CHAPTER 1

Fundamental Concepts

1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF MATTER

Solid. A solid, such as steel, aluminum, or wood, maintains a definite
shape and volume, Fig. a.

Liquid. A liquid, such as water, alcohol, or oil, is a fluid that is

composed of molecules that are more mobile than those in a solid.
Gas. A gas, such as helium, nitrogen, or air, is a fluid that flows until it
fills the entire volume of its container, Fig. c. Gases are composed of
molecules that are much farther apart than those of a liquid.

1
 CHAPTER 1

Continuum. Studying the behavior of a fluid as in Fig. by analyzing

the motion of all its many molecules would be an impossible task.
Fortunately, however, almost all engineering applications involve a
volume of fluid that is much greater than the very small distance between
adjacent molecules of the fluid, and so it is reasonable to assume that the
fluid is uniformly dispersed throughout this volume. Under these
circumstances, we can then consider the fluid to be a continuum, that is,
a continuous distribution of matter leaving no empty space, Fig.

1.6 SOME BASIC FLUID PROPERTIES

Density. The density ρ (rho) refers to the mass of the fluid that is
contained in a unit of volume, Fig.. It is measured in kg/m 3 and is
determined from

Here m is the mass of the fluid, and V is its volume.

Liquid. Through experiment it has been found that a liquid is
practically incompressible, that is, the density of a liquid varies little with
pressure. It does, however, have a slight but greater variation with
temperature. For example, water at 4 ℃ has a density of ρ w = 1000 kg/m3,
whereas at 100℃ its volume will expand, and so ρ w = 958.1 kg/m3. If the
temperature range is small, we can, for most practical applications,
consider the density of a liquid to be essentially constant, meaning its

2
 CHAPTER 1

volume does not change, and the fluid is then referred to as

incompressible.
Gas. Unlike a liquid, temperature and pressure can markedly affect the
density of a gas, since it has a higher degree of compressibility. For
example, air has a density of ρ= 1.23 kg/m 3 when the temperature is 15°C
and the atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa [1 Pa (pascal) = 1 N/m 2]. But
at this same temperature, and at twice the pressure, the density of air will
double and become ρ= 2.46 kg/m3.
Specific Weight. The specific weight γ (gamma) of a fluid is its
weight per unit volume, Fig. 1–6. It is measured in N/m3. Thus,

Here W is the weight of the fluid, and V is its volume

Since weight is related to mass by W = mg, then substituting this into Eq.
1–4, and comparing this result with Eq. 1–3, the specific weight is related
to the density by

Specific Gravity. The specific gravity S of a substance is a

dimensionless quantity that is defined as the ratio of its density or specific
weight to that of some other substance that is taken as a “standard.” It is
most often used for liquids, and water at an atmospheric pressure of 101.3
kPa and a temperature of 4°C is taken as the standard. Thus,

The density of water for this case is ρw = 1000 kg/m3. So, for example, if
an oil has a density of ρo = 880 kg/m3, then its specific gravity will be So =
0.880.

3
 CHAPTER 1

Bulk Modulus. The bulk modulus of elasticity, or simply the bulk

modulus, is a measure of the amount by which a fluid offers a resistance
to compression. To define this property, consider the cube of fluid in Fig.
1–7, where each face has an area A and is subjected to an incremental
force dF. The intensity of this force per unit area is the incremental
pressure, dp = dF /A. As a result, the original volume V of the cube will
decrease by dV, and when the incremental pressure is divided by the
decrease in volume per unit volume, dV/V, it defines the bulk modulus,
namely,

The minus sign is included to show that the increase in pressure

(positive) causes a decrease in volume (negative). The units for EV are the
same as for pressure, that is, force per unit area, since the volume ratio is
dimensionless. Typical units are N/m2 or Pa.
Ideal Gas Law. In this book we will consider every gas to behave as
an ideal gas.*

Here p is the absolute pressure, or force per unit area, referenced from a
perfect vacuum,
ρ is the density of the gas,
R is the gas constant, for air, R = 286.9 J/(kg . K),
T is the absolute temperature.

4
 CHAPTER 1

EXAMPLE 1.3
Air contained in the tank, Fig. 1–8, is under an absolute pressure of 60
kPa and has a temperature of 60C. Determine the mass of the air in the
tank.

SOLUTION
We will first find the density of the air in the tank using the ideal gas
law, Eq. 1–8, p = ρRT. Then, knowing the volume of the tank, we can
determine the mass of the air. The absolute temperature of the air is

The gas constant for air is R = 286.9 J/(kg . K). Then,

EXAMPLE 1.4
An amount of glycerin has a volume of 1 m 3 when the pressure is 120
kPa. If the pressure is increased to 400 kPa, determine the change in
volume of this cubic meter. The bulk modulus for glycerin is EV = 4.52
GPa.

SOLUTION
We must use the definition of the bulk modulus for the calculation.

5
 CHAPTER 1

First, the pressure increase applied to the cubic meter of glycerin is

Δp = 400 kPa - 120 kPa = 280 kPa
Thus, the change in volume is

1.7 VISCOSITY
The property of a fluid that is used to measure this resistance to flow is
called viscosity. The higher the viscosity, the more difficult it is to move
through the fluid. For example, it is easier to move through air compared
to water, because the viscosity of air is many times smaller than that of
water.
Newton’s Law of Viscosity. Consider a fluid that is confined
between a fixed surface and a very wide horizontal plate, Fig. 1–11a.
When a very small force F is applied to the plate, it will cause elements of
the fluid to deform as shown.

Newton proposed that the shear stress in a fluid is directly proportional to

this shear strain rate or velocity gradient. This is often referred to as
Newton’s law of viscosity, and it can be written as

6
 CHAPTER 1

µ (mu) is physical property of the fluid that measures the resistance to

fluid movement called the absolute or dynamic viscosity. From the
equation, m has units of N.s/m2.

Kinematic Viscosity. Another way to express the viscosity of a

fluid is to represent it by its kinematic viscosity, ν (nu), which is the ratio
of the fluid’s dynamic viscosity to its density:

The units are m2 /s.

EXAMPLE 1.5
The plate in Fig. rests on top of the thin film of water, which is at a
temperature of 25°C. If a pressure difference occurs between A and B,
and a small force F is applied to the plate, the velocity profile across the
thickness of the water can be described as u = (140y - 800y2) m/s, where y
is in meters. Determine the shear stress acting on the fixed surface and on
the bottom of the plate.

7
CHAPTER 1

SOLUTION

8
 CHAPTER 1

Fluid Description. Water is a Newtonian fluid, and so Newton’s law of

viscosity applies. The viscosity of water at 25°C is found from Appendix
A to be µ= 0.8971* (10 – 32) N . s/m2.

Analysis. Before applying Newton’s law of viscosity, we must first

obtain the velocity gradient.

EXAMPLE 1.6
The 100-kg plate in Fig. is resting on a very thin film of SAE 10W-30 oil,
which has a viscosity of m = 0.0652 N .s/m 2. Determine the force P that
must be applied to the center of the plate to slide it over the oil with a
constant velocity of 0.2 m/s. Assume the oil thickness is 0.1 mm, and the
velocity profile across this thickness is linear. The bottom of the plate has
a contact area of 0.75 m2 with the oil.

SOLUTION
Analysis. First we draw the free-body diagram of the plate in order to
relate the shear force F caused by the oil on the bottom of the plate to the
applied force P, Fig. 1–17b. Because the plate moves with constant
velocity, the force equation of equilibrium in the horizontal direction
applies.

9
 CHAPTER 1

The effect of this force on the oil is in the opposite direction, and so the
shear stress on the top of the oil acts to the left. It is

Since the velocity profile is linear, Fig. c, the velocity gradient is

constant, du/dy = U/t, and so

Notice that the constant velocity gradient will produce a constant shear-
stress distribution across the thickness of the oil, which is τ = µ(U/t)
=130Pa.

10
CHAPTER 1

11
CHAPTER 1

12
CHAPTER 1

13
CHAPTER 1

14
CHAPTER 1

15
 CHAPTER 1

Ex1.1 -Represent each of the following quantities with combinations of

units in the correct SI form, using an appropriate prefix: (a) mm . MN, (b)
Mg/mm, (c) km/ms, (d) kN/(mm)2.

16
CHAPTER 1

17
CHAPTER 1

18
CHAPTER 1

19
CHAPTER 1

20
CHAPTER 1

21
CHAPTER 1

22
CHAPTER 1

23
CHAPTER 1

24
CHAPTER 1

25