and Tibet.

3. Important Peaks

8.​ Mount Everest (8,848.86 m) is the highest peak in the world, located in Nepal. First
ascent: Edmund Hillary & Tenzing Norgay (1953).
9.​ Kanchenjunga (8,586 m) is the highest peak in India and the 3rd highest in the
world.
10.​K2 (8,611 m) – The second-highest peak in the world, located in Pakistan-occupied
Kashmir (PoK).
11.​Nanda Devi (7,816 m) – The second-highest peak in India (Uttarakhand).
12.​Annapurna (8,091 m) – The most dangerous mountain for climbers (Nepal).
13.​Nanga Parbat (8,126 m) – Also known as the Killer Mountain (PoK).
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4. Important Passes in the Himalayas

14.​Jammu & Kashmir / Ladakh

●​ Karakoram Pass – Ancient Silk Route
●​ Zoji La – Connects Srinagar to Leh
●​ Chang La – Near Pangong Lake
●​ Banihal Pass – Jammu to Srinagar
15.​Himachal Pradesh
●​ Rohtang Pass – Connects Kullu & Lahaul
●​ Baralacha La – Leh-Manali Highway
●​ Shipki La – Indo-China border, used for trade
16.​Uttarakhand
●​ Lipulekh Pass – Route to Kailash Mansarovar
●​ Mana Pass – Highest motorable road
17.​Sikkim & Arunachal Pradesh
●​ Nathu La – Connects Sikkim to Tibet
●​ Bum La – Indo-China border in Arunachal
●​ Dihang Pass – Connects Arunachal with Myanmar

5. Important Lakes in the Himalayas

18.​Pangong Lake (Ladakh) – Saltwater lake; 60% in China.

19.​Tsomgo Lake (Sikkim) – Sacred lake, also called Changu Lake.
20.​Dal Lake (J&K) – Famous for houseboats and tourism.
21.​Wular Lake (J&K) – The largest freshwater lake in India.
22.​Roopkund Lake (Uttarakhand) – Mystery lake, famous for ancient human
skeletons.
23.​Gurudongmar Lake (Sikkim) – One of the highest lakes in the world.

6. Important Rivers Originating from the Himalayas

24.​Indus River System

●​ Originates from Bokhar Chu glacier (Tibet) near Mount Kailash.
●​ Major tributaries: Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej.
25.​Ganga River System
●​ Originates from Gangotri Glacier (as Bhagirathi) and joins Alaknanda at
Devprayag.
●​ Major tributaries: Yamuna, Ramganga, Gomti, Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi, Son.
26.​Brahmaputra River System
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●​ Originates from Angsi Glacier (Tibet) and enters India in Arunachal as Dihang.
●​ Major tributaries: Dibang, Lohit, Subansiri, Manas, Tista.

7. Glaciers in the Himalayas

27.​Siachen Glacier (Ladakh) – World’s highest battlefield.

28.​Gangotri Glacier (Uttarakhand) – Source of the Ganga River.
29.​Yamunotri Glacier (Uttarakhand) – Source of the Yamuna River.
30.​Zemu Glacier (Sikkim) – Largest glacier in Eastern Himalayas.
31.​Pindari Glacier (Uttarakhand) – Trekking destination.

8. Climate & Vegetation

32.​Western Himalayas (J&K, Himachal, Uttarakhand) → Alpine and cold desert

climate.
33.​Eastern Himalayas (Sikkim, Arunachal, Bhutan, Nepal) → Receives the highest
rainfall.
34.​Shivaliks → Covered with dense tropical forests like Sal, Teak, and Bamboo.

9. Natural Hazards & Geological Importance

35.​The Himalayas are located in Seismic Zones IV & V (most earthquake-prone areas).
36.​The 2015 Nepal Earthquake (7.8 magnitude) killed over 9,000 people due to plate
movement.
37.​The Himalayas are rising at a rate of 5-10 mm per year due to tectonic forces.
38.​The region is prone to landslides, avalanches, and flash floods due to steep
slopes and heavy rainfall.

10. Important Protected Areas & National Parks

39.​Valley of Flowers National Park (Uttarakhand) – UNESCO World Heritage Site.

40.​Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (Uttarakhand) – Second biosphere reserve in
India.
41.​Great Himalayan National Park (Himachal Pradesh) – Known for its biodiversity.
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42.​Khangchendzonga National Park (Sikkim) – India’s first Mixed Heritage Site.

43.​Dachigam National Park (J&K) – Famous for Kashmir Stag (Hangul).

11. Strategic & Economic Importance

44.​The Himalayas protect India from invasions from the north.

45.​They are a major source of water for India, Nepal, Bhutan, and China.
46.​Important highways:
●​ Manali-Leh Highway
●​ Srinagar-Leh Highway
●​ Hindustan-Tibet Road
47.​The Himalayas are rich in minerals like limestone, gypsum, and coal.
48.​The region has high hydroelectric potential, with projects like Tehri Dam and
Bhakra Nangal Dam.
49.​Tourism is a major source of income (e.g., Ladakh, Manali, Darjeeling, Sikkim).
50.​Many important pilgrimage sites are located in the Himalayas, including Badrinath,
Kedarnath, Amarnath, and Vaishno Devi.
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TOPIC - 3 PENINSULA AND

PLATEAU

PENINSULA

-​ A peninsula is a landmass that is surrounded by water on three sides and

connected to a larger landmass on one side. It is an extension of the mainland into a
water body.

Examples:

●​ Indian Peninsula (surrounded by the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and the
Indian Ocean)
●​ Florida Peninsula (USA)
●​ Iberian Peninsula (Spain & Portugal)
●​ Arabian Peninsula (Middle East)
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PLATEAU

-​ A plateau is an elevated flat-topped landform that rises sharply above the

surrounding area on at least one side. It is also known as a tableland because of its
flat surface.

Types of Plateaus:

1.​ Intermontane Plateau – Surrounded by mountains (e.g., Tibetan Plateau)

2.​ Volcanic Plateau – Formed due to volcanic activity (e.g., Deccan Plateau, India)
3.​ Dissected Plateau – Eroded by rivers and glaciers (e.g., Colorado Plateau, USA)

Examples:

●​ Deccan Plateau (India)

●​ Tibetan Plateau (World’s highest plateau)
●​ Colorado Plateau (USA)
●​ Patagonian Plateau (Argentina)

FORMATION OF INDIAN PENINSULAR PLATEAU

-​ The Indian Peninsular Plateau is one of the oldest landmasses on Earth, formed
during the Gondwana period (over 2.5 billion years ago). It is a stable
landmass and part of the ancient Gondwana Supercontinent.

Process of Formation

1.​ Breakup of Gondwana Land (~200 million years ago)​

○​ The Indian landmass was once part of Gondwana, which included

present-day South America, Africa, Antarctica, Australia, and the
Indian subcontinent.
○​ Due to tectonic forces, Gondwana started breaking apart during the
Mesozoic Era (Jurassic period).
○​ The Indian Plate separated and began drifting northward.
2.​ Volcanic Activity and Lava Flows (~65 million years ago)​

○​ The Deccan Traps (in western and central India) were formed due to
massive volcanic eruptions.
○​ These lava flows led to the formation of igneous rocks in the Deccan
Plateau region.
3.​ Erosion and Weathering​

○​ Over millions of years, rivers, wind, and climate shaped the plateau.
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○​ The Narmada and Tapi rivers divided it into two sections:

■​ Central Highlands (north of the Narmada River)
■​ Deccan Plateau (south of the Narmada River)

Key Features of the Indian Peninsular Plateau

●​ Oldest landmass in India (Precambrian era)

●​ Rich in minerals like coal, iron, manganese, and bauxite
●​ Rivers (Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, Narmada) cut through it, forming valleys
●​ Surrounded by Ghats: Western Ghats (steep) and Eastern Ghats (broken &
eroded)

DIVISION OF PLATEAU
-​ It is divided into 2 Parts -
1.​ Central Highlands ( North )
2.​ Deccan Plateau ( South )
-​ Narmada River work as a Natural Divide line between Them
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CENTRAL HIGHLANDS
●​ Located north of the Narmada River.
●​ Bounded by the Aravalli Hills in the northwest and the Vindhya Range in the
south.
●​ Eastward extension includes the Chotanagpur Plateau (Jharkhand, Odisha,
West Bengal).
●​ The Chota Nagpur Plateau marks the further eastward extension drained by the
Damodar River
●​ Wider in West and Narrower in the East

Key Features:

1.​ Malwa Plateau – Volcanic , Lies between the Aravali and Vindhya ranges
(Madhya Pradesh & Rajasthan) - Extension of Deccan Trap - Black Soil
2.​ Bundelkhand - Mp + Up ( Rewa , Satna , Anupur , Singroli ) 300 -600 meter
Elevation
3.​ Baghelkhand – Located in Uttar Pradesh & Madhya Pradesh.
4.​ Chota Nagpur Plateau
-​ Rich in coal, iron, and minerals.
-​ Rivers – Chambal, Betwa, Son, Ken (flow into the Ganga)
-​ Southwest to Northeast
-​ Expansion - Mostly In Jharkhand , Chhattisgarh , West Bengal ,
Marwar/Mewar , Bihar
-​ AKA Ruhr State ( Rich In minerals ) - Germany
-​ Elevation - Highest Peak - ParasNath Hill - 1365 Meter ( 23rth Tirthankar )
5.​ Marwar / Mewar - East Rajasthan

ARAVALI HILLS

-​ Run from SouthWest to North East

-​ Length - 800km
-​ Gujarat - Rajasthan - Haryana - Delhi
-​ Raisina Hills - President house is situated here
-​ Old Fold Mountains / Residual Mountains
-​ Highest Peak - Guru Shikhar at Mount Abu Hills( 1722 meter ) - Dilbara jain
temple ( Made by Vastupaal Brothers )
-​ Normal Elevation - 400 -600 Meter

SATPURA AND VINDHYA RANGE

-​ General Elevation - 400 -600 Meter

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-​ SatPura - Made up of 7 Mountains

-​ Dhupgarh - Highest Peak - 1350 Meter ( Pachmarhi ( Hill Station ) - Queen Of
Satpura )
-​ Amarkantak Plateau - Narmada And Son river ( Start From here )
-​ Mahadev and Maikal is also part of it - Kaimul

VINDHYA

-​ Highest Peak - Sadbhavna Shikhar ( Goodwill Peak or Kalumar Peak ) - 752 Meter

DECCAN PLATEAU
●​ Located south of the Narmada River.
●​ Triangular in shape with the Satpura range in the north and the Western &
Eastern Ghats on either side.
●​ Formed by volcanic activity (Deccan Traps).
●​ The Deccan Plateau is higher in the west and Slopes gently Eastwards
●​ Extension of the Plateau is also visible in the Northeast , locally known as the
Meghalaya , Karbi - Anglong Plateau and North Cachar Hills
●​ Karbi Anglong Plateau - Combined name of ( Garo , Khasi , Jaintia )
●​ Eastward Extension - RajMahal Hills , Garo , Khasi , Jaintia

Key Features:

1.​ Western Ghats – Steep slopes, origin of major rivers (Godavari, Krishna,
Kaveri)
2.​ Eastern Ghats – Discontinuous, eroded by rivers.
3.​ Black soil (Regur soil) – Fertile for cotton farming.
4.​ Major Plateaus – Maharashtra Plateau, Karnataka Plateau, Telangana Plateau.
5.​ Rivers – Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, Tungabhadra (flow eastward into the Bay of
Bengal).

WESTERN AND EASTERN GHATS

-​ Marks the western and Eastern Edges of the Deccan Plateau
-​ Western Ghats are continuous and can be only crossed through Passes
-​ Western Ghats - 6 States ( Gujrat , Maharashtra , Goa , Karnataka , Kerala and
Tamil Nadu )
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-​ The western ghats are higher than the Eastern Ghats.

-​ Western Ghats average elevation is 900 - 1600 Meter as against 600 Meter of the
Eastern Ghats
-​ Eastern ghats stretch from the Mahanadi Valley to the Nilgiris in the South
-​ The Western Ghats are known by different local names -
1.​ Maharashtra - Sahyadri
2.​ Kerala - Annamalai
3.​ Tamil Nadu , Karnataka - Nilgiri Hills
-​ The height of the Western Ghats progressively increases from North to South

Western Ghats (Sahyadri Hills) – Major Peaks

-​ Anamudi (2,695 m) – Kerala (Highest peak in South India)

-​ Doddabetta (2,637 m) – Tamil Nadu (Highest in Nilgiris)
-​ Mullayanagiri (1,930 m) – Karnataka (Highest in Karnataka)
-​ Kalsubai (1,646 m) – Maharashtra (Highest in Maharashtra)
-​ Agasthyamalai (1,868 m) – Tamil Nadu-Kerala Border (Biosphere Reserve)
-​ Kudremukh (1,895 m) – Karnataka (Iron ore-rich region)
-​ Pushpagiri (1,712 m) – Karnataka
-​ Vavul Mala (2,339 m) – Kerala

Eastern Ghats – Major Peaks

-​ Arma Konda (1,680 m) – Andhra Pradesh (Highest in Eastern Ghats)

-​ Jindhagada Peak (1,690 m) – Andhra Pradesh
-​ Mahendragiri (1,501 m) – Odisha (Religious significance) - highest of Eastern
Ghats
-​ Deomali (1,672 m) – Odisha (Highest peak in Odisha)
-​ Nallamala Hills (1,100 m approx.) – Andhra Pradesh
-​ Bison Hills – Odisha

Western Ghats (Sahyadri Hills) - Important Hills

1.​ Nilgiri Hills – Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka (Meeting point of Western & Eastern
Ghats)
2.​ Anamalai Hills – Kerala, Tamil Nadu (Anamudi Peak - Highest in South India)
3.​ Cardamom Hills – Kerala, Tamil Nadu (Known for spice cultivation)
4.​ Baba Budan Hills – Karnataka (Coffee cultivation, Mullayanagiri Peak)
5.​ Kudremukh Hills – Karnataka (Iron ore mining, Kudremukh Peak)
6.​ Sahyadri Hills – Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka (Core part of Western Ghats)
7.​ Agasthyamalai Hills – Kerala, Tamil Nadu (Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve)
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8.​ Palani Hills – Tamil Nadu (Kodaikanal hill station)

Eastern Ghats - Important Hills

1.​ Nallamala Hills – Andhra Pradesh, Telangana (Nagarjunasagar Tiger Reserve)

2.​ Velikonda Hills – Andhra Pradesh (Part of Eastern Ghats)
3.​ Palkonda Hills – Andhra Pradesh (Located near Tirupati)
4.​ Shevaroy Hills – Tamil Nadu (Yercaud Hill Station)
5.​ Biligiriranga Hills (BR Hills) – Karnataka (Wildlife Sanctuary)
6.​ Mahendragiri Hills – Odisha (2nd highest peak in Eastern Ghats, Ramayana
connection)
7.​ Deomali Hills – Odisha (Highest peak in Odisha)
8.​ Simlipal Hills – Odisha (Simlipal Tiger Reserve)

PASSES

-​ Thal Ghat - Mumbai to Nasik

-​ Bhor Ghat - Mumbai to Pune
-​ Pal Ghat - Palakkad Gap - It connects Nilgiri Hills to Anamalai Hills
-​ All are in Western Ghats
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TOPIC - 4
ISLAND/PLAINS
Topics to be Covered are -

-​ North Indian Plains

-​ Coastal Plains
-​ Desert
-​ Islands

NORTHERN PLAINS

-​ These regions lie at the foothills of the Himalayas, forming distinct geomorphic
zones.

Bhabar Region

-​ Located along the foothills of the Himalayas, it extends 10–15 km in width. In the
South of Shivalik
●​ Made up of coarse gravel, pebbles, and boulders brought by the Himalayan
rivers.
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●​ Highly porous soil: The rivers disappear underground due to the porosity of the
soil.
●​ Vegetation: Sparse, mostly dry deciduous forests.
●​ Agriculture: Not suitable due to rocky and porous soil.

Terai Region

●​ Lies south of the Bhabar region, forming a wet, marshy land.

●​ Extend - 10 - 20 Km
●​ Rivers that disappear in the Bhabar re-emerge here, creating swamps and
wetlands.
●​ Highly fertile soil, rich in alluvial deposits.
●​ Dense forests and high biodiversity, home to national parks like Dudhwa ,
Jim Corbett , Valmiki , Rajaji and Kaziranga.
●​ Agriculture: Suitable for crops like rice, sugarcane, and wheat due to high soil
fertility and water availability.
●​ Without any properly demarcated Channel -

Bangar and Khadar (Ganges Plain)

●​ Bangar: Older alluvial soil, less fertile, contains kankar (calcareous deposits)
, didn’t renew
●​ Khadar: Newer alluvial soil, very fertile, formed by annual flooding , Renew every
Year , Good for Agriculture

Significance

●​ The Bhabar acts as a natural drainage zone, preventing floods in the mountains.
●​ The Terai is one of the most fertile regions and a hub for agriculture and
wildlife conservation.
●​ These regions influence the climate, economy, and ecology of North India.
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COASTAL PLAINS

India has two major coastal plains:

1.​ Western Coastal Plain (along the Arabian Sea)

2.​ Eastern Coastal Plain (along the Bay of Bengal)

These plains extend from Gujarat in the west to West Bengal in the east, covering a
vast stretch of coastal regions.

Western Coastal Plain

📍 Location: Extends from Gujarat to Kerala (Arabian Sea coast).​
🗺️ States Covered: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala.​
📏 Width: Narrow (50-100 km).​
🌄 Features:
●​ Rocky & uneven terrain due to the proximity of the Western Ghats.
●​ Short & swift rivers (e.g., Narmada, Tapi) form estuaries.
●​ Backwaters & lagoons in Kerala (e.g., Vembanad Lake).
●​ Rich in black soil (good for cotton farming).
●​ Submerging in Nature
●​ Middle in Narrow , Wide in Ends
●​ More Ports
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🔹 Divisions:
1.​ Gujarat Coast – Indented coastline, good for ports (e.g., Kandla, Mumbai).
2.​ Konkan Coast (Maharashtra-Goa) – Narrow belt with cliffs and beaches.
3.​ Kannada Coast (Karnataka) – Includes important ports like Mangalore , AKA
Central Coast
4.​ Malabar Coast (Kerala) – Features backwaters, lagoons, and coconut plantations.

📌 Economic Importance:
●​ Fishing & coconut farming are major activities.
●​ Major ports: Mumbai, Mangalore, Kochi.
●​ Tourism: Goa beaches, Kerala backwaters.

Eastern Coastal Plain

📍 Location: Extends from West Bengal to Tamil Nadu (Bay of Bengal coast).​
🗺️ States Covered: West Bengal, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu.​
📏 Width: Broader than the western coast (100-150 km).​
🌊 Features:
●​ Flat & wide terrain with fertile alluvial soil.
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●​ Long & slow-moving rivers (e.g., Ganga, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri) form
deltas.
●​ Chilika Lake (Odisha) – Largest brackish water lagoon in India.
●​ Emerging in Nature
●​ Less ports

🔹 Divisions:
1.​ Utkal Coast (Odisha) – Chilika Lake and Mahanadi Delta.
2.​ Andhra Coast (Andhra Pradesh) – Godavari & Krishna deltas.
3.​ Coromandel Coast (Tamil Nadu) – Kaveri Delta, prone to cyclones.

📌 Economic Importance:
●​ Agriculture: Rice production due to fertile deltas.
●​ Ports: Chennai, Visakhapatnam, Paradip.
●​ Cyclone-prone region due to the Bay of Bengal.

Conclusion

●​ The Western Coastal Plain is rocky & narrow, rich in fishing and natural
ports.
●​ The Eastern Coastal Plain is flat & broad, ideal for agriculture and deltas but
prone to cyclones.
●​ Both coasts play a crucial role in trade, tourism, and economy.
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PORTS

-​ Ports are divided into 2 ( Indian Ports Act of 1908)

1.​ Major - 13 ( Under Central Government )
2.​ Minor - 200 ( Under State Government )
-​ Basic of Division - Major

KANDLA PORT

-​ In Gujarat
-​ Aka Deen Dayal Port Trust
-​ ( Tidal Port ) - Water Level is regulated by Tides

MUMBAI AND JNPT ( JawaharLal Nehru Port )

-​ Both are in Mumbai

-​ JNPT Also Known As Nhava Sheva ( Navi Mumbai ) - Satellite Port ( Which are
made when the capacity reached the maximum )
-​ JNPT - Largest container Port ( Where Cargo container are Transferred and Stored )
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MORMUGAO PORT

-​ In Goa
-​ Made in the Estuaries of Jowar River

KOCHI PORT

-​ In Kerala
-​ “Queen of Arabian Sea “

TUTICORIN , ENNORE AND CHENNAI

-​ All in Tamil Nadu

-​ Tuticorin Also known as - V.O Chidambaranar Port )
-​ Ennoe aka - Kamarajar Port ( First major Corporatised Port ) - In the hand of
Private Sectors
-​ Chennai - 2nd Largest Container Port

VISAKHAPATNAM

-​ In Andhra Pradesh
-​ Deepest Land - Locked Port

PARADIP

-​ In Odisha
-​ Largest Cargo Handling Port

KOLKATA

-​ In West Bengal
-​ Oldest Port - Made by Britishers in 1870
-​ 24 pargana District - Haldia Port ( regulated by Hooghly Port ) - riverine Port -
Known As Diamond harbour

GREAT INDIAN DESERT

-​ In the North West of Aravali - Great Indian Desert ( Thar Desert )
-​ A desert is a type of landform characterized by extreme dryness, minimal rainfall,
and sparse vegetation.
-​ Desert covers about one-third of Earth's land surface and can be hot or cold.
-​ It was believed that Thar Desert Was Under the water a long time ago - Because of
Fossils of Aquatic animals found here
-​ Local Language Name - Marusthali
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-​ Palaya - A place where little water is found in Desert

-​ Densely populated Desert of the World
-​ Rainfall - Less than 150 mm / Year

Types of Deserts:

1.​ Hot Deserts – High temperatures, sandy or rocky terrain (e.g., Sahara Desert, Thar
Desert).
2.​ Cold Deserts – Low temperatures, found in high latitudes (e.g., Gobi Desert,
Antarctica).
3.​ Coastal Deserts – Located near coastlines with cool ocean currents (e.g., Atacama
Desert).
4.​ Semi-Arid Deserts – Slightly more rainfall than true deserts (e.g., Great Basin
Desert).

GROUP OF ISLANDS
-​ Group of Island - Archipelago
-​ Islands of India are divided into 2 -
1.​ Lakshadweep ( Arabian Sea )
2.​ Andaman And Nicobar Islands ( Bay of Bengal )
-​ Island - A part of land surrounded by Water from all 4 side
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ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR

-​ Elevated portion of Submerged Mountains

-​ Total Island - 572 Islands
-​ Location - 6 - 14 Degree North latitude , Longitude 92 Degree 94 degree
-​ 10 Degree channel Divide Andman from nicobar Islands
-​ Two volcanic
1.​ Barren Volcanic ( India Only Active Volcano )
2.​ Narcondam Volcano ( India Only Dormant Volcano )
-​ Capital of Andman - Sri Vijayapuram
-​ Andaman Nicobar Highest Peak - Saddle Peak
-​ Great Nicobar - Nicobar Highest / 2nd Highest - Mount Thuiller
-​ Mount Diavolo - Middle Andaman - 3rd Highest
-​ South Andman and Little Andman separated by - Duncan Passage
-​ Sumadra Island
-​ Tribes -
1.​ Shompen - PVTG
2.​ Senthelse
3.​ Jarawa
4.​ Onge
5.​ North Andamanese
-​ Baratang Island - Situated between Middle Andman and South Andman
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LAKSHADWEEP

-​ Location - 8 Degree 12 degree North latitude , 71 - 76 degree East Longitude

-​ 11 Degree Channel divide Amini Island from Canmore Island
-​ Sher Afghan Ali killed Mayo ( Viceroy of India )
-​ Cellular Jail ( Kala Pani ) - South Andman
-​ Made up of 36 Islands
-​ Capital - Kavaratti
-​ Minicoy - 2ndLargest Island of Lakshadweep
-​ Android - Largest island of Lakshadweep
-​ Smallest Union territories - Lakshadweep
-​ 9 Degree Channel separates Minicoy from Lakshadweep
-​ 8 Degree Channel separate Maldives from India ( Minicoy )
-​ INS Jatayu ( Indian Naval Ship ) - Minicoy Island
-​ Kavaraati - INS Dweeprakshak ( 2012 )
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-​ Other Islands
1.​ Kachchatheevu
2.​ Gulf of Mannar - Location - West from Sri Lanka
3.​ Rameshwaram Islands - Pamban Island
4.​ Aliabet Island - Gujarat ( Formed because of Narmada river Estuaries )
5.​ New Moore Island - India - Bangladesh
6.​ Wheeler Island ( Now APJ Abdul Kalam Island ) - Missile Testing
7.​ Shri Hari kota - Andhra Pradesh
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TOPIC - 5 RIVER
SYSTEM
DRAINAGE PATTERNS

1. Dendritic Drainage Pattern

●​ Looks like: A tree with branches

●​ Formed in: Regions with uniform rock structure and gentle slope
●​ Example Rivers: Ganga, Indus, Brahmaputra

2. Trellis Drainage Pattern

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●​ Looks like: Parallel main streams with short right-angled tributaries

●​ Formed in: Folded mountains or areas with alternating hard and soft rock layers
●​ Example Rivers: Godavari, Mahanadi, Narmada

3. Radial Drainage Pattern

●​ Looks like: Rivers flowing outward from a central point

●​ Formed in: Volcanic cones or domes , Peak
●​ Example Rivers: Rivers from Amarkantak Plateau (Narmada, Son, Mahanadi)

4. Rectangular Drainage Pattern

●​ Looks like: Right-angled bends forming a grid-like structure

●​ Formed in: Areas with faulted or jointed rocks
●​ Example Rivers: Chambal, Betwa

5. Centripetal Drainage Pattern

●​ Looks like: Rivers converging toward a central basin ( Opposite of Radial )

●​ Formed in: Depressions, craters, or rift valleys
●​ Example Rivers: Rivers draining into Loktak Lake (Manipur)

6. Annular Drainage Pattern

●​ Looks like: A circular or ring-like pattern

●​ Formed in: Areas with domed or eroded rock formations
●​ Example Rivers: Rivers around Karnataka’s granite domes

Key Points for Exams:

✔ Dendritic → Most common (e.g., Ganga)​

✔ Trellis → Found in folded mountains (e.g., Godavari)​
✔ Radial → From a central point (e.g., Amarkantak Plateau)​
✔ Rectangular → Found in faulted regions (e.g., Chambal)​
✔ Centripetal → Into lakes (e.g., Loktak Lake)​
✔ Annular → Around domes (e.g., Karnataka’s granite domes)​
✔ Parallel → On steep slopes (e.g., Ladakh rivers)
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TYPES OF RIVER SYSTEM IN INDIA

HIMALAYAN RIVERS
1.​ Origin: These rivers originate from glaciers and snowmelt in the Himalayas.
2.​ Perennial Nature: Flow throughout the year due to glacier melt and rainfall.
3.​ Large Drainage Basin: Cover vast regions across India, Nepal, and Bangladesh.
4.​ High Water Volume: Carry huge volumes of water, especially during monsoon.
5.​ Erosion Power: Causes intense erosion, forming V-shaped valleys , Rapids ,
Waterfalls and Gorges are common in upper courses
-​ Rapids - Sections of a river where the water flows swiftly and turbulently after
over a rocky bed
-​ Gorges - A deep narrow valley with very steep sides often formed by a river
or stream cutting through rocks
6.​ Useful for Hydropower Generation due to Steep Gradient and High Velocity
7.​ Floodplains: Create wide, fertile floodplains in the plains (e.g., Indo-Gangetic
Plain).
8.​ Meandering: Frequently change course and form meanders due to soft alluvial
plains.
9.​ Tributaries: Have numerous large tributaries, increasing their size and flow.
10.​Hydroelectricity: Less potential in plains but used in mountainous regions for
power.
11.​Navigation: Widely used for inland water transport in their lower courses.
12.​Irrigation: Major source of irrigation for agriculture in northern India.
13.​Flooding: Cause frequent floods during monsoons (e.g., Kosi River floods in
Bihar).
14.​Soft Alluvial Soil: Carry and deposit rich alluvial soil, beneficial for farming.
15.​Youthful Stage Features ( Upper Course ) - V - Shaped Valleys , Rapids ,
Waterfalls and Gorges
16.​Middle Course Features - Meanders , Oxbow lakes and levees due to reduce slope
and Increased Sedimentation
17.​Delta - A delta is a triangulare landform formed by Sediment deposition where a river
meets a sea or a Ocean Ex - Sunderban Delta
18.​Estuary - An estuary is a wide river mouth where freshwater mixes with seawater
without much sediment deposition
19.​Three Major Systems:
○​ Indus River System (Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej).
○​ Ganga River System (Ganga, Yamuna, Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi, Son).
○​ Brahmaputra River System (Brahmaputra, Subansiri, Dibang, Lohit,
Manas).
20.​Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta: World’s largest delta (Sundarbans, Bangladesh &
India).
21.​Landslides: Cause landslides and river course changes due to high erosion.
22.​International Flow: Some rivers flow through multiple countries (e.g., Indus in
Pakistan, Brahmaputra in China, Bangladesh).
23.​Sediment Transport: Carry huge loads of sediments, enriching soil in plains.
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24.​Water Disputes: Cause disputes between India and neighboring countries over
water sharing (e.g., Indus Water Treaty with Pakistan).
25.​Ganga Action Plan: Ganga has been part of cleaning programs due to pollution.
26.​Tourism & Pilgrimage: Many pilgrimage sites along their banks (e.g., Varanasi on
Ganga, Haridwar on Ganga).
27.​Indus , Sutlej , Brahmaputra and Kosi are Antecedent River ( Flowing Before
Himalayas Existed ) - These rivers shows great Erosional Powers

PENINSULAR RIVERS
1.​ Origin: Originate from hills, plateaus, and small mountains (Western Ghats,
Eastern Ghats, Vindhyas, Satpura).
2.​ Seasonal Nature: Most are rain-fed and seasonal, drying up in summer.
3.​ Shorter Length: Compared to Himalayan rivers, they have shorter courses.
4.​ Narrow Drainage Basin: Their drainage areas are smaller than those of Himalayan
rivers.
5.​ Less Erosion: Flow over hard, rocky terrain, causing less erosion.
6.​ No Large Floodplains: Do not form wide floodplains, except in lower courses.
7.​ Straight Flow: Mostly flow in a straight path without meandering.
8.​ Waterfalls: Many rivers have waterfalls due to steep gradients (e.g., Jog Falls on
Sharavathi).
9.​ Hydroelectric Potential: High potential due to steep slopes and dams (e.g.,
Sardar Sarovar Dam on Narmada).
10.​Irrigation: Used for local irrigation projects but less extensive than Himalayan
rivers.
11.​Deltas & Estuaries:
○​ East-flowing rivers (Godavari, Krishna) form deltas.
○​ West-flowing rivers (Narmada, Tapi) form estuaries.
12.​Less Meandering: Flow through hard rock terrain, reducing meandering.
13.​Fewer Tributaries: Have fewer tributaries than Himalayan rivers.
14.​Divided into Two Groups:
○​ East-Flowing Rivers (Drain into Bay of Bengal)
■​ Godavari (Dakshin Ganga, longest in Peninsular India).
■​ Krishna, Kaveri, Mahanadi, Brahmani, Pennar, Subarnarekha.
○​ West-Flowing Rivers (Drain into Arabian Sea)
■​ Narmada, Tapi, Sabarmati, Mahi, Periyar, Sharavati.
15.​Narmada & Tapi: These flow westward, forming estuaries, unlike most Indian
rivers.
16.​Drought-Prone Regions: Many areas dependent on these rivers suffer from water
scarcity in dry seasons.
17.​River Linking Projects: Ken-Betwa River linking project aims to manage water
distribution.
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18.​Pollution Concerns: Industrial and domestic waste pollutes rivers like Godavari
and Kaveri.
19.​Sacred Rivers: Many rivers hold religious significance (e.g., Kaveri in Tamil Nadu,
Godavari in Maharashtra).
20.​Lifeline of South India: Serve as the primary water source for agriculture in South
India.
21.​Limited Navigation: Not suitable for navigation due to steep gradients and
seasonal flow.
22.​Tropical Climate Impact: These rivers depend on monsoons, making them
unreliable for year-round water supply.
23.​Major Dams:
○​ Godavari: Polavaram Dam
○​ Krishna: Nagarjuna Sagar Dam
○​ Narmada: Sardar Sarovar Dam
○​ Tapi: Ukai Dam
24.​Mineral Transport: Some rivers pass through mineral-rich areas, supporting
industries.
25.​Future Challenges: Climate change, urbanization, and pollution pose major threats
to Peninsular rivers.

Conclusion:

●​ Himalayan Rivers are longer, perennial, have many tributaries, cause heavy
erosion, and form deltas.
●​ Peninsular Rivers are shorter, seasonal, flow in straight courses, have high
hydroelectric potential, and form both deltas and estuaries.
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INDUS RIVER WATER SYSTEM

-​ Leh is the only city situated on the bank of Indus River

-​ Source - Bokhar Chu glacier ( Kailash Mansarovar , Tibet )
-​ Name in Tibet - “Singi Khamban “ ( Lion’s Mouth)
-​ Panchnad - ( Jhelum , Chenab , Ravi , Beas and Sutlej )
-​ Punjab is named after Panchnad
-​ Punjab - Pepsu ( old name )
-​ Indus total Length - 2880 Km ( Total Length )
-​ The Indus basin is one of the largest irrigation systems in the World ( Indus Basin
Irrigation System IBIS )
-​ Length in India - 1114 Km
-​ Indus old name - Sindhu ( Named on Cotton )
-​ Drain into - Arabian Sea Near Karachi , Pakistan
-​ Doab - Area Lying between 2 river
-​ Panchnad Meet Indus at Mithankot , Pakistan
-​ Doab
1.​ Indus and Jehlum - Sindh Sagar Doab
2.​ Jhelum and Chenab - Chaj Doab
3.​ Chenab and Ravi - Rechna Doab
4.​ Ravi and Beas - Bari doab
5.​ Beas and Sutlej - Bist Doab

INDUS WATER TREATY

-​ Mediator - World Bank
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-​ India Representative - Jawahar lal Nehru

-​ Pakistan Representative - Mohammed Ayub Khan ( President )
-​ Indus , Jhelum and Chenab - 80% Pakistan , India 20%
-​ Ravi , Beas and Stutlej - 20% Pakistan , India 80%
-​ Ravi river - Shahpur Kandi Barrage ( Punjab )

TRIBUTARIES ( LEFT BANK )

1.​ Jhelum
-​ Originate in Verinag - Developed by Jahangir
-​ Ancient Name - Vitasta
-​ Meanders in its Youthful Stage
-​ Gave water to Whooler lake ( Largest fresh water lake in India )
-​ City -

2.​ Chenab
-​ Originate in Baralacha Pass
-​ Ancient Name - Aksini
-​ Dam - Baglihar Dam and Salal Dam
-​ Largest Tributary of Indus
3.​ Ravi
-​ Originated in Rohtang Pass
-​ Ancient Name - Purushni
-​ Trans Boundary River - Between India and Pakistan
4.​ Beas
-​ Originated in Rohtang Pass
-​ Does not flow to Pakistan
-​ Meet Sutlej at Harike ( Punjab )
5.​ Sutlej
-​ Originated in Rakas Lake, Rakshas Tal ( Mansarovar )
-​ Bhakra Nangal Dam ( India's highest Gravity Dam )
-​ Ancient Name - Shutudri
-​ Longest Tributary of Indus
-​ Enter through Shipki La Pass

RIGHT BANK TRIBUTARIES

Zanskar - Joins indus Near Leh

Sheok
-​ Originate near Siachen Glacier
-​ Right bank Tributary
-​ Tributary of Sheok - Nubra
Gilgit - Originate in Gilgit region ,Joins Indus at Bunji
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GANGA RIVER SYSTEM

-​ National River of Our country - Made in 2008 by PM Manmohan Singh

-​ Considered Sacred River in Hinduism
-​ Ganga Arti in Haridwar , Varanasi and Prayag Raj
-​ Mentioned in Rigveda as one of the Sacred rivers
-​ Farukka ( West Bengal ) - Hooghly also known as Bhagirathi Hooghly - 1996
Bangladesh Agreement
-​ Sagar Island - West Bengal
-​ In Bangladesh - Known as Padma
-​ No insects found because of - Bacteriophage Virus - High Dissolved oxygen due to
Himalayan origin , Has self cleasinging Property
Gangetic Dolphin
-​ National Aquatic Animal of India
-​ Also Known as “Susu ‘
-​ Endangered ( Because of Pollution )
-​ Need fresh Water for Survival
-​ Also Found in Brahmaputra river
-​ Where 2 river meet - Prayag
-​ Ganga length- 2525 Km
-​ Alaknanda - All come to meet it here
-​ Bhagirathi - Gaumukh Glacier at Gangotri ( Uttrakhand )
-​ Alaknanda - Satopanth Glacier - Join Baghirathi at devprayag - Here it's officially
Ganga )
-​ Mandakini - Chorabari Glacier

PANCH PRAYAG
1.​ Dhauliganga - Vishnu Prayag
2.​ Mandakini - Nand Pragya
3.​ Pindar Ganga - KarnaPrayag
4.​ Mandakini - RudraPrayag
5.​ Bhagirathi - DevPrayag
-​ From here Ganga Became Ganga
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-​ D-V
-​ N-N
-​ P-K
-​ M-R
-​ B-D

LEFT BANK TRIBUTARIES

1.​ Ram Ganga - Meet at Bijnor Up

2.​ Gomti
-​ Meet at Gazipur , UP
-​ Originate from Pilibhit
-​ River Bank - Lucknow
3.​ Ghagra
-​ Meet at Chapra
-​ Largest tributary
-​ Originated from Mapchachungo ( Tibet )
-​ Known as Karnali in Nepal
-​ Ghagra join Sarda river
-​ Sarda AKA ( Sairyu ,Gori Ganga )
-​ Sairyu - Ram Mandir and Ayodhya Situated
-​ Sarda Join Karnali at Brahma Ghat
-​ Tributary - Tila , Seti and Bheri
4.​ Gandak
-​ Meet at Sonpur
-​ Tributary - Trishul; Ganga , Kali Gandak
-​ Originated from Nubine Himal Glacier ( Nepal )
5.​ Kosi
-​ Meet at Bhagalpur , Bihar
-​ Sorrow of Bihar ( Floods ) - 2008 Flood
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-​ Arun koshi and Saptakoshi made Koshi

6.​ Mahananda
-​ Join near Rajmahal Hills , Jharkhand

RIGHT BANK TRIBUTARIES

1.​ Yamuna
-​ Longest Ganga Tributary
-​ Length - 1370 Km
-​ Rise from - Yamunotri Glacier - Bandarpunch Range
-​ Tons - largest tributary of Yamuna
-​ River Bank City - Delhi
-​ Tributary ( left )
1.​ Hindon
2.​ Tons ( Yamuna Longest Tributary )
-​ Right Tributary
1.​ Chambal ( 2nd largest ) - Origin Vindhya Range
2.​ Sindh
3.​ Betwa - Vindhya - Flow in UP and MP
4.​ Ken - Flow through Bundelkhand region
-​ Chambal Tributary - Kali , Sindh , Parvati and Banas
-​ Ujjain - Kripra river Bank
-​ Meet at Prayagraj
2.​ Son
-​ RIse From - Amarkantak Plateau ( Radial Drainage Pattern ) - Narmada Is
another example river
-​ Son Tributary -
1.​ Rihang
2.​ North Koyal
3.​ Hindon ( Ghaziabad City Established , Hindon Airbase )

CITIES SITUATED ON THE BANK OF GANGA

-​ Rishikesh
-​ Haridwar
-​ Kanpur
-​ Allahabad (Prayagraj )
-​ Varanasi
-​ Patna
-​ Bhagalpur
-​ Kolkata
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BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER SYSTEM

-​ Start from Kailash Mansarovar from Chemayungdung Glacier ( Angsi Glacier )

-​ It flows eastward in Tibet as Yarlung Tsangpo
-​ Himalayan Syntaxial Bending ( Namcha Barwa - 7782 Meter ) - Easternmost peak of
Himalayas - River takes U - Turn around it and Enter in India through Arunachal
Pradesh
-​ This river is also knows for Flash Floods ( Sudden , Intense ) and High Sediment
Load
-​ Length - 2900 km
-​ In India - 916 Km
-​ In Arunachal Pradesh Hills it is known as - Sihang
-​ In Arunachal Plains - Dihang
-​ Merges with Dibang and Lohit before becoming Brahmaputra In Assam
-​ Assam Valley - Brahmaputra forms a Braided Channel - Uncommon for Such large
rivers - Forms Small Islands called Eyots
-​ In Assam it is named as - Brahmaputra
-​ Made an Island in Assam - Majuli Island ( World’s Largest Riverine Island ) - In
terms of Area - Shrinking due to Erosion
-​ Assam ( Dhuvri ) - Southward turn and goes to Bangladesh - There it is named as -
Jamuna
-​ Where Jamuna and Padma(Ganga) meet at Goalundo Ghat known as Meghna
-​ Barak River - Start from Manipur Hills and meet Meghana separately - Not a direct
Tributary of Brahamputra - Second largest river in North Eastern India after
Brahmputra
-​ Disputes / Hydropower Projects - China has building a Dam on Yarlung Tsangpo -
Causing strategic concerns for India
-​ India has multiple Hydropower Projects in Arunachal on Brahmaputra Tributaries
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-​ Brahmputra all Names - Yarlung Tsangpo - Sihang - Dihang - Brahmaputra -

Jamuna - Meghna

TRIBUTARY ( Left )
1.​ Dibang
2.​ Lohit
3.​ Dhansari
4.​ Torsa - Joins in Assam

TRIBUTARY ( Right Bank )

1.​ Subansiri - Largest tributary of Brahmaputra
2.​ Manas - A UNESCO World Heritage Site ( Manas National Park )
3.​ Kameng
4.​ Sankosh
5.​ Teesta - Disputed Between India and Bangladesh - West Bengal's government
opposes current agreement - Water Sharing Agreement - 2011

PENINSULAR RIVERS
-​ The Peninsular rivers of India are divided into two categories based on their direction
of flow:

1. East-Flowing Rivers (drain into the Bay of Bengal)

2. West-Flowing Rivers (drain into the Arabian Sea)

EAST FLOWING RIVERS (Drain into the Bay of Bengal)

-​ These rivers originate from the Western Ghats or central highlands and flow
eastward.
-​ They form deltas in their mouths.
-​ They have larger basins compared to west-flowing rivers.
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ODISHA

DAMODAR
-​ Came from Chota Nagpur Plateau
-​ Flows in rift Valley
-​ Tributary of Hooghly
-​ Sorrow of Bengal
-​ Tributary - Bokaro , Barakar , Konar

SWARNAREKHA RIVER
-​ Gold Particles found here
-​ Originated in Ranchi Plateau ( Chotanagpur Plateau)
-​ Flow in - Jharkhand, Orissa and West Bengal
-​ It's Tributary - Kharkai

BAITARANI And BRAHMANI

-​ Originated in Gonasika Hills
-​ Aka GuptaGanga in Odisha
-​ APJ ABDUL KALAM Island - On Mouth of It

BRAHMANI
-​ South Koyal + Shank River
-​ Bhitarkanika National Park
-​ Gahir Mata Marine Sanctuaries

MAHANADI
-​ Length - 850 Km
-​ Longest river of Odisha
-​ Originated in - Sihawa Hills ( Odisha )
-​ Sorrow of Odisha
-​ Flow in - Chhattisgarh + Odisha
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-​ Hirakud Dam - World's Longest Earthen Dam

-​ Tributary - Tel , Jonk , Ong and Hasdeo , Mand

RUSHIKULYA RIVER
-​ It's Mouth - Breeding ground for Olive Ridley Turtle - Arribada Process

ANDHRA PRADESH

VAMSADHARA
-​ Originated in KalaHandi
-​ Flow in Odisha and Andhra Pradesh

NAGAVALI
-​ Originated in KalaHandi
-​ Flow in Odisha and Andhra Pradesh
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MAHARASHTRA

GODAVARI
-​ Length - 1450 km
-​ Longest river of South India
-​ Aka - DakshinGanga
-​ Originated in - Trimbakeshwar ( Nasik , Maharashtra) - Western Ghats
-​ Flow in Maharashtra, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh
-​ Tributary - PenGanga , WainGanga , Vardha ,
-​ RBT - Manjeera , Indravati , Prahita and Sabri

KRISHNA
-​ Length - 1400 Km
-​ 2nd largest river of South India
-​ Origin - Maharashtra ( Mahabaleshwar)
-​ Flow in - Maharashtra, Karnataka , Telangana and Andhra Pradesh - Delta
-​ Tributary - Bhima , Tungabhadra, Ghataprabha ,Malprabha , Musi , Koyna and
Dudhganga

KARNATAKA

PANEER
-​ Length - 597 Km
-​ Origin - Karnataka
-​ Flow in - Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
-​ Also Known as - Pinakini
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KAVERI
-​ Length - 800Km
-​ Origin - Brahmagiri Hills ( Karnataka )
-​ Flows in - Karnataka , Tamil Nadu - Delta
-​ Only river of South India which flows throughout the Year - Perennial River
-​ Also known as South India Ganga
-​ Garden of South India
-​ Also Known as - Pooni in Tamil Nadu
-​ Tributaries - Hemmati , Kabini , Bhvani , Shimsha , Amravati and Arkavathi

WEST FLOWING RIVERS (Drain into the Arabian Sea)

-​ These rivers originate from the Western Ghats and flow westward.
-​ They form estuaries instead of deltas.
-​ They are shorter and have steeper gradients.
-​ Flow Into Arabian Sea -

GUJARAT

LUNI RIVER
-​ Goes into Rann of Kutch - Endorheic River
-​ Aka Lavanavari
-​ Originated in Rajasthan
-​ Goes to Gujrat
-​ Rises in Naga Hills of Aravallis ( Ajmer )
-​ Only river of Salt Water
-​ Don't Reach up to Oceans
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SABARMATI
-​ Originated in - Aravalli Mountains
-​ Flows in Rajasthan and Gujrat

MAHI
-​ Originated in Vindhya Mountains ( Madhya Pradesh )
-​ Cut Tropic of Cancer twice
-​ Flows in - Madhya Pradesh , Rajasthan , Gujarat - Bay of Bengal

NARMADA
-​ Originated in Amarkantak Plateau ( Madhya Pradesh )
-​ Length - 1310 Km
-​ Flows in - Madhya Pradesh - Maharashtra - Gujarat - Bay of Khambhat
-​ Longest river flowing into Arabian Sea
-​ Flows in Rift Valley ( Flows between Vindhya and Satpura )
-​ Jabalpur is located on its Bank
-​ Tributaries - Barna , Kolar , Tawa , Hiran and Burner

TAPI
-​ Length - 724 Km
-​ Originated in Betul Plateau ( Madhya Pradesh )
-​ Flows in Rift Valley
-​ Surat is located in On its Bank
-​ Tributary - Purna
GOA
ZUARI
-​
MANDAVI
-​ Life line of Goa
-​ Panaji Ia located

KARNATAKA
KALINADI AND SHARVATI , VARAHI
-​ Jog Falls - 2nd Highest WaterFall ( Sharvati )
-​ Kunchikal falls - Varahi River - Highest WaterFalls
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KERALA

BHARATHAPUZHA

PAMBA

PERIYAR
-​ Life line Kerala
-​ Longest river of Kerala
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TOPIC - 6 DAMS ,LAKES

AND WATERFALLS
MULTIPURPOSE PROJECT
BENEFITS
-​ Flood Control
-​ Hydropower Generation
-​ Irrigation
-​ Tourism
-​ Navigation
-​ Drought Mitigation
-​ Jawahar Lal Nehru Called them “ Temples of Modern India “
DRAWBACKS
-​ Deforestation for Dams Construction
-​ Natural Wildlife Disturb
-​ Sound Pollution
-​ Heavy Machinery Used
-​ Tribal People Displacement
-​ Earthquakes Occur During making

DAMODAR VALLEY PROJECT ( Jharkhand )

-​ DVC - Damodar Valley Corporation
-​ India's First river valley project - 1948
-​ It is based on Tennessee River of USA
-​ There are 8 Dams built on Damodar and Its Tributaries
-​ Damodar river is a Tributary of Bhagirathi Hooghly
DAMS
1.​ Maithon - Barakar river
2.​ Tila - Brakar River
3.​ Panchet - Damodar
4.​ Konar - Konar

BHAKRA NANGAL DAM PROJECT

-​ On the river - Sutlej
-​ Bhakra - Himachal Pradesh - form Govind Sagar Lake
-​ Nangal - Punjab
-​ Highest Gravity Dam
-​ Largest Dam of India - Area Wise

HIRAKUD DAM
-​ In Odisha ( Sambalpur District )
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-​ On Mahanadi River
-​ Longest Dam of World / India - 4.8 Km ( Water Area ) - 25 Km ( Overall )

TEHRI DAM
-​ In Uttrakhand
-​ On Bhagirathi river
-​ Highest Dam of India ( 261 Meter )
-​ Highest Earthen Dam - Overall Highest ( If in Option )

FARAKKA DAM
-​ West Bengal - Ganga river
-​ This dam was built to provide water to the Hooghly river

JAMMU AND KASHMIR

-​ Chenab River
1.​ Dulhasti Hydropower Project
2.​ Salal Hydropower Project
3.​ Baglihar Hydropower Project
-​ Jhelum River
1.​ KishanGanga
2.​ Tulbul
3.​ Uri

HIMACHAL PRADESH
-​ Pong Dam - Beas
-​ Chamera Dam - Ravi
-​ Nathpa Jhakri Dam - Satluj
-​ Bassi Dam- Ravi
-​ Baira Siul Dam - Ravi

UTTAR PRADESH
-​ Matatila - Betwa river
-​ Lakshmibai - Betwa River
-​ Rihand - Sonbhadra District - Govind Ballabh Pant Sagar Lake - Largest Artificial
Lake
-​ Rihand is Tributary of Son
-​ Son is Tributary of Ganga

GUJRAT
-​ Ukai - Tapi - Surat
-​ Kakrapar - Tapi
-​ Sardar Sarovar - Narmada - Jabalpur
-​ Kadana Dam - Mahi River - Cuts Tropic of Cancer twice

MADHYA PRADESH
-​ Tawa - Tawa - Narmada
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-​ Ban Sagar - Son

-​ Omkareshwar - Narmada
-​ Indira Sagar - Narmada
-​ Gandhi Sagar - Chambal

RAJASTHAN
-​ Mahi Bajaj Sagar Dam - Mahi
-​ Bisalpur Dam - Banas
-​ Rana Pratap Sagar Dam - Chambal ( Chambal )
-​ Jawahar Sagar - Chambal

MAHARASHTRA
-​ State With most number of the Major Dams
-​ Jayakwadi - Godavari
-​ Dhom Dam - Krishna
-​ Koyna - Koyna - Tributary of Krishna
-​ Isapur Dam - Penganga
-​ Ujjaini Dam - Krishna

CHHATTISGARH
-​ Indravati Dam - Godavari
-​ Hasdeo Dam - Hasdeo River - Tributary of Mahanadi

KARNATAKA
-​ Jong / Mahatma Gandhi - Sabarmati
-​ Linganamakki - Sharvati
-​ Shivsamudram - Kaveri
-​ Almatti - Krishna

KERALA
-​ Periyar / Idukki / Mullaperiyar Dam - Periyar ( Life line of Kerala )

TELANGANA
-​ Nagarjuna Sagar - Krishna
-​ Pochampad ( Srirama Sagar ) - Godavari
-​ Kaleshwaram Lift irrigation Project - Godavari
-​ Nizam Sagar Dam - Manjira ( Tributary of Godvari )

TAMIL NADU
-​ Pykara - Pykara
-​ Mettur - Kaveri

ANDHRA PRADESH
-​ Srisailam - Krishna river
-​ Nagarjuna Dam - Krishna
-​ Somasila Dam - Penner / Penna
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PUNJAB
-​ Thein dam ( Ranjit sagar Dam ) - Ravi
-​ Shahpur Kandi Barrage - Ravi - Pathan Kot , Punjab
-​ Harike Dam - Satluj and Beas
-​ Indira Gandhi Canal - Irrigation Project - Near Harieake Dam

LAKES OF INDIA
LAGOON LAKES

-​ Seen in Coast
-​ Created because of High and Low tides or Waves
-​ Nehru Boat race Vallamkali
-​ Known as Kayal
-​ Kerala’s Lagoon lakes known as Backwater

Here is a list of important lakes in India, categorized state-wise:

1. Jammu & Kashmir & Ladakh

●​ Dal Lake – Famous for houseboats and tourism (J&K)

●​ Wular Lake – Largest freshwater lake in India (J&K)
●​ Pangong Lake – High-altitude lake, partially in China (Ladakh)
●​ Tso Moriri – A beautiful high-altitude lake (Ladakh)

2. Himachal Pradesh

●​ Renuka Lake – Largest lake in HP

●​ Chandra Taal – Crescent-shaped lake in Lahaul & Spiti
●​ Rewalsar Lake – Sacred Buddhist and Sikh pilgrimage site
●​ Gobind Sagar - Bhakra Dam

3. Uttarakhand

●​ Nainital Lake – Major tourist attraction in Nainital

●​ Bhimgoda Lake – Associated with Mahabharata
●​ Roopkund Lake – Skeleton Lake, known for human remains
●​ All Tal are related to Uttrakhand

4. Punjab & Haryana

●​ Sukhna Lake – Artificial lake in Chandigarh

●​ Karna Lake – Located in Haryana, linked to Mahabharata
●​ Suraj Kund
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5. Rajasthan

●​ Sambhar Lake – Largest inland saltwater lake in India - More saline than Chilka
Lake
●​ JaiSamand Lake - 2nd largest artificial Lake , Aka - Debhar Lake
●​ Pichola Lake – Famous for Udaipur’s Lake Palace
●​ Fateh Sagar Lake – Also in Udaipur
●​ Pushkar Lake – Sacred Hindu pilgrimage site - Luni river near it
●​ All lakes with Sagar in their name

6. Uttar Pradesh

●​ Bhimtal Lake – Largest lake in Uttarakhand (bordering UP)

●​ Keetham Lake (Sur Sarovar Lake) – Near Agra, important bird sanctuary
●​ Govind Vallabh Pant Sagar lake - Largest Artificial lake ( SonBhadra District )

7. Bihar

●​ Kanwar Lake (Kabar Taal Lake) – Asia’s largest freshwater oxbow lake
●​ GogaBill lake

8. Jharkhand

●​ Tilaiya Lake – A reservoir on the Barakar River

●​ Maithon Lake – Formed by Maithon Dam

9. West Bengal

●​ Mirik Lake – A famous tourist destination in Darjeeling

●​ Rasikbil Lake – A natural lake in Cooch Behar

10. Odisha

●​ Chilika Lake – Largest coastal lagoon in India, famous for migratory birds , Salt
Water . Largest Salt Water Lake , Largest Inland Water Lake
●​ Ansupa Lake

11. Chhattisgarh

●​ Tirathgarh Lake – Located near waterfalls in Bastar

12. Madhya Pradesh

●​ Bhojtal (Upper Lake, Bhopal) – Major water source for Bhopal - Raja Bhoj Story (
Parmar Dynasty ) - Asia’s largest Artificial Lake - SSC said
●​ Tawa Reservoir – Located in Satpura National Park
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13. Gujarat

●​ Narayan Sarovar – One of the five holy lakes of Hinduism

●​ Kankaria Lake – Man-made lake in Ahmedabad
●​ Rann of Kutch Lake
●​ Nal Sarovar

14. Maharashtra

●​ Lonar Lake – A crater lake formed by a meteorite impact - Buldana District - Get
complete pink some years ago
●​ Tadoba Lake – Located in Tadoba National Park
●​ Bhushi Lake -

15. Goa

●​ Mayem Lake – A popular tourist attraction

16. Karnataka

●​ Ulsoor Lake – Located in Bengaluru

●​ Karanji Lake – Known for birdwatching in Mysore

17. Kerala ( Lagoon Lakes )

●​ Vembanad Lake – Longest lake in India, famous for backwaters

●​ Ashtamudi Lake – Second largest lake in Kerala
●​ Pookode Lake – Freshwater lake in Wayanad
●​ Punnamada Lake - Nehru Boat race Vallamkali
●​ Sasthamcotta Lake

18. Tamil Nadu

●​ Kodaikanal Lake – A star-shaped artificial lake

●​ Berijam Lake – Located near Kodaikanal
●​ Kaliveli Lake

19. Andhra Pradesh

●​ Pulicat Lake – Second-largest brackish water lagoon in India

●​ Brackish water - Seawater + River Water
●​
●​ Kolleru Lake – Largest freshwater lake in Andhra Pradesh

20. Telangana

●​ Hussain Sagar Lake – Artificial lake between Hyderabad and Secunderabad

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●​ Nagarjuna Lake
●​ Fox Sagar Lake
●​ Srisailam Lake
●​ Nizam Sagar
●​ Related to Sagar

21. Karnataka & Andhra Pradesh

●​ Tungabhadra Reservoir – Located on Tungabhadra River

22. Meghalaya
-​ Bara Pani Lake
-​ Umiam Lake

-​ Manipur - Loktak Lake - Phumdis ( Floating Island ) - Keibul Lamjao National

Park ( floating ) - Shanghai Dear - Manipur State Animal
-​ Sikkim - Tsomgo Chho , Tso lhamo Lake

WATERFALLS IN INDIA
Types of Waterfall
1.​ Cataract - Large Volume of Water
2.​ Cascade - Steps Waterfall , Multistep
3.​ Plunge - Fast Velocity

SOME IMPORTANT WATERFALLS OF INDIA

1.​ Kunchikal ( Varahi River ) - Karnataka - Highest Waterfall in India
2.​ Jog / Gersoppa / Mahatma Gandhi ( Sharavati) - Karnataka
3.​ Shivasamudram ( Kaveri ) - Karnataka
4.​ Chulia ( Chambal ) - Rajasthan
-​ Dhuandhar - Narmada - MP
-​ Kapildhara - Narmada - MP
5.​ Hundru ( Swarnrekha ) - Jharkhand
6.​ DudhSagar ( Mandvi ) - Goa
7.​ Barehipani - Odisha Highest
8.​ Khandadhar - Odisha 2nd Highest
9.​ Athirapalli - Kerala
10.​Duduma - Odisha ( Koraput District )
11.​Gokak - Karnataka ( Ghataprabha )
12.​Nohkalikai - Meghalaya
13.​Hebbe - Karnataka
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TOPIC - 7 CLIMATE OF
INDIA
WEATHER
-​ Weather refers to the state of the Atmosphere over an area at any Point of time
CLIMATE
-​ Climate refers to the sum total of weather conditions and variations over a larger area
for a long period of time ( More than 30 Years )

FACTORS AFFECTING CLIMATE OF INDIA

-​ Latitude
-​ Altitude
-​ Relief Features
-​ Ocean Currents
-​ Pressure and Wind Speed
-​ Distance from Sea

1. Latitude

●​ India is located between 8°N and 37°N latitude, meaning it experiences tropical
and subtropical climates.
●​ The Tropic of Cancer (23.5°N) divides India into two halves—tropical in the south
and temperate in the north.

2. Altitude

●​ Higher altitudes experience lower temperatures (e.g., the Himalayas are cold, while
coastal areas are warm).
●​ The Himalayas act as a barrier, preventing the cold winds from Central Asia from
entering India, keeping the north warmer in winter.

3. Relief Features

●​ Mountains, plateaus, and plains influence temperature and rainfall.

●​ The Western Ghats receive heavy rainfall due to the monsoon winds, while the
Deccan Plateau remains dry as it lies in the rain shadow region.

4. Ocean Currents

●​ Warm and cold ocean currents affect coastal climates.

●​ The warm currents near the Indian Ocean bring humidity and increase rainfall,
while cold currents reduce rainfall in certain coastal regions.
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5. Pressure and Wind Systems

●​ The Indian monsoon is influenced by pressure variations—high pressure in

winter leads to dry winds, while low pressure in summer attracts moisture-laden
winds.
●​ The Western Disturbances in winter bring rain to North India.

6. Distance from the Sea

●​ Coastal regions (e.g., Mumbai, Chennai) experience moderate temperatures due to

the sea's influence.
●​ Interior regions (e.g., Delhi, Rajasthan) have extreme temperatures with hot
summers and cold winters.

DIFFERENT SEASONS OF INDIA

-​ SUMMER
-​ WINTER
-​ ADVANCING MONSOON - Spring
-​ RETREATING MONSOON - Autumn

Summer (Grishma Ritu) – March to June

●​ Characteristics:
○​ High temperatures (often exceeding 40°C in northern and central India).
○​ Dry weather, except in coastal and hilly regions.
○​ Loo (hot, dry winds) in North India.
●​ Regions Affected:
○​ Most of India, except the Himalayan regions and coastal areas.
●​ Important Events:
○​ Cyclones in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea (pre-monsoon cyclones).

Advancing Monsoon (Rainy Season or Varsha Ritu) – June to September

- SouthWest Monsoon

●​ Characteristics:
○​ Southwest monsoon winds bring heavy rainfall.
○​ Temperature drops due to moisture-laden winds.
○​ Some regions experience floods (e.g., Assam, Bihar, Kerala).
○​ Pre - Monsoon Showers - Cold wind \ Air during End june with little Shower
of rain
-​ Nor Westers - In North Eastern Part
1.​ West bengal ( Kal Baisakhi )
2.​ Assam ( Bardoli chera )
3.​ Bangladesh ( Bardoli Cheerha )
-​ Blossom / Mango Showers - Kerala / Karnataka region
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●​ Regions Affected:
○​ Maximum rainfall in Western Ghats, Northeast India, and the Himalayan
foothills.
●​ Significance:
○​ Kharif crops (rice, maize, millet) thrive during this season.

Retreating Monsoon (Post-Monsoon or Sharad Ritu) – October to

November - NorthEast Monsoon

●​ Characteristics:
○​ Withdrawal of monsoon winds from northwest India towards the Bay of
Bengal.
○​ Clear skies, moderate temperatures, and high humidity.
○​ Cyclones in the Bay of Bengal (affecting Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu).
●​ Regions Affected:
○​ Eastern coastal areas receive rainfall (Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh).
●​ Significance:
○​ Rabi crop sowing begins.

Winter (Shishir Ritu) – December to February

●​ Characteristics:
○​ Low temperatures, especially in North and Central India.
○​ Western Disturbances bring occasional rainfall and snowfall in North India.
○​ Cold waves in Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Rajasthan, UP, Bihar.
●​ Regions Affected:
○​ Northern Plains, Himalayan states, Deccan Plateau experiences mild winters.
●​ Significance:
○​ Rabi crops (wheat, barley, mustard) are cultivated.

Clarifications on Your Mentioned Terms:

●​ Spring (Vasant Ritu) – February to April (Not part of Monsoon but a transition
season).
●​ Autumn (Sharad Ritu) – September to November (Can be linked to Retreating
Monsoon).

India’s seasons are mainly influenced by monsoons, Western Disturbances, and local
climatic factors like altitude and proximity to the sea.
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ADVANCING MONSOON
REASONS FOR ONSET OF MONSOON
1. Differential Heating and Low-Pressure Formation

●​ During summer, the landmass of the Indian subcontinent heats up faster than the
surrounding ocean.
●​ This intense heating creates a low-pressure area over northwestern India and the
Indo-Gangetic Plain.
●​ The surrounding Indian Ocean, being cooler, has a relatively high-pressure zone.
●​ Winds move from high to low pressure, pulling in moisture-laden winds from the
Indian Ocean toward the subcontinent.

2. Shifting of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

●​ The ITCZ, a belt of converging trade winds near the equator, shifts northward over
India due to the intense summer heating.
●​ This shift helps draw moist air from the ocean towards land, leading to monsoonal
rains.

3. Role of the Indian Ocean and El Niño/La Niña

●​ The warming of the Indian Ocean, especially the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal,
increases evaporation and moisture in the atmosphere.
●​ The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), which refers to the temperature difference between
the eastern and western Indian Ocean, also affects monsoon intensity.
●​ El Niño (warming of the central/eastern Pacific) can weaken the monsoon, while La
Niña (cooling of the Pacific) strengthens it.

4. Somali Jet Stream

●​ A strong low-level jet stream from East Africa (Somali Jet) directs moisture-rich winds
toward the Indian subcontinent.
●​ This wind system significantly influences the intensity and timing of the monsoon
onset.

5. Tibetan Plateau Heating

●​ The high-altitude Tibetan Plateau acts as a heat source, warming the upper
troposphere.
●​ This creates a thermal high, which helps in intensifying the monsoonal low-pressure
over India.

6. Jet Streams and Monsoon Trough Formation

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●​ The subtropical westerly jet stream moves northward in summer, allowing the
monsoon trough (low-pressure belt) to establish over India.
●​ The presence of easterly jet streams enhances monsoon circulation, bringing heavy
rains.

7. Onset Timing and Arabian Sea Branch vs. Bay of Bengal Branch

●​ The Arabian Sea Branch of the monsoon hits the Western Ghats of India, causing
heavy rainfall on the windward side.
●​ The Bay of Bengal Branch moves into northeastern India, bringing rain to states like
Assam, West Bengal, and Bihar before moving further inland.
●​ Monsoon - Mausim( Arabic Word ) - Seasonal reversal of Winds
●​ First Monsoon strike in Kerala in Western Coast - 1st Week of June
●​ Mawsynram - 400 cm + rainfall - Record World’s highest rainfall area
●​ Punjab Plains -

Bay of Bengal Branch

-​ This monsoon current originates from the Bay of Bengal, carrying moisture-laden
winds.
-​ It moves towards Northeast India, where it gets deflected by the Khasi Hills in
Meghalaya, leading to heavy rainfall in places like Cherrapunji and Mawsynram.
-​ After shedding some moisture in Northeast India, the remaining winds move
northwestward, reaching the Punjab plains.

Arabian Sea Branch

-​ This current originates from the Arabian Sea, carrying a large amount of moisture.
-​ It first strikes the Western Ghats, causing heavy rainfall on the windward side.
-​ Then, it moves towards northwestern India, including Punjab and Haryana.

Meeting of These Two Currents

●​ The Punjab Plains become a significant convergence zone for the Bay of Bengal
Branch and the Arabian Sea Branch of the monsoon.
●​ This interaction contributes to rainfall in Punjab, Haryana, and northern India during
the monsoon season.
●​ Ganga Valley - Rainfall decreases from East to West
●​ The intensity of monsoon rains in this region depends on the strength of these two air
currents and external climatic factors like El Niño, La Niña, and the Indian Ocean
Dipole (IOD).
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BREAK IN MONSOON
-​ It is a temporary pause or weakening of monsoon rainfall over northwest and
central India.
-​ It occurs due to the northward shift of the monsoon trough towards the
Himalayas.
-​ Weakening of easterly winds and strengthening of westerlies reduce moisture
supply.
-​ Leads to dry conditions in plains but heavy rains in the Himalayas and South
India.
-​ Usually happens in July and August, lasting a few days to two weeks.

Monsoon Trough

The Monsoon Trough is an elongated low-pressure zone that extends from Pakistan to
the Bay of Bengal during the monsoon season.

Key Points:

-​ It is a low-pressure area formed due to intense heating over North India.

-​ It is part of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), which shifts northward in
summer.
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-​ Its position affects rainfall – when it moves north, plains get less rain, but hills get
more; when it moves south, central and southern India get heavy rain.
-​ It plays a crucial role in monsoon circulation, helping bring moisture-laden winds
from the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal.
-​ A weak or displaced monsoon trough can lead to breaks in monsoon or drought
conditions.

RETREATING MONSOON
The Retreating Monsoon (also called Northeast Monsoon) is an important part of India's
climate system

Definition:

Retreating Monsoon refers to the withdrawal of the southwest monsoon winds from the
Indian subcontinent during October to December.

Key Features:

1.​ Time Period:​

Starts in early October and continues till December.​

2.​ Change in Wind Pattern:​

○​ Winds reverse from southwest to northeast.

○​ These are called northeast trade winds.
3.​ Weather Characteristics:​

○​
Clear skies, dry air, and drop in humidity.
○​
Sudden increase in temperature (called October heat).
○​
Cyclonic storms over Bay of Bengal.
○​
Moderate rainfall in Tamil Nadu, coastal Andhra Pradesh, and parts of
Kerala.
4.​ Important for Agriculture:​

○​ Tamil Nadu gets over 50% of its annual rainfall during this time.
○​ Called "Winter Monsoon" in southern India.
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Why Does It Happen?

●​ In summer, low pressure forms over north-west India.

●​ After September, the sun shifts southward (autumnal equinox).
●​ The low pressure weakens and high pressure forms over the Himalayas.
●​ Winds start moving from land to sea → Retreat begins.

Important Locations Affected:

●​ Least impact in North India (dry conditions).

●​ Maximum impact in Tamil Nadu, Rayalaseema, coastal Andhra Pradesh, and
south-east Karnataka.

Vocabulary to Learn:

●​ Equinox – Equal day and night, when the sun crosses the equator.
●​ Cyclonic Storm – A storm with a rotating center of low pressure.
●​ Humidity – Amount of water vapor in the air.
●​ Withdrawal – The act of moving back or removing.
●​ Cloudburst - Very High amount of rainfall in a given area in a very short time.

DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL IN INDIA

-​ High Rainfall - Northeastern hills , Cachat hills , Western Ghats western Side
-​ Moderate - Tamil Nadu , Bihar , Eastern Up , West Bengal
-​ Low - Jammu and Kashmir , Eastern Rajasthan
-​ Extremely Low - Ladakh ( less than 10 Cm ) , Western Rajasthan

VARIATION IN TEMPERATURE/RAINFALL
1. Diurnal Range of Temperature

●​ Meaning: Difference between maximum day temperature and minimum night

temperature within a day.
●​ Keyword: Daily variation (as shown in the image — “daily” is written beside it).
●​ High in: Deserts (like Rajasthan)
●​ Low in: Coastal areas (like Mumbai)

2. Annual Range of Temperature

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●​ Meaning: Difference between the average temperature of the hottest month and
coldest month in a year.
●​ High in: North India (Delhi, Amritsar)
●​ Low in: South India (Kerala, Chennai)

3. Annual Range of Rainfall

●​ Meaning: Difference between the wettest and driest months of the year in terms of
rainfall.
●​ High in: Monsoon-dominated areas (Eastern India, North East)
●​ Low in: Desert areas (Rajasthan) and regions with uniform rainfall.

CONTINENTALITY

What is Continentality?

-​ Continentality refers to the effect of distance from the sea on the climate of a place.

Definition:

-​ Continentality is the climatic condition where places located far from the sea
experience greater variation in temperature between summer and winter.

Key Points:

●​ Areas far from sea (like Delhi, Jaipur) experience:​

○​ Hot summers
○​ Cold winters
○​ Large annual temperature range
○​ Dry climate
●​ Why?​

○​ Water heats up and cools down slowly → regulates temperature.

○​ Land heats up and cools down quickly → extreme temperatures.

Opposite of Continentality?

Maritime Influence

●​ Found in coastal regions (like Mumbai, Chennai)

●​ Temperature remains moderate throughout the year
●​ Low annual temperature range
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El Niño and La Niña (Climate Phenomena)

1. What is El Niño?

El Niño is the unusual warming of surface waters in the central and eastern Pacific
Ocean (near Peru and Ecuador).

-​ AKA - Child Christ ( Latin Word )

-​ Southern Oscillation

Effects of El Niño:

●​ Weak monsoon in India

●​ Droughts in India, Australia
●​ Floods in South America
●​ Rise in global temperatures
●​ Poor agricultural output in India
●​ Fisheries affected (Peru's coast loses cold water nutrients)

2. What is La Niña?

La Niña is the unusual cooling of surface waters in the central and eastern Pacific
Ocean.

-​ AKA - Small Girl

Effects of La Niña:

●​ Good monsoon in India

●​ Heavy rains and floods in Southeast Asia, India
●​ Droughts in South America
●​ Cold winters in North India
●​ Global temperatures decrease slightly

3. Neutral Condition:

Normal condition when trade winds blow strongly from east to west, warm water moves
towards Asia, bringing rain to India.
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4. Impact on Indian Monsoon:

El Nino - Weak Monsoon Drought - Because Less warm water near Asia = Less rain
La Nina - Strong Monsoon , Flood - Because More warm water near Asia = More rain

5. Timeline:

●​ El Niño & La Niña usually occur every 2–7 years

●​ Monitored by: ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscillation)
●​ 2023–24 had El Niño, which weakened India’s monsoon slightly

Vocabulary:

●​ ENSO: El Niño-Southern Oscillation – the cycle of El Niño and La Niña

●​ Trade Winds: Winds blowing from east to west along the equator
●​ Walker Circulation: Air circulation pattern affected during El Niño/La Niña

WINTER

1. Duration:

●​ Starts: Mid-November (in North India)

●​ Peak: December & January
●​ Ends: February

2. Temperature Pattern:

●​ North India:​

○​ Cold wave conditions

○​ Minimum temp: 0°C to 10°C
○​ Frost and fog common in Punjab, Haryana, UP
○​ Hill stations like Shimla, Srinagar get snowfall
●​ South India:​
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○​ Mild winters, 20°C to 25°C

○​ No snowfall or frost

3. Rainfall during Winter:

A. Western Disturbances

●​ Origin: Mediterranean Sea

●​ Bring light rain/snow to:
○​ Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Western UP, Himachal, J&K
●​ Essential for Rabi crops (like wheat, mustard)

B. Retreating Monsoon (Northeast Monsoon):

●​ Affects: Tamil Nadu, Coastal Andhra Pradesh

●​ Occurs: October–December
●​ Due to Cyclonic depressions in Bay of Bengal

4. Winds:

●​ Cold dry winds blow from land to sea (Northeast Monsoon)

●​ Skies are generally clear and dry

5. Impact on Agriculture:

●​ Good winter rain (Western Disturbances) = Better Rabi crops

●​ Frost can damage vegetables & fruits
●​ Tamil Nadu farmers benefit from northeast monsoon

Important Terms:

●​ Western Disturbances: Extratropical storms from the west causing winter rain in
North India.
●​ Rabi Crops: Wheat, Barley, Mustard – sown in winter, harvested in spring.
●​ Northeast Monsoon: Winds from land to sea, bring rain to Tamil Nadu in winter.
●​ Mahabat - local names for Rajasthan Western Cyclonic Disturbances
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Köppen's Climatic Classification (1884)

Developed by Wladimir Köppen, this is an empirical climatic classification based on
temperature and precipitation data. It divides the world into five major climate types using
capital letters, with small letters for seasonal variations.

Major Climate Groups:

A – Tropical Climate:

●​ All months have average temperatures above 18°C

●​ Heavy rainfall
●​ Found near the Equator

B – Dry Climate:

●​ Evaporation exceeds precipitation

●​ Includes deserts and semi-arid regions

C – Warm Temperate (Subtropical) Climate:

●​ Mild winters
●​ At least one month with average temp below 18°C but above 0°C

D – Cold Snow Forest Climate:

●​ Severe winters
●​ Summers are short and mild

E – Polar Climate (Tundra):

●​ Very cold
●​ The warmest month has a temperature below 10°C

Seasonal Modifiers (Small Letters):

f – Full Rainfall:

●​ Rainfall is spread throughout the year

w – Winter Dry:

●​ Winter season receives little or no rainfall

●​ Common in parts of North India
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s – Summer Dry:

●​ Summer months are dry

m – Monsoonal Influence:

●​ Seasonal heavy rains due to monsoon winds

Temperature Modifiers (with B, C, D, E types):

a – Hot Summer:

●​ Warmest month temperature > 22°C

b – Warm Summer:

●​ Warmest month temperature < 22°C

c – Cool Summer:

●​ Short and mild summers

h – Hot (used for Dry types):

●​ High temperatures throughout the year

k – Cold (used for Dry types):

●​ Cold temperatures, especially in winters

t – Tundra Climate:

●​ Always very cold

Köppen Types in India:

Am – Tropical Monsoon Climate:

●​ Found along the Western Ghats and parts of NE India

●​ Heavy rainfall and high humidity
●​ Example: Kerala, Goa, Cherrapunji

Aw – Tropical Savanna Climate:

●​ Found in central and southern India

●​ Distinct dry winter season
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●​ Example: Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra

BSh – Semi-Arid (Steppe) Climate:

●​ Found in rain-shadow areas and central Deccan

●​ Hot with limited rainfall
●​ Example: Parts of Gujarat, interior Maharashtra

BWh – Hot Desert Climate:

●​ Found in the Thar Desert

●​ Extremely low rainfall, very hot summers
●​ Example: Rajasthan (Jaisalmer, Bikaner)

Cwa – Humid Subtropical with Dry Winters:

●​ Found in northern plains

●​ Hot summers, cold winters, rainfall mostly in summer
●​ Example: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Delhi

Cfa – Humid Subtropical with Rain All Year:

●​ Found in parts of Northeast India

●​ No distinct dry season
●​ Example: Assam, parts of West Bengal

ET – Tundra Climate:

●​ Found in high-altitude regions

●​ Very cold throughout the year
●​ Example: Ladakh, parts of Kashmir
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TOPIC - 8 FORESTS
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EVERGREEN FOREST

Definition:​
Tropical evergreen forests, also known as rainforests, are dense, multi-layered forests found
in areas with high rainfall and warm temperatures throughout the year.

-​ Also known as - Layered forest

-​ There is no definite time for trees to shed their leaves
-​ More than 200 Cm of rainfall with a short dry season and mean annual temperature
above 22 C
-​ It has a luxuriant vegetation of all Kinds - Trees , Shrubs and creepers giving it a
multilayered structure
-​ Vegetation - Ebony , Mahogany ,Rosewood , Rubber and Cinchona - Quinine is
made ( To treat Malaria )
-​ The common animals found in these forests are - Elephant , Monkey , Lemur and
Deer
-​ Epiphytes - Grow with the help of others

KEY CHARACTERISTICS:

●​ Climate:​

○​ Rainfall: More than 200 cm annually

○​ Temperature: 15°C to 30°C
○​ Humid and warm throughout the year
●​ Flora (Plants):​

○​ Dense, multi-layered vegetation

○​ Tall trees (up to 60 meters)
○​ Common trees: Rosewood, Mahogany, Aini, Ebony, Bamboo
●​ Fauna (Animals):​

○​ High biodiversity
○​ Found animals: Elephants, Tigers, Leopards, King Cobras, Malabar Giant
Squirrel, Monkeys, Hornbills
●​ Soil:​

○​ Lateritic soil (rich in iron and aluminum)

○​ Poor in nutrients due to leaching from heavy rains

DISTRIBUTION IN INDIA:
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1.​ Western Ghats – Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Goa

2.​ Northeastern States – Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram
3.​ Andaman & Nicobar Islands

IMPORTANCE:

●​ Biodiversity Hotspots – Home to rare and endemic species

●​ Carbon Sinks – Absorb CO₂ and regulate the global climate
●​ Water Cycle – Help in rainfall regulation and soil conservation
●​ Livelihood – Source of medicinal plants and forest products

THREATS:

●​ Deforestation – Due to logging, agriculture, and urban expansion

●​ Climate Change – Alters rainfall and affects forest growth
●​ Poaching – Affects wildlife balance

LAYERS OF THE RAINFOREST

Rainforests, especially tropical evergreen forests, are structured in four main layers,
each with unique characteristics and biodiversity. AKA - Desert in Forests

LAYERS OF THE RAINFOREST

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1.​ Emergent Layer ( Uppermost Vertical )​

○​ Height: 45–60 meters (150–200 feet) or more

○​ Features:
■​ Tallest trees that rise above all others
■​ Exposed to direct sunlight and strong winds
■​ Leaves are small and waxy to reduce water loss
○​ Flora/Fauna:
■​ Trees: Kapok, Mahogany
■​ Animals: Eagles, Bats, Butterflies, Monkeys
2.​ Canopy Layer ( Middle Vertical )​

○​ Height: 30–45 meters (100–150 feet)

○​ Features:
■​ Dense roof of trees forming a “Green ceiling”
■​ Blocks sunlight from reaching lower layers
■​ Most of the rainforest’s photosynthesis and rainfall interception
happens here
○​ Flora/Fauna:
■​ Trees: Evergreen trees with drip-tip leaves
■​ Animals: Sloths, Tree Frogs, Toucans, Snakes, Insects
3.​ Understory Layer​

○​ Height: Up to 10–20 meters (33–66 feet)

○​ Features:
■​ Dimly lit and humid
■​ Plants have large leaves to absorb limited light
■​ Less air movement, high humidity
○​ Flora/Fauna:
■​ Plants: Shrubs, small trees, ferns
■​ Animals: Jaguars, Red-Eyed Tree Frogs, Leopards, Mosquitoes
4.​ Forest Floor (Ground Layer) , Undergrowth Layer ​

○​ Height: Ground level

○​ Features:
■​ Very dark (less than 2% sunlight reaches here)
■​ Decomposes quickly due to heat and moisture
■​ Sparse plant growth
○​ Flora/Fauna:
■​ Plants: Fungi, Moss, Herbs
■​ Animals: Decomposers (termites, worms), Tapirs, Ants, Tigers

Mnemonic Tip for Remembering the Layers: "Every Cat Understands Forests"​
Emergent, Canopy, Understory, Floor
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DECIDUOUS FORESTS ( Monsoon Forest )

Definition:​
Deciduous forests are those in which trees shed their leaves seasonally, usually during
dry or cold months, to conserve water. In India, they are also known as monsoon forests.

Divided into 2 on the Basis of Precipitation and Rainfall

TYPES OF DECIDUOUS FORESTS IN INDIA:

1.​ Moist Deciduous Forests​

○​ Rainfall: 100–200 cm annually

○​ Location: Foothills of Himalayas, Eastern India, Central India, parts of South
India
○​ Common Trees: Teak, Sal, Shisham, Mahua, Kusum, Bamboo , Mulberry ,
Arjun , Khair and Sandalwood
○​ Features:
■​ Trees are taller and more dense than dry deciduous
■​ Lush green in rainy season, shed leaves in summer
2.​ Dry Deciduous Forests​

○​ Rainfall: 50–100 cm annually

○​ AKA - Parkland landscape
○​ Location: Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Punjab, Gujarat
○​ Common Trees: Tendu, Palash, Neem, Babul, Bel , Amaltas , Khair ,
Axlewood
○​ Features:
■​ Trees are smaller and more scattered
■​ Grass and thorny shrubs dominate

CHARACTERISTICS:

●​ Found in tropical and subtropical regions

●​ Trees shed their leaves for 6–8 weeks during dry season
●​ Rich biodiversity but not as dense as evergreen forests
●​ Soils are generally fertile and suitable for agriculture after deforestation

DISTRIBUTION IN INDIA:

●​ Moist: Western Ghats, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, Bihar, Andaman Islands

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●​ Dry: Central India (Madhya Pradesh), Northern Plains, Deccan Plateau

FLORA & FAUNA:

●​ Flora:​

○​ Moist: Teak, Sal, Semal

○​ Dry: Tendu, Palash, Khair, Bel, Ber
●​ Fauna:​

○​ Elephants, Deer, Tigers, Leopards, Wild Boars, Peacocks , Pig

IMPORTANCE:

●​ Timber production (Teak, Sal, Bamboo)

●​ Medicinal plants & herbs
●​ Shelter for important wildlife species
●​ Helps maintain climate balance and groundwater levels

THREATS:

●​ Over-exploitation for timber

●​ Forest fires
●​ Grazing and urban expansion
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THORN FOREST
Definition:

●​ Thorn forests grow in dry and arid regions with very low rainfall (25–50 cm
annually).
●​ These forests are open, scattered, and dominated by thorny trees and shrubs.

Key Characteristics:

●​ Found in hot and dry climates with high temperatures.

●​ Soil is sandy or stony, not very fertile.
●​ In regions with less than 70 Cm of rainfall
●​ This type of vegetation is found in the Northern - Western part of the country ,
including semi - arid areas of Gujrat , Rajasthan , Madhya pradesh , Chattisgarh ,
Uttar Pradesh and Haryana
●​ Trees have deep roots to absorb underground water.
●​ Leaves are often modified into thorns to reduce water loss.
●​ Plants are drought-resistant and xerophytic.

Important Vegetation:

●​ Acacia (Babool)
●​ Khejri (Prosopis)
●​ Ber (Ziziphus)
●​ Cactus
●​ Euphorbia
●​ Capparis (Karir)
●​ Tussocky Grass - Grows a height of 2 Meter as the Undergrowth

Plant Adaptations:

●​ Small or no leaves, often replaced with spines.

●​ Thick bark and waxy coating to prevent evaporation.
●​ Long roots to access groundwater.
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Fauna (Animal Life):

●​ Blackbuck
●​ Chinkara (Indian Gazelle)
●​ Wild Ass
●​ Camel
●​ Desert Fox
●​ Snakes and Scorpions
●​ Birds like vultures and eagles

Distribution in India:

●​ Rajasthan (Thar Desert)

●​ Gujarat (Kutch)
●​ Punjab (southwest)
●​ Haryana
●​ Madhya Pradesh (dry parts)
●​ Karnataka (rain-shadow zones)
●​ Andhra Pradesh (Rayalaseema)

Economic Importance:

●​ Firewood and timber from Babool, Acacia.

●​ Fencing made from thorny bushes.
●​ Used as fodder for goats and sheep.
●​ Some plants are used in traditional medicine.

Environmental Importance:

●​ Prevents desertification.
●​ Helps conserve soil and prevent erosion.
●​ Maintains biodiversity in dry ecosystems.

Threats to Thorn Forests:

●​ Overgrazing by livestock.
●​ Deforestation for agriculture and mining.
●​ Spread of invasive species like Prosopis.
●​ Impact of climate change and water scarcity.
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MONTANE FOREST
Definition:

●​ Montane forests are found in mountainous regions.

●​ They grow in areas with high elevation and cool to cold climate, usually above
1000 meters.

Key Characteristics:

●​ Forests vary by altitude — divided into zones depending on height.

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●​ Temperature decreases with increasing height led to the corresponding change in

Natural vegetation
●​ As Such , there is a successful of natural vegetation belts in the same order as we
see from the Tropical to the Tundra region
●​ High moisture levels due to orographic rainfall (mountain rain).
●​ Soil is rich, but can be thin and rocky in upper altitudes.

Zonation (Altitudinal Classification):

1.​ Lower Montane (1000–2000 m):​

○​ Subtropical forests – mostly evergreen and deciduous trees.

○​ Aka Wet temperate Forests , Evergreen BroadLeaf Tree ( East )
○​ Common trees: Sal, Oak, Chestnut.
2.​ Montane Temperate Forest (2000–3000 m):​

○​ Mixed forests with coniferous and broad-leaf trees.

○​ Trees: Oak, Maple, Deodar, Blue Pine.
3.​ Higher Montane (above 3000 m):​

○​ Alpine forests and meadows.

○​ Trees: Rhododendron, Juniper (shrubs more than tall trees).
○​ Above 4000 m, only alpine grasslands grow, no trees.

Flora (Important Trees):

●​ Pine
●​ Deodar (Himalayan Cedar)
●​ Fir
●​ Spruce
●​ Cypress
●​ Rhododendron (Alpine belt)

Fauna (Wildlife):

●​ Snow Leopard
●​ Himalayan Tahr
●​ Musk Deer
●​ Himalayan Monal (bird)
●​ Red Panda
●​ Yak (in alpine meadows)
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Distribution in India:

●​ Himalayan region (Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim,

Arunachal Pradesh).
●​ Nilgiri Hills and Western Ghats (in south India at high elevations).

Economic Importance:

●​ Valuable timber trees like Deodar and Fir.

●​ Medicinal herbs found in alpine zones.
●​ Tourism and spiritual importance (hill stations and temples).
●​ Used for hydroelectric and water sources due to snowmelt.

Environmental Importance:

●​ Act as water catchment areas for rivers.

●​ Help in climate regulation and soil conservation.
●​ Maintain biodiversity of high-altitude ecosystems.
●​ Crucial for Carbon sequestration (forest carbon sinks).

Threats:

●​ Deforestation for roads and tourism.

●​ Climate change affecting snow patterns and tree growth.
●​ Forest fires and overgrazing in grasslands.
●​ Illegal trade of timber and medicinal plants.

Additional Important Points from the Image

1.​ Foothills of Himalayas = Deciduous forests​

(You can revise this as the first forest zone before the mountain.)​

2.​ 1000–2000 m = Wet temperate forests with Broad-leaf evergreen trees​

Examples: Oak, Chestnut​

3.​ 1500–3000 m = Temperate coniferous forests​

Examples: Pine, Deodar, Silver Fir, Spruce, Cedar​
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4.​ Tree characteristics:​

○​ Softwood, Cone-shaped, Commercially valuable

5.​ Above 3600 m = Alpine vegetation​

○​ Trees thin out and give way to Alpine Grasslands (called Bugyal)
○​ Vegetation: Silver fir, Juniper, Rhododendron, Birch
6.​ Used by nomadic tribes:​

○​ Examples: Gujjars, Bakarwals, Bhotiya

7.​ Animals mentioned:​

○​ Kashmir stag, Spotted deer, Wild sheep, Snow leopard, Bear, Red
panda, Jack rabbit, etc.
8.​ Southern Himalayan slopes:​

○​ More rainfall, so denser vegetation compared to northern slopes.

9.​ At higher altitudes:​

○​ Mosses & Lichens = Tundra vegetation

○​ Found just below Snow Line (permanent snow area)

SOUTHERN MONTANE FORESTS

Southern Montane Forests

1.​ Location:​

○​ Found in southern hills of India – mainly in the Western Ghats, Nilgiris,

Anaimalai Hills, and Shevaroy Hills.
2.​ Altitude:​

○​ Generally found below 1500 metres in southern India.

3.​ Climate:​

○​ Cool and moist climate due to high altitude and heavy rainfall.
○​ Humidity is high; cloud forests often form.
4.​ Vegetation Type:​

○​ These forests are a mixture of temperate and tropical species.

○​ Often called Shola forests (dense evergreen forests in valleys) surrounded
by grasslands.
5.​ Tree Species:​

○​ Evergreen trees dominate.

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○​ Examples:
■​ Magnolia,
■​ Laurel,
■​ Cinnamon,
■​ Rhododendron,
■​ Mahogany,
■​ Jamun,
■​ Wild banana,
■​ Bamboos
6.​ Characteristic Features:​

○​ Forests found in 3 Distinct areas of Peninsular India via ; The Western Ghats
, The Vindhyas and The Nilgiris
○​ Trees are short and stunted due to wind and height.
○​ Canopy is dense and creates a humid microclimate.
○​ Forests remain green throughout the year.
○​ The temperate forests are called Sholas in The Nilgiris , Anaimalai and Hills
7.​ Grasslands:​

○​ Found on hilltops and slopes.

○​ The Shola-grassland complex is the most important ecological feature.
8.​ Fauna:​

○​ Home to many endemic and rare species.

○​ Examples:
■​ Nilgiri Tahr
■​ Lion-tailed macaque
■​ Nilgiri langur
■​ Malabar civet
■​ Giant squirrel
9.​ Ecological Importance:​

○​ Source of many perennial rivers like Vaigai, Bhavani, etc.

○​ Act as water catchment areas for South Indian rivers.
○​ High biodiversity and endemism.
10.​Threats:​

●​ Deforestation,
●​ Tea and coffee plantations,
●​ Forest fires,
●​ Climate change,
●​ Tourism pressure

11.​Conservation efforts:
●​ Protected under biosphere reserves like Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.
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●​ Also found in national parks like Eravikulam, Silent Valley, Mukurthi, etc.

MANGROVES
-​ The Mangrove tidal forests are found in the areas of coasts influenced by Tides.
-​ The deltas of the Ganga , The Mahanadi , The krishna , The godavari and the kaveri
are covered by Such vegetation
-​ Palm ,Coconut are found here
-​ 7% of World Mangrove forest are in India
-​ West Bengal - Most Mangrove forest
-​ Also called As Pneumatophores , Viviparous Plants ( Living roots )

BIOMES / FORESTS ACROSS THE WORLD

-​ ( Flora + Fauna + Climate ) - These all make Biomes

TEMPERATE EVERGREEN FOREST - found in mid latitudinal Coastal Areas ( U.S. ,

Canada , Europe , Asia )

-​ Near - Mid Altitude

-​ These are forests found in mild climate coastal areas.
-​ “Evergreen” means the trees do not shed all their leaves at once—they stay
green all year.
-​ These forests get rain throughout the year, so plants don’t dry up.
-​ Found in places like western USA, Canada, Australia, Chile.
-​ Trees are broad-leaved and tall, like eucalyptus, oak, and redwood.
-​ In short: These forests grow where there’s no extreme heat or cold, and it rains
regularly.

TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS FOREST - Eastern Margins of Mid Latitudinal Areas ;

Pheasants and minerals are found here

-​ "Deciduous" means trees shed their leaves once a year, mostly in winter.
-​ Found in eastern parts of continents like the USA, Europe, Japan.
-​ These areas have four seasons – spring, summer, autumn, winter.
-​ These forests are full of big trees like maple, oak, birch, etc.
-​ The soil is fertile, and animals like foxes, deer, and birds live here.
-​ In short: Forests where trees lose their leaves in winter and regrow them in spring.

TAIGA / BOREAL BIOME - Russian Word ( Untouched , Pure ) - 50 Degree latitude - 70

Degree Latitude

-​ "Taiga" is the world's largest biome, mostly made of coniferous (cone-shaped)

trees.
-​ Found just below the Arctic zone (in Canada, Russia, Scandinavia).
-​ These forests are very cold, especially in winter.
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-​ Trees like pine, spruce, and fir grow here—they have needle-like leaves to protect
from snow.
-​ The soil is not very fertile.
-​ Animals like moose, wolves, and bears are found here.
-​ In short: Cold forest zone just below the tundra, with snow-friendly trees.

TUNDRA - Beyond 70 Degree N/S

-​ Found in - Upper Ladhak , Kargil , Very high altitude

-​ "Tundra" is a very cold biome near the North Pole.
-​ The ground is frozen (called permafrost) most of the year.
-​ There are no trees, only mosses, lichens, and grasses can grow in summer.
-​ Found in Arctic regions like Alaska, Russia, Greenland.
-​ Also found on high mountain tops (Alpine Tundra).
-​ Animals like polar bears, arctic foxes, and reindeer live
-​ In short: Cold desert with frozen soil and very few plants.

INDIA STATE OF FOREST REPORT

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India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2023 – Key Highlights

Total Forest and Tree Cover

●​ Total: 8,27,357 sq km (25.17% of India’s geographical area)

○​ Forest Cover: 7,15,343 sq km (21.76%)
○​ Tree Cover: 1,12,014 sq km (3.41%)

Change Since ISFR 2021

●​ Net Increase: 1,445 sq km

○​ Forest Cover: +156 sq km
○​ Tree Cover: +1,289 sq km

Top 3 States by Forest Area (in sq km)

●​ Madhya Pradesh: 85,724

●​ Arunachal Pradesh: 67,083
●​ Maharashtra: 65,383

Top 3 States by Percentage Forest Cover (to total area)

●​ Lakshadweep: 91.33%
●​ Mizoram: 85.34%
●​ Andaman & Nicobar Islands: 81.62%

States with Maximum Increase in Forest and Tree Cover

●​ Chhattisgarh: +684 sq km
●​ Uttar Pradesh: +559 sq km
●​ Odisha: +559 sq km
●​ Rajasthan: +394 sq km
●​ Haryana - Minimum

Mangrove Cover

●​ 4,992 sq km (Net decrease of 7.43 sq km since 2021)

Forest Carbon Stock

●​ 7,285.5 million tonnes

●​ Increased by 81.5 million tonnes from 2021

Bamboo Resources
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●​ Bamboo-bearing area: 1,54,670 sq km

●​ Increased by 5,227 sq km

Comparison with ISFR 2021

Key Takeaways
●​ Positive Trend: Increase in both forest and tree cover, although modest.
●​ Carbon Sequestration: Increase in carbon stock aligns with India’s climate goals.
●​ Concern: Decline in mangrove cover needs urgent attention.
●​ State Performance: UP, Odisha, Chhattisgarh showed good growth in forest cover.
●​ Target - 33 % ( India Forest Policy 1952 ) - Revised in 1988

Social Forestry – Notes for SSC/UPSC

What is Social Forestry?

●​ Definition: Social forestry refers to the management and protection of forests and
afforestation on barren lands with the purpose of helping the environment and
the rural communities.
●​ The term was introduced by the National Commission on Agriculture in 1976.

Objectives of Social Forestry

1.​ Afforestation of degraded land and barren areas.

2.​ Supply of firewood, fodder, timber to rural people.
3.​ Reduce pressure on natural forests by meeting community needs.
4.​ Improve the green cover and fight climate change.
5.​ Provide employment to rural people through forestry activities.
6.​ Encourage people’s participation in forest conservation.

Types of Social Forestry

1.​ Farm Forestry​

○​ Farmers grow trees on their own private land or farms.

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○​ Useful for fuelwood, timber, and fodder.

2.​ Community Forestry​

○​ Trees planted on community-owned land (like village commons, grazing

lands).
○​ Managed and used by the local people.
3.​ Extension Forestry​

○​ Trees planted along roadsides, canals, railway lines, and public spaces.
4.​ Rehabilitation Forestry​

○​ Planting trees on wastelands, degraded forests, or mining lands to restore

the ecosystem.

Benefits of Social Forestry

●​ Environmental: Reduces soil erosion, improves groundwater, increases carbon

absorption.
●​ Economic: Provides timber, fruits, and non-timber forest products.
●​ Social: Improves livelihoods, provides jobs to villagers, promotes community
participation.
●​ Ecological: Restores biodiversity and degraded lands.

Important Examples

●​ Joint Forest Management (JFM) – Govt. and local communities jointly manage
forest areas.
●​ Projects in states like Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and Maharashtra have
shown success.

CHIPKO MOVEMENT
1.​ Started in 1973 in the Chamoli district of Uttarakhand (then Uttar Pradesh).
2.​ It was a nonviolent movement where villagers hugged trees to prevent them from
being cut by contractors.
3.​ The movement was led by Sunderlal Bahuguna, along with Chandi Prasad Bhatt
and many local women.
4.​ Main aim: Stop deforestation and protect the environment and livelihoods of hill
people.
5.​ It became a symbol of people’s power in environmental conservation.
6.​ Inspired many eco-friendly movements across India and abroad.
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7.​ Result: The government banned tree felling in the Himalayan region for 15 years.

GRASSLANDS
What are Grasslands?

●​ Grasslands are large open areas dominated by grasses, with very few trees or
shrubs.
●​ Found in regions where rainfall is moderate (25–75 cm annually).
●​ Support grazing animals, and are important for agriculture and cattle rearing.

Types of Grasslands

1. Tropical Grasslands

●​ Found near the equator.

●​ Climate: Hot throughout the year with a dry and wet season.
●​ Vegetation: Tall grasses (like elephant grass).
●​ Examples:
○​ Savanna (Africa)
○​ Llanos (Venezuela)
○​ Campos (Brazil)

2. Temperate Grasslands

●​ Found in mid-latitude regions, far from oceans.

●​ Climate: Hot summers and cold winters, less rainfall.
●​ Vegetation: Short grasses, few trees.
●​ Examples:
○​ Prairies (North America)
○​ Pampas (South America) - Alfalfa Grass in found here
○​ Steppes (Eurasia)
○​ Downs (Australia)
○​ Velds (South Africa)
○​ Canterbury ( NewZealand )

3. Cold Grasslands / Polar Grasslands (Tundra)

●​ Found in Arctic regions, near poles.

●​ Climate: Extremely cold, permafrost soil.
●​ Vegetation: Mosses, lichens, short grasses.
●​ Examples: Tundra in Alaska, Russia, Canada.
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Importance of Grasslands

●​ Support livestock and pastoral communities.

●​ Rich in biodiversity (animals like bison, antelopes, lions, etc.).
●​ Help in soil conservation and prevent desertification.
●​ Major grain-producing regions (e.g., wheat in Prairies).

Threats to Grasslands

●​ Overgrazing
●​ Urbanization and agriculture expansion
●​ Climate change and droughts

SHIFTING CULTIVATION (Slash and Burn Agriculture)

Definition:

●​ It is a type of subsistence farming where forest land is cleared by cutting and

burning trees.
●​ The land is cultivated for a few years until the soil fertility decreases, then the farmer
moves to a new area and repeats the process.

Key Features:

1.​ Practiced in tropical forest regions with low population density.

2.​ After 2–3 years of farming, the land is left fallow to regain fertility.
3.​ Common crops: Millets, maize, yam, rice, vegetables.
4.​ Requires simple tools like sticks, hoes, and axes—no machines.
5.​ Done mainly for local consumption, not for market sale.

Regions Practicing Shifting Cultivation:

●​ India: Known as Jhum cultivation in Northeast India (Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland,

etc.)
●​ Other countries:
○​ Brazil – called Roca
○​ Indonesia – Ladang
○​ Mexico – Milpa
○​ Africa – widely practiced in equatorial regions
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○​ Conuco - Venezuela
○​ Chena - Sri Lanka
○​ Ray - Vietnam

IN INDIA

●​ Jhum - North East

●​ Kumari - Western Ghat
●​ Bewar / Dehiya - Madhya Pradesh
●​ Dipa - Bartar ( CG ) , Andman and Nicobar
●​ Waltre - Rajasthan
●​ Podu / Penda - Andhra Pradesh
●​ Bringa / Pama Dabi - Odisha

Problems with Shifting Cultivation:

●​ Leads to deforestation and loss of biodiversity.

●​ Causes soil erosion and degrades land.
●​ Contributes to climate change due to burning forests.
●​ Low productivity compared to modern farming.

Government Efforts in India:

●​ Promoting settled agriculture.

●​ Encouraging agroforestry and horticulture.
●​ Providing training and tools for better farming methods.
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TOPIC - 9 SOIL /
AGRICULTURE
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SOIL
-​ Study of Soil - Pedology
-​ Renewable natural Resource
-​ Relief , Parent rock or Bedrock , Climate , Vegetation and Other forms of life and time
are important factors in the formation of soil.
-​ Soil also consists of Organic ( Humus ) and Inorganic Materials
-​ On the Basis of the factors responsible for soil formation , colour , thick ness , tecture
, age , chemical and Physical properties , the soil can be divided into certain types

FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL FORMATION

Soil formation is a long natural process influenced by multiple factors. These factors
interact over time to create different types of soil in various regions. The main factors
affecting soil formation are:

1. Parent Material (Rock Type)

●​ The original rock or organic material from which the soil develops.
●​ It determines the mineral content, texture, and drainage of the soil.
●​ Example: Granite forms sandy soil, basalt forms clayey soil.

2. Climate

●​ One of the most important factors.

●​ Includes temperature, rainfall, humidity, and wind.
●​ Rainfall helps in the weathering of rocks.
●​ High temperature speeds up chemical weathering and organic activity.

3. Topography (Relief or Landscape)

●​ Refers to the slope and elevation of land.

●​ Soils on steep slopes are shallow due to erosion.
●​ Valley regions have thicker, more fertile soils due to deposition.

4. Organisms (Flora, Fauna, Microbes)

●​ Plants, animals, fungi, and bacteria play a major role.

●​ Decomposition of organic matter adds nutrients.
●​ Earthworms and ants help in mixing soil layers (bioturbation).
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5. Time

●​ Soil formation is a slow process; it may take hundreds to thousands of years.

●​ Over time, soils develop horizons (layers) and mature.
●​ Older soils are often more weathered and have developed profiles.

6. Human Activities (Optional in some books)

●​ Deforestation, agriculture, mining, and urbanization impact soil properties.

●​ Sometimes considered an anthropogenic factor.

Mnemonic to Remember:

CLORPT​
Climate, Living organisms, Organic material, Relief (topography), Parent material, Time
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ALLUVIAL SOIL
-​ Sand - Fine content of Soil
-​ Clay - Bigger grains of Soil

1. Formation:

-​ Alluvial soil is formed by the deposition of sediments brought by rivers like the
Ganga, Yamuna, Brahmaputra and their tributaries. It is mainly found in river
plains and coastal areas.
-​ 40% Area

2. Areas Found:

-​ This soil is found extensively in the Indo-Gangetic plains (Punjab, Haryana, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal), the Brahmaputra valley in Assam, and the coastal
areas of Gujarat, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.

3. Characteristics:

●​ Colour: Light grey to dark grey

●​ Texture: Sandy loam to clayey loam
●​ Fertility: Highly fertile and suitable for agriculture
●​ Rich in potash, phosphoric acid, and lime
●​ Poor in Nitrogen ,Humas and Phosphorus
●​ Good drainage capacity, though it may vary by region
●​ Rich in - Potash

4. Types of Alluvial Soil:

-​ Khadar – It is the newer alluvium deposited in floodplains. It is very fertile because

fresh sediments are deposited every year. Suitable for Agriculture
-​ Bhangar – It is the older alluvium found in higher regions than floodplains. It contains
calcareous deposits called "kankar" and is less fertile than Khadar.

5. Crops Grown:

-​ Major crops include wheat, rice, sugarcane, cotton, jute, pulses, oilseeds, and
vegetables.

6. Importance:

-​ Alluvial soil supports about 40% of India’s population through agriculture and forms
the backbone of the Indian agrarian economy.

7. Problems:

-​ Over-irrigation can lead to alkalinity or salinity in the soil. Soil erosion may occur in
flood-prone regions.
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8. Quick Facts for MCQs:

●​ Most widespread soil in India: Alluvial Soil

●​ Rich in: Potash, phosphoric acid, and lime
●​ Poor in: Nitrogen
●​ Found in: Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain
●​ Two types: Khadar (newer), Bhangar (older)

BLACK SOIL
1. Formation:​
Black soil is formed from the weathering of igneous rocks like basalt. It is also known as
Regur soil and is of volcanic origin. It is mainly found in the Deccan Plateau region.

-​ Made up of lava Flows

-​ Made up of extremely Fine - Clayey Material
-​ Known for their self ploughing Characteristics

2. Areas Found:​
Black soil is mainly found in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and parts of Chhattisgarh.

3. Characteristics:

●​ Colour: Deep black to greyish black

●​ Texture: Clayey and sticky when wet
●​ Retains moisture for a long time
●​ Rich in lime, iron, magnesia, alumina, and potash
●​ Poor in phosphorus, nitrogen, and organic matter
●​ Becomes very hard when dry and develops cracks (helps in aeration)

4. Suitability & Crops Grown:​

Best suited for cotton (thus also called black cotton soil)​
Other crops grown include wheat, jowar, millets, pulses, oilseeds, sugarcane, and
groundnut

5. Importance:​
Due to its moisture retention capacity, black soil is good for dry farming. It is ideal for crops
that need less water.

6. Problems:

●​ Becomes sticky during the rainy season, making ploughing difficult

●​ Cracks when dry, which may damage roots if not managed properly
●​ Needs addition of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers

7. Quick Facts for MCQs:

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●​ Other name: Regur Soil ( Latin Word Means - Overflow )

●​ Formed from: Weathering of basalt (igneous rocks)
●​ Found in: Maharashtra, Gujarat, MP, Karnataka, AP, TN
●​ Rich in: Lime, iron, magnesia, potash
●​ Poor in: Nitrogen, phosphorus
●​ Main crop: Cotton
●​ Best suited for: Dry farming

RED SOIL
1.​ Formation: Formed by the weathering of igneous and metamorphic rocks,
especially in areas with low rainfall.
2.​ Colour: Red due to the presence of iron oxide.
3.​ Fertility: Poor in nitrogen, phosphorus, and humus, but responds well to
fertilizers.
4.​ Crops Grown: Suitable for millets, pulses, groundnut, cotton, and potato.
5.​ Found In: Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, parts
of Jharkhand and Maharashtra.

YELLOW SOIL
1.​ Formation: Derived from older alluvial deposits and acidic crystalline rocks in
humid regions.
2.​ Colour: Yellow due to hydration of iron; may turn red when exposed to air.
3.​ Fertility: Low in nitrogen, phosphorus, and humus, needs fertilization for
productivity.
4.​ Crops Grown: Grows pulses, oilseeds, wheat, and maize well with treatment.
5.​ Found In: Eastern and Central parts of India like Odisha, Assam, parts of
Chhattisgarh and West Bengal.

LATERITE SOIL ​
Formation:​
Formed due to intense leaching in areas of heavy rainfall and high temperature.​
Leaching - Important minerals of Soil either wash away or they peradate
underground

Name Origin:​
The term "Laterite" comes from the Latin word ‘later’ meaning brick, as it hardens
like brick when exposed to air.
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Colour:​
Reddish to yellowish due to the presence of iron oxide and aluminum
compounds.

Fertility:​
Low fertility – poor in nitrogen, potassium, lime, and humus due to leaching.

Crops Grown:​
With proper fertilization, suitable for tea, coffee, cashew, rubber, coconut, and
tapioca.

Found In:​
Commonly found in Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, parts of Odisha, Kerala,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, and northeastern states.

Use in Construction:​
Often used as a building material (bricks) in rural areas because it hardens when
exposed to air.

Environmental Importance:​
Supports tropical rainforests and is important for eco-balance and biodiversity in hilly
regions.​

ARID SOIL

1.​ Formation:​
Formed in dry and semi-dry desert regions due to high evaporation and low
rainfall.​

2.​ Colour & Texture:​

Light brown to reddish-brown, sandy in texture, dry and loose in structure.​

3.​ Fertility:​
Low in humus and nitrogen, but rich in soluble salts (alkaline in nature).
Requires irrigation and treatment to be productive.​

4.​ Found In:​

Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, and rain-shadow regions of Deccan
Plateau.​

5.​ Crops Grown:​

With irrigation, suitable for millets, barley, pulses, and fodder crops like bajra and
guar.​
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U.S SOIL TAXONOMY

1.​ Developed By:​

Introduced by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) in the 1960s
to classify soils based on measurable soil properties.​

2.​ Classification System:​

It is a hierarchical system with 6 levels of classification:​

○​ Order → Suborder → Great Group → Subgroup → Family → Series

3.​ 12 Soil Orders:​
The highest level in the taxonomy. Examples include:​

○​ Entisols – very young soils, little profile development

○​ Inceptisols – weakly developed
○​ Alfisols – moderately leached, fertile
○​ Ultisols – highly weathered, acidic
○​ Oxisols – very old, nutrient-poor, tropical regions
○​ Aridisols – found in dry, desert areas
○​ Histosols – rich in organic matter, swampy regions
○​ Mollisols – very fertile, grassland soils (Midwest USA)
○​ Spodosols – acidic, forested, cold climates
○​ Andisols – volcanic ash soils
○​ Vertisols – high clay content, swell/shrink
○​ Gelisols – frozen soils, permafrost region
4.​ Purpose & Use:​
It is used worldwide (even in India for academic comparison) to compare global soil
types and is based on observable soil features, not just origin.​

5.​ Why It Matters:​

Understanding U.S. Taxonomy helps in global soil comparison, agricultural
planning, environmental studies, and land management policies.​

SOIL NUTRIENTS
1. Essential Nutrients for Plant Growth

-​ Plants require 17 essential nutrients, divided into:

A. Macronutrients (needed in large amounts) – 6 Primary

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(1) Nitrogen (N)

●​ Promotes leaf and stem growth, chlorophyll formation

●​ Deficiency: Yellowing of leaves (chlorosis)

(2) Phosphorus (P)

●​ Root development, energy transfer (ATP)

●​ Deficiency: Purplish discoloration of leaves

(3) Potassium (K)

●​ Improves disease resistance, flower & fruit development

●​ Deficiency: Scorching of leaf tips

(4) Calcium (Ca)

●​ Cell wall strength, root and leaf development

●​ Deficiency: Poor root growth

(5) Magnesium (Mg)

●​ Component of chlorophyll, enzyme activator

●​ Deficiency: Interveinal chlorosis in older leaves

(6) Sulphur (S)

●​ Protein and vitamin synthesis

●​ Deficiency: Yellowing of young leaves

B. Micronutrients (needed in small amounts) – 7 Secondary

(1) Iron (Fe)

●​ Helps in chlorophyll formation

●​ Deficiency: Interveinal chlorosis in young leaves

(2) Manganese (Mn)

●​ Enzyme activity, photosynthesis

●​ Deficiency: Pale green leaves with dead spots

(3) Zinc (Zn)

●​ Growth hormone production, enzyme function

●​ Deficiency: Short internodes, small leaves

(4) Copper (Cu)

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●​ Reproductive growth and lignin synthesis

●​ Deficiency: Leaf tips die back

(5) Boron (B)

●​ Cell wall formation, pollen tube growth

●​ Deficiency: Cracked fruits, hollow stems

(6) Molybdenum (Mo)

●​ Nitrogen fixation in legumes

●​ Deficiency: Yellow mottling on leaves

(7) Chlorine (Cl)

●​ Osmosis and ionic balance

●​ Deficiency: Rare; wilting or chlorosis

C. Beneficial Elements (For Some Plants)

●​ Sodium (Na), Cobalt (Co), Silicon (Si), Vanadium (V) – not essential for all plants
but help some species (e.g., Co for legumes).

Key Points for Exam:

●​ NPK – Most essential for growth (used in fertilizers).

●​ Nitrogen Fixation – Needs Molybdenum and Iron.
●​ Zinc Deficiency – Common in Indian soils.
●​ Soil Testing – Determines macro/micro availability before fertilizing.

SOIL EROSION

1. What is Soil Erosion?

Soil erosion is the removal of the top fertile layer of soil by natural forces like wind,
water, ice, or human activities, leading to loss of fertility and productivity.

2. Types of Soil Erosion:

a. Water Erosion
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●​ Sheet Erosion – Top thin layer washed uniformly

●​ Rill Erosion – small channels formed
●​ Gully Erosion – deep cuts; common in Chambal
●​ Splash Erosion – raindrop impact loosens soil

b. Wind Erosion

●​ Common in arid/semi-arid areas (e.g., Rajasthan)

●​ Blows away dry, loose topsoil

c. Glacial Erosion

●​ In mountainous areas, glaciers remove and transport soil and rocks

d. Coastal Erosion

●​ Due to waves and tidal action; affects coastal regions

e. Human-Induced Erosion

●​ Caused by deforestation, overgrazing, mining, shifting cultivation, faulty

farming practices

3. Causes of Soil Erosion:

●​ Deforestation
●​ Overgrazing by animals
●​ Unscientific farming (ploughing on slopes)
●​ Mining & construction
●​ Monoculture or poor crop rotation
●​ Heavy rainfall or strong winds

4. Effects of Soil Erosion:

●​ Loss of soil fertility

●​ Desertification
●​ Siltation in rivers and dams
●​ Lower agricultural output
●​ Flooding & land degradation

5. Soil Conservation Methods:

●​ Afforestation / Reforestation
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●​ Contour ploughing
●​ Terrace farming (in hilly areas)
●​ Shelterbelts (planting trees as wind barriers)
●​ Cover cropping & crop rotation
●​ Check dams and bunds
●​ Strip Farming

6. Government Initiatives:

●​ Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP)

●​ National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)
●​ Soil Health Card Scheme
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AGRICULTURE
TYPES OF FARMING

1. Subsistence Farming
●​ Practiced by small/marginal farmers using traditional tools.
●​ Main goal: Self-consumption, not commercial sale.
●​ Low productivity due to limited technology.
●​ Crops: Rice, wheat, maize, pulses.
●​ Depend on Natural fertility of Soil and other suitability of the Soil
●​ Depends on Monsoon
●​ It is a Slash And Burn Agriculture
●​ Common in Eastern and North-Eastern India.

2. Intensive Farming
●​ Maximum output from limited land using high inputs.
●​ Uses fertilizers, HYV seeds, irrigation, pesticides.
●​ Focus on high crop yield per hectare.
●​ Found in densely populated areas (Punjab, Haryana, UP).
●​ Requires huge labor and capital input.
●​ Canada - Not Suitable there
●​ Land holding Size very less - Family Disputes ( Divide ) - Marginal Farmers

3. Extensive Farming
●​ Practiced on large land areas with less input per unit area.
●​ Mechanized, needs fewer laborers.
●​ Low productivity per hectare, high total output.
●​ Common in developed countries (e.g., USA, Canada).
●​ In India, found in semi-arid regions.

4. Commercial Farming
●​ Main goal: Selling crops for profit in markets.
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●​ Uses modern tech, irrigation, machines, HYV seeds.

●​ Plantations also a type of a Commercial Farming - Tea , Coffee ,Rubber , Sugarcane
and Banana
●​ Crops: Sugarcane, cotton, tea, coffee, jute.
●​ All the produce is used as raw materials in respective Industries
●​ Often involves monoculture (single crop over large areas).
●​ Practiced in Punjab, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu.

5. Plantation Farming
●​ Single cash crop grown over large estates.
●​ High capital and labor requirements.
●​ Crops: Tea (Assam), Coffee (Karnataka), Rubber (Kerala).
●​ Products often for export.
●​ Introduced by the British during colonial times.

6. Shifting Agriculture (Slash and Burn)

●​ Forests are cut, burned, and land used temporarily.
●​ Practiced by tribals in North-East India (called Jhum).
●​ Soil fertility declines quickly.
●​ Environmentally harmful – causes Deforestation.
●​ Low productivity and outdated methods.

7. Dry Farming
●​ Practiced in areas with low rainfall (<75 cm).
●​ Drought-resistant crops like jowar, bajra, pulses are grown.
●​ Less irrigation, more reliance on moisture conservation.
●​ Used in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Deccan Plateau.
●​ Soil erosion and crop failure are major risks.

8. Mixed Farming
●​ Crop cultivation + animal husbandry on the same farm.
●​ Different crops are grown in a part of land
●​ Provides income from multiple sources.
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●​ Improves soil fertility through animal manure.

●​ Examples: Wheat + Cattle, Rice + Poultry.
●​ Common in Punjab, Haryana, parts of Tamil Nadu.

TYPES OF CROPS IN INDIA : RAVI , KHARIF AND

ZAID
India has three major cropping seasons based on the monsoon cycle:

1. Kharif Crops (Monsoon Crops)

Sowing Time: June – July​

Harvesting Time: September – October​
Rain Dependency: Highly dependent on monsoon rainfall​
Regions: Grown in all parts of India, especially in states with good rainfall (e.g., Assam,
West Bengal, Odisha, Maharashtra)

Major Kharif Crops:

●​ Cereals: Rice, Maize, Jowar, Bajra

●​ Pulses: Arhar (Tur), Moong, Urad
●​ Oilseeds: Groundnut, Soybean, Sunflower, Sesamum
●​ Commercial Crops: Cotton, Jute, Sugarcane

Features:

●​ Require hot and humid climate

●​ Need more water
●​ Dependent on timely arrival and quantity of monsoon

2. Rabi Crops (Winter Crops)

Sowing Time: October – November​

Harvesting Time: March – April​
Irrigation Dependency: Mostly grown with irrigation, less dependent on rainfall​
Regions: Grown mainly in north and northwest India (Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh,
Rajasthan)

Major Rabi Crops:

●​ Cereals: Wheat, Barley, Oats

●​ Pulses: Gram (Chana), Lentil (Masoor)
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●​ Oilseeds: Mustard, Linseed

●​ Other: Potato, Onion, Garlic

Features:

●​ Require cool and dry climate for growth

●​ Ripen in warmer temperatures
●​ Low water requirement

3. Zaid Crops (Summer Crops)

Sowing Time: March – April (after Rabi harvest)​

Harvesting Time: June – July (before Kharif sowing)​
Regions: Mainly grown in limited areas with irrigation facilities

Major Zaid Crops:

●​ Fruits/Vegetables: Watermelon, Muskmelon, Cucumber, Bitter gourd, Bottle gourd

●​ Other Crops: Fodder crops, Sugarcane (part of long-duration crops), Moong

Features:

●​ Grown in short season between Rabi and Kharif

●​ Require hot dry weather and irrigation
●​ Mainly horticultural and vegetable crops

MAJOR CROPS IN INDIA

India cultivates a wide variety of crops due to its diverse climate, soil, and irrigation patterns.
These are classified into food crops, cash/commercial crops, plantation crops, and
horticultural crops.

●​ Aus: Rice sown in pre-monsoon (March–April) and harvested in early monsoon

(July–August), mostly rain-fed.
●​ Aman: Main Kharif rice sown with the onset of monsoon (June–July) and harvested
in winter (Nov–Dec).
●​ Boro: Irrigated rice sown in winter (Nov–Dec) and harvested in summer (April–May),
grown mainly in Eastern India.
●​ Staple Diet: The main food eaten regularly in large quantities, providing the bulk of a
population’s energy and nutrition (like rice in South India or wheat in North India).
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1. Food Crops (Cereals and Pulses)

a. Rice

●​ Climatic Conditions: Hot and humid, 25–35°C, >100 cm rainfall

●​ Soil: Alluvial soil, clayey loam
●​ Regions: West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu
●​ Season: Mainly Kharif
●​ Stable Dish

b. Wheat

●​ Climatic Conditions: Cool during growth (10–15°C), warm and dry during harvest
●​ Soil: Alluvial and loamy
●​ Regions: Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh
●​ Season: Rabi
●​ Rain - 15 - 75 Cm

c. Maize (Corn)

●​ Climatic Conditions: Warm climate (21–27°C)

●​ Soil: Well-drained alluvial or red soil
●​ Regions: Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh
●​ Season: Both Kharif and Rabi

d. Millets (Jowar, Bajra, Ragi)

●​ Nutri-cereals – rich in iron, fiber

●​ Regions: Maharashtra (Jowar), Rajasthan (Bajra), Karnataka (Ragi)
●​ Climate: Dry, warm, and drought-resistant crops

e. Pulses ,Legumes (Gram, Tur, Masoor, Moong, Urad)

●​ Climatic Conditions: Moderate rainfall, 20–25°C

●​ Soil: Loamy, well-drained
●​ Regions: Madhya Pradesh (largest producer), Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh
●​ Note: India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses in the world

2. Cash/Commercial Crops

a. Sugarcane

●​ Climatic Conditions: Hot and humid, 21–27°C, 75–100 cm rainfall

●​ Soil: Alluvial, black, loamy
●​ Regions: Uttar Pradesh (top producer), Maharashtra, Karnataka
●​ Use: Sugar, jaggery, ethanol
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b. Cotton

●​ Climatic Conditions: Warm climate, 21–30°C, 50–80 cm rainfall

●​ Soil: Black (Regur) soil of Deccan Plateau
●​ Regions: Maharashtra, Gujarat, Telangana
●​ Season: Kharif

c. Jute

●​ Climatic Conditions: Hot, humid, 25–35°C, >100 cm rainfall

●​ Soil: Alluvial, mainly deltaic soil
●​ Regions: West Bengal, Bihar, Assam
●​ Use: Gunny bags, sacks, ropes

d. Oilseeds (Groundnut, Mustard, Soybean, Sunflower)

●​ Groundnut: Gujarat (largest producer), Tamil Nadu – Kharif

●​ Mustard: Rajasthan (largest), Uttar Pradesh – Rabi
●​ Soybean: Madhya Pradesh – Kharif
●​ Sunflower: Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh – Kharif & Rabi
●​ 2008 - 2nd Largest Producer After China

3. Plantation Crops

●​ Tea: Assam, West Bengal (Darjeeling), Tamil Nadu - Rich in Humus and Organic
Content , Well Drained - 3rd In world ( After China and Turkey )
●​ Coffee: Karnataka (largest) - Coffee Bowl of India , Kerala, Tamil Nadu - 3.2% of
World's Coffee , Brazil - Coffee Bowl of World
●​ Rubber: Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
●​ Coconut: Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh

Features:

●​ Grown in large estates

●​ High input and labour-intensive
●​ Require humid tropical climate

4. Horticultural Crops (Fruits, Vegetables, Flowers)

●​ Mango: Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh

●​ Banana: Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra
●​ Grapes: Maharashtra (Nasik)
●​ Apples: Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir
●​ Potato: Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal
●​ Tomato: Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh
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-​ India Produces about 13 % of World's vegetables

5. Fibre Crops

-​ Example - Cotton , Jute , Hemp ( Bhang ) and Silk

-​ Rearing of Silk - Sericulture
1.​ Cotton
-​ Require 210 Frost Free Days
-​ 2nd largest producer After China
-​ Original Home of India
-​ Requires 6- 8 Months to Mature

DIFFERENT TYPES OF REVOLUTIONS

1.​ White Revolution: Increased Milk production through cooperative efforts, making
India the largest milk producer. Also Known as Operation Flood Launched in 1970​

○​ Pioneer: Dr. Verghese Kurien ( The men who made elephant dance ) -
Amul Came from here
2.​ Blue Revolution: Focused on enhancing Fish production and sustainable
aquaculture.​

○​ Pioneer: Dr. Hiralal Chaudhuri

3.​ Yellow Revolution: Increased Oilseed production, particularly mustard and
groundnut, to reduce oil imports.​

○​ Pioneer: Sam Pitroda

4.​ Black Revolution: Aimed at increasing petroleum and crude oil production to
achieve self-sufficiency.​

5.​ Red Revolution: Focused on the production of Meat and Tomatoes to meet
domestic needs.​

○​ Pioneer: Durgesh Patel

6.​ Pink Revolution: Boosted Onion, prawn, and processed meat production for
domestic and export markets.​

○​ Pioneer: Durgesh Patel

7.​ Golden Revolution: Revolutionized Horticulture, Honey production, and fruit
cultivation.​

○​ Pioneer: Nirpakh Tutej

8.​ Grey Revolution: Increased Fertilizer production and its use in agriculture.​
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9.​ Brown Revolution: Developed the Leather industry and cocoa cultivation.​

○​ Pioneer: Hiralal Chaudhuri

10.​Silver Revolution: Focused on increasing Egg and poultry production.​

○​ Period: Indira Gandhi Era

11.​Round Revolution: Boosted Potato production through improved technology and
irrigation.​

12.​Rainbow Revolution: Integrated Agricultural development across multiple

sectors.​

○​ Initiator: Government of India

13.​Golden Fiber Revolution: Focused on increasing jute production, especially in
West Bengal.
14.​Evergreen Revolution - Overall Development

GREEN REVOLUTION IN INDIA

1. What is the Green Revolution?

The Green Revolution refers to a period during the 1960s when India adopted modern
agricultural techniques to increase food grain production, especially wheat and rice, to
become self-sufficient in food.

2. When Did It Start?

●​ Started( 1st Phase ): In 1966–67 - No food in India - import From America Variety
PL( Public Law ) - 480 ( USA use it for Pigs )
●​ Major Phase: During the Fourth Five Year Plan
●​ Initial Focus: Affluent States of Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh
●​ Latin America and Mexico - in 1940s to 1960s
●​ 2nd Phase - 1970 - 80s - Sustainable farming

3. Key Features of the Green Revolution

●​ Use of High-Yielding Variety (HYV) seeds

●​ Increased use of chemical fertilizers & pesticides
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●​ Introduction of modern irrigation techniques (canals, tubewells)

●​ GM crops - Genetically Modified crops
●​ Use of agricultural machinery (tractors, harvesters)
●​ Multiple cropping and mono-cropping (mostly wheat)
●​ Wheat from Mexico
●​ Rice from Philippines - IR8 Variety - Miracle Rice
●​ Headquarters ( 2nd Phase ) - Patna

4. Father of the Green Revolution

●​ Global: Dr. Norman Borlaug (USA) - 1970 - get Nobel Peace Prize
●​ Term Given by - William Gaud
●​ India: Dr. M.S. Swaminathan ( Main Efforts - Father of Green Revolution )

5. Major Achievements

●​ Boosted wheat and rice production massively

●​ India transformed from a "ship-to-mouth" nation to a food surplus country
●​ Helped avoid famines and reduced dependence on food imports
●​ Improved the economic condition of farmers in Punjab and Haryana
●​ 1965 - 72.4 Million Tons - 1978 - 131 Million Tons

6. Regions Benefited Most

●​ Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh

●​ These became the “breadbasket of India”

7. Crops Focused

●​ Primarily wheat (biggest impact)

●​ Later extended to rice, maize, millets in some regions

8. Positive Impacts

●​ Food security achieved

●​ Agricultural GDP increased
●​ Created employment in agriculture & allied sectors
●​ Reduced food grain imports
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9. Negative Impacts / Criticism

●​ Benefited mainly rich farmers (due to access to resources) - Disparity Increased

Between rich and poor farmers
●​ Soil get Alkaline
●​ Commercial Farmers get More benefited
●​ Increased regional imbalance (only some states developed)
●​ Overuse of fertilizers & pesticides caused soil degradation
●​ Groundwater depletion due to excessive irrigation
●​ Loss of biodiversity due to mono-cropping
●​ Rise in rural inequality and farmer debts

10. Government Schemes Linked

●​ Intensive Agriculture District Program (IADP)

●​ High-Yielding Variety Programme (HYVP)
●​ Minimum Support Price (MSP) introduced to support farmers
●​ Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) formed in - 1965
●​ Food Corporation of India ( FCI ) - 1965 - Establishment
●​ Fertilizer Subsidy given to increase affordability

​
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TOPIC - 10 MINERALS

Classification of Minerals
1. Metallic Minerals

These minerals yield metals upon processing. They are further classified into:

a. Ferrous Minerals

●​ Definition: Contain iron.

●​ Examples: Iron ore, Manganese, Nickel, Cobalt, Chromite.
●​ Uses: Steel manufacturing, machinery, tools.
●​ Major Producers in India: Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka.

b. Non-Ferrous Minerals

●​ Definition: Do not contain iron.

●​ Examples: Copper, Bauxite (Aluminium), Lead, Zinc, Tin.
●​ Uses: Electrical wiring, aircraft, batteries.
●​ Major Producers in India: Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat.

c. Precious Minerals

●​ Definition: Rare and economically valuable.

●​ Examples: Gold, Silver, Platinum.
●​ Uses: Jewelry, electronics, investment.
●​ Major Producers in India: Karnataka (Kolar Gold Fields), Jharkhand, Andhra
Pradesh.

2. Non-Metallic Minerals

These minerals do not yield metals and are used in various industries.

●​ Examples: Mica, Limestone, Gypsum, Dolomite, Phosphate, Salt, Potash.

●​ Uses: Cement, fertilizers, glass, ceramics.
●​ Major Producers in India: Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Jharkhand.

3. Energy Minerals
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These minerals are sources of energy.

●​ Examples: Coal, Petroleum, Natural Gas, Uranium, Thorium.

●​ Uses: Electricity generation, fuel, nuclear energy.
●​ Major Producers in India:
○​ Coal: Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal.
○​ Petroleum: Assam, Gujarat, Mumbai High (offshore).
○​ Natural Gas: Tripura, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu.
○​ Uranium: Jharkhand (Jaduguda), Andhra Pradesh.
○​ Thorium: Kerala (Monazite sands).

DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS IN INDIA

-​ Most of the Metallic minerals in India occur in the peninsular plateau.
-​ Over 97 % of Coal reserves occur in the valleys of Damodar , Sone , Mahanadi and
Godavari
-​ Petroleum reserves are located in the Sedimentary basins of Assam , Gujarat and
Mumbai high - offshore region in the Arabian Sea
-​ Most of the Major minerals resources occur to the east of a line linking Mangalore to
Kanpur
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DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS IN INDIA

1. Iron Ore

●​ Types: Hematite and Magnetite

●​ Major States: Odisha Jharkhand Belt , Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand ( Singhbum ) ,
Karnataka, Maharashtra - Goa Belt , Bellary - Chitradurga Chikmagalur - Tumkur Belt
●​ Key Mines: Bailadila (Chhattisgarh), Barabil–Joda (Odisha), Kudremukh (Karnataka)
●​ Magnetite is the finest iron ore with a High Content of Iron up to 70 Percent
●​ Hematite ore is the most important industrial iron ore in terms of the quantity
used , but has a slightly lower iron content than magnetite ( 50 - 60% )
●​ In 2018 - 2019 - Almost entire production of iron ore ( 97% ) accrued from Odisha ,
Chhattisgarh , Karnataka and Jharkhand

2. Bauxite (Aluminium Ore)

●​ Uses: Primary source of aluminium

●​ Major States: Odisha (largest producer), Gujarat, Maharashtra, Jharkhand, Madhya
Pradesh
●​ Most production - Australia
●​ Important Areas: Koraput, Kalahandi (Odisha); Kolhapur (Maharashtra)
●​ India's bauxite deposits are mainly found in the Amarkantak Plateau , maikai hills and
the plateau region of bilaspur - Katni
●​ Odisha is the largest Bauxite Producer
●​ Panchpatmali Deposits in Koraput district are the most important bauxite deposits in
the State

3. Copper

●​ Major States: Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand

●​ Key Mines: Khetri (Rajasthan), Malanjkhand (MP), Singhbhum (Jharkhand)
●​ First Metal Discovered by Humans in Chalcolithic Age
●​ Region - Jhunjhunu and Albar region in Rajasthan

4. Gold

●​ Major States: Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand

●​ Producer - China , Australia
●​ Key Mines: Kolar (closed), Hutti (Karnataka), Ramagiri (AP)
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5. Silver

●​ Mostly extracted as a by-product of zinc, lead, and gold mining

●​ Major States: Rajasthan (Zawar Mines), Jharkhand, Karnataka

6. Manganese

●​ Use: Steel-making
●​ Major States: Odisha, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka
●​ Important Areas: Balaghat (MP), Keonjhar (Odisha)
●​ Manganese is mainly used in the manufacturing of Steel and ferro - Manganese Alloy

7. Zinc and Lead

●​ Major States: Rajasthan (leading producer), Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh

●​ Key Mines: Zawar, Rampura Agucha (Rajasthan)

DIAMOND
1.​ Diamonds are a form of carbon and are the hardest natural substance on Earth.
2.​ In India, Madhya Pradesh is the only state with diamond mines, mainly in Panna
district.
3.​ India was the world's first source of diamonds, with historic mines in Golconda
(Hyderabad).
4.​ Diamonds are used in jewellery, cutting tools, and high-precision industries.
5.​ World - Russia ( Leading Producer )
6.​ India's diamond trade is now mostly dependent on import and polishing industries
in Surat, Gujarat.
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MICA
What is Mica?

●​ Mica is a group of minerals used in electrical and electronic industries due to its
insulating properties.
●​ It is resistant to heat and electricity.

Uses of Mica:

●​ Insulators in electrical equipment

●​ In cosmetics and paints (for shine)
●​ Used in electronic devices
●​ In rubber and plastics

India’s Global Status:

●​ India was once the largest producer of mica in the world.

●​ Now, production has reduced but India still exports a lot of mica.

Types of Mica Found:

●​ Muscovite Mica – most common in India

●​ Biotite Mica

Major Mica Producing States:

1.​ Jharkhand – Hazaribagh, Koderma, Giridih

2.​ Bihar – adjoining areas of Jharkhand
3.​ Andhra Pradesh – Nellore district (second largest)
4.​ Rajasthan – minor deposits
5.​ Madhya Pradesh – small reserves

Important Fact:

Jharkhand (Koderma & Giridih belt) is called the “Mica Belt of India”.
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rishi Yadav ( 8957457764 )

LIMESTONE
1.​ Limestone is a sedimentary rock mainly composed of calcium carbonate
(CaCO₃).
2.​ It is used in cement, steel, construction, and chemical industries.
3.​ Rajasthan is the largest producer of limestone in India.
4.​ Other major producing states include Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat,
and Chhattisgarh.
5.​ Limestone reserves play a key role in India’s status as the 2nd largest cement
producer globally.

ENERGY RESOURCES

I. Based on Source and Sustainability

1. Conventional Energy Resources (Traditional, Non-Renewable)

●​ These are used for a long time and are exhaustible.

●​ Subtypes:
○​ Fossil Fuels: Coal, Petroleum, Natural Gas
○​ Nuclear Energy: Uranium-based (not fossil fuel, but non-renewable)

2. Non-Conventional Energy Resources (Modern, Renewable)

●​ These are environment-friendly, sustainable, and not exhaustible.

●​ Subtypes:
○​ Solar Energy
○​ Wind Energy
○​ Hydropower (Small & Micro)
○​ Biomass Energy
○​ Tidal Energy
○​ Geothermal Energy
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II. Based on Usage and Market Availability

1. Commercial Energy Resources

●​ Bought and sold in the market for industrial or domestic use.

●​ Subtypes:
○​ Coal
○​ Petroleum
○​ Electricity (Hydel, Nuclear, Solar)
○​ Natural Gas
○​ LPG (Cooking gas)

2. Non-Commercial Energy Resources

●​ Freely available, mainly used in rural areas.

●​ Subtypes:
○​ Firewood
○​ Animal dung
○​ Agricultural waste
○​ Biogas (in rural setups)

COAL
●​ Usage: Primary source for electricity generation.
●​ Major States: Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh.
●​ The Older the better
●​ Aka Buried Sunshine - Black Gold , Black Diamond
●​ Most Abundantly available fossil Fuel in India
●​ Found in 2 Main Rock Series - Gondwana ( 200 Million years Old ) and Tertiary ( 66
Million years old )
●​ Godavari , Mahanadi , Son and Wardha valleys also Contain cola Deposits
●​ Tertiary coals occur in the North Eastern States of Meghalaya , Assam , Arunachal
Pradesh and Nagaland
●​ Coal Mines in India - Bokaro ( Jharkhand ) , Singrauli , Jharia ( Jharkhand ) ,
Raniganj , talcher , Singereni and Meyveli
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rishi Yadav ( 8957457764 )

TYPES OF COALS BASED ON QUALITY

-​ Quality depend on - Carbon Content , Moisture Content , Calorific Value ( How much
It can generate Energy on Heating )

1. Anthracite

●​ Highest quality coal with 80–90% carbon and the highest heat value.
●​ Hard, shiny, and burns with a clean flame; found in limited quantities in Jammu &
Kashmir.

2. Bituminous

●​ Medium quality coal with 60–80% carbon, widely used in industries.

●​ Most abundant in India, found in Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and West
Bengal.
●​ Buried deep and subjected to increase temperatures

3. Lignite

●​ Low-grade brown coal with 40–60% carbon, high moisture content.

●​ Used for electricity generation; major reserves in Tamil Nadu (Neyveli).

4. Peat

●​ Youngest and lowest grade of coal with less than 40% carbon.
●​ Poor heating capacity and more smoke, rarely used as fuel.
●​ Decaying plants in Swamps produce peat
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PETROLEUM
●​ Usage: Fuel for transportation and industries.
●​ Major Areas: Mumbai High (offshore), Assam, Gujarat.
●​ Most of the Petroleum occurrence inIndia is associated with anticlines and fault traps
in the rock formations of the tertiary age.
●​ Petroleum is also found in fault traps between porous and non- porous rocks . Gas ,
Being lighter usually occur above the Oil
●​ Ankeleshwar is the most important field of Gujarat.
●​ Assam is the oldest oil producing state of India
●​ Digboi , Naharkatiya Moran - Hunrijan are the important oilfield in the State

NATURAL GAS
●​ Usage: Power generation, fertilizers, domestic cooking.
●​ Major Areas: Krishna-Godavari Basin, Assam, Tripura.
●​ Natural gas is the cleanest burning fossil fuel, producing less CO₂ and no ash or
smoke compared to coal or oil.
●​ It's used in electricity generation, cooking (LPG), transportation (CNG), and as
industrial fuel.
●​ Found in Krishna-Godavari Basin, Mumbai High, Assam, and Rajasthan.
●​ Transported through pipelines like the Hazira–Vijaipur–Jagdishpur (HVJ) pipeline -
1988
●​ Major companies involved include ONGC, GAIL (Gas Authority of India Ltd.), and
Reliance Industries.
●​ CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) is used in vehicles, PNG (Piped Natural Gas) is
supplied to homes.
●​ India also imports LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) from Qatar, Australia, and the USA to
meet growing demand.
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NUCLEAR ENERGY

●​ Usage: Electricity generation.

●​ Major Plants: Tarapur (Maharashtra), Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu), Rawatbhata
(Rajasthan).
●​ Nuclear energy generated through nuclear fission, where atomic nuclei split to
release energy.
●​ It produces minimal greenhouse gas emissions during operation, making it a
low-carbon energy source.
●​ A small amount of nuclear fuel can produce a large amount of energy, much more
than fossil fuels.
●​ The major challenge is the disposal of radioactive waste, which remains hazardous
for thousands of years.
●​ Countries like the USA, France, and Russia use nuclear energy for a significant
portion of their electricity generation.
●​ Accidents like Chernobyl (1986) and Fukushima (2011) have raised public concerns
about nuclear plant safety.
●​ Future advancements in nuclear fusion (combining nuclei) hold the promise of
virtually limitless and cleaner energy.
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rishi Yadav ( 8957457764 )

🌞 Non-Conventional Energy Sources (Renewable)

1. Wind Energy

1.​ Wind energy is harnessed by wind turbines converting wind's kinetic energy into
electricity.
2.​ It is a renewable, clean source of energy with no greenhouse gas emissions.
3.​ India’s largest wind power potential is in Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.
4.​ Wind energy is most effective in coastal areas and open plains.
5.​ The largest wind farm in India is located at Muppandal (Tamil Nadu).
6.​ Wind energy depends on wind speed and consistency, making it site-specific.
7.​ India ranks 4th globally in wind power capacity (as per MNRE reports).

2. Tidal Energy

1.​ Tidal energy is generated by harnessing the rise and fall of tides.
2.​ It is predictable and renewable but highly site-specific.
3.​ Requires a high tidal range (difference between high and low tide) for feasibility.
4.​ India's major tidal energy potential is in the Gulf of Kutch and Gulf of Khambhat.
5.​ It is an underutilized energy source due to high initial costs.
6.​ Tidal barrages and underwater turbines are key technologies.
7.​ It is non-polluting and has minimal carbon footprint.

3. Solar Energy

1.​ Solar energy is harnessed using photovoltaic cells and solar thermal systems.
2.​ India lies in the Tropic Zone, receiving abundant sunlight all year.
3.​ Rajasthan has the highest solar potential due to its arid climate.
4.​ World's largest solar park: Bhadla Solar Park (Rajasthan).
5.​ Government initiative: National Solar Mission under National Action Plan on
Climate Change (NAPCC).
6.​ Solar energy is ideal for decentralized power generation (like rooftop panels).
7.​ It is clean, sustainable, and helps reduce dependence on fossil fuels.

4. Biomass Energy

1.​ Biomass energy is derived from organic materials like wood, crop waste, and animal
dung.
2.​ It can be used directly (burning) or converted to biofuels like biogas and ethanol.
3.​ It is renewable but can lead to deforestation if not managed sustainably.
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4.​ Widely used in rural India for cooking and heating.

5.​ India has a National Bio-Energy Mission to promote this sector.
6.​ Biomass power plants reduce agricultural waste burning, lowering pollution.
7.​ It contributes to energy security in off-grid rural areas.

5. Geothermal Energy

1.​ Geothermal energy is heat energy extracted from Earth’s interior.

2.​ It is harnessed using geothermal wells in geologically active regions.
3.​ India’s potential areas: Himachal Pradesh, Ladakh, Sikkim, and Gujarat (Cambay
basin).
4.​ It is a renewable, eco-friendly source with minimal land footprint.
5.​ Geothermal plants have high initial cost but low operating cost.
6.​ Used globally in countries with high volcanic activity like Iceland and the Philippines.
7.​ India's first geothermal plant is proposed in Puga Valley (Ladakh).