Composites Materials.

Their Classification, Processing, Applications

Composite materials are engineered by combining two or more distinct materials with different
properties to create a material with enhanced characteristics that neither component could
achieve individually.

History of Composites:

The use of composite materials dates back thousands of years. One of the earliest examples is
mud bricks, which were used in ancient constructions. Another ancient composite is concrete,
made from aggregate (stones or gravel), cement, and sand.

Modern composites began with the development of fiberglass in the 1930s, which is still widely
used in boats, building panels, and car bodies. Since then, various reinforcement materials,
matrix materials, and production methods have been developed.

 Classification of Composite Materials:

Composite materials are classified based on the type of matrix (the binding material) and the
form of the reinforcement. Matrix materials can be polymers, metals, or ceramics, leading to
classifications like polymer matrix composites (PMCs, metal matrix composites (MMCs, and
ceramic matrix composites (CMCs. Reinforcement can be in the form of fibers, particles, or
laminates, resulting in classifications like fiber-reinforced composites, particulate composites,
and laminate composites.
1. Based on Reinforcement

This category classifies composite materials according to the type of reinforcing material (the
component that provides strength, stiffness, or other mechanical properties) embedded within
the matrix (the binding material).

a. Particulate Composites

 Definition: These composites consist of small particles (the reinforcement) dispersed

within a matrix material.

 Characteristics: The particles are typically isotropic (having uniform properties in all
directions) and are often used to improve properties like hardness, wear resistance, or
thermal stability.

 Examples:

o Concrete, where gravel or sand particles are embedded in a cement matrix.

o Metal matrix composites (MMCs) with ceramic particles, such as aluminum

reinforced with silicon carbide particles.

 Applications: Used in automotive components (e.g., brake pads), cutting tools, and wear-
resistant coatings.

b. Fiber-Reinforced Composites

 Definition: These composites use fibers as the reinforcement material, embedded in a

matrix.

 Characteristics: Fibers provide high strength and stiffness along their length, making
these composites anisotropic (properties vary with direction). They are often lightweight
and have excellent tensile strength.

 Subcategories:

o Carbon-Fiber Composites:

 Reinforcement: Carbon fibers, which are extremely strong and

lightweight.

 Matrix: Often a polymer (like epoxy) or sometimes a metal.

 Properties: High strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion resistance, and

fatigue resistance.
  Applications: Aerospace (aircraft wings, fuselage), sports equipment
(tennis rackets, bicycles), and automotive parts (car bodies).

o Glass-Fiber Composites:

 Reinforcement: Glass fibers, which are less expensive than carbon fibers
but still strong.

 Matrix: Typically a polymer (e.g., polyester or epoxy).

 Properties: Good strength, electrical insulation, and corrosion resistance,

but heavier than carbon-fiber composites.

 Applications: Boat hulls, pipes, storage tanks, and wind turbine blades.

 General Applications of Fiber-Reinforced Composites: Widely used in industries where

lightweight, high-strength materials are needed, such as aerospace, automotive, and
construction.

c. Structural Composites

 Definition: These composites are designed with specific structural arrangements of the
reinforcement and matrix to achieve desired mechanical properties.

 Characteristics: They often involve layered or sandwich structures to optimize strength,

stiffness, and weight.

 Types:

o Laminates: Layers of fiber-reinforced materials stacked and bonded together

(e.g., plywood or carbon-fiber laminates in aircraft wings).

o Sandwich Structures: A lightweight core (e.g., foam or honeycomb) sandwiched

between two strong outer layers (e.g., fiberglass or aluminum).

 Applications: Aerospace (aircraft panels), marine (ship hulls), and civil engineering
(bridge decks).

2. Based on Matrix

This category classifies composite materials according to the type of matrix material (the
continuous phase that holds the reinforcement together and transfers loads to it).

a. Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)

  Matrix: Ceramic material (e.g., silicon carbide, alumina).

 Reinforcement: Often fibers (like carbon or ceramic fibers) or particles.

 Properties:

o High-temperature resistance, making them suitable for extreme environments.

o Brittle but reinforced to improve toughness and prevent catastrophic failure.

 Applications:

o Turbine blades in jet engines.

o Brake discs in high-performance vehicles.

o Heat shields for spacecraft.

b. Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs)

 Matrix: Polymer materials, which are further divided into two subcategories:

o Thermosets:

 Definition: Polymers that irreversibly cure (harden) when heated, forming

a rigid, cross-linked structure.

 Examples: Epoxy, polyester, phenolic resins.

 Properties: High strength, stiffness, and thermal stability, but cannot be

reshaped after curing.

 Applications: Aircraft components, boat hulls, and automotive parts.

o Thermoplastics:

 Definition: Polymers that soften when heated and harden when cooled,
allowing them to be reshaped.

 Examples: Polyethylene, nylon, polycarbonate.

 Properties: Recyclable, tougher than thermosets, but less heat-resistant.

 Applications: Piping, automotive bumpers, and medical devices.

 Reinforcement: Typically fibers (e.g., carbon, glass, or aramid fibers) or particles.

 General Properties of PMCs: Lightweight, corrosion-resistant, and easy to process.

  Applications: Widely used in aerospace, automotive, sports equipment, and consumer
goods.

c. Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)

 Matrix: Metal or metal alloy (e.g., aluminum, magnesium, titanium).

 Reinforcement: Often ceramic particles, fibers (e.g., carbon or silicon carbide), or

whiskers.

 Properties:

o High strength and stiffness compared to the base metal.

o Better thermal conductivity and high-temperature performance than PMCs.

o More ductile than CMCs, but heavier than PMCs.

 Applications:

o Aerospace (engine components, structural parts).

o Automotive (pistons, connecting rods).

o Electronics (heat sinks, substrates).

 Processing of composite materials:

Composite materials, which combine two or more distinct

materials to achieve superior properties like high strength, low weight, or corrosion resistance,
are processed through various methods tailored to specific applications. These methods are
broadly categorized into open molding, closed molding, and cast polymer molding, with
additional specialized techniques depending on material, design, and production needs.

 Main Categories of Composite Processing:

1. Open Molding

o Description: Composite materials (resin and fibers) are placed in a single-sided

mold exposed to air during curing. This is a cost-effective method with low
tooling costs, ideal for prototypes and low-volume production.

o Common Methods:

 Hand Lay-Up (Wet Lay-Up): Layers of reinforcing fibers (e.g., fiberglass,

carbon fiber) are manually placed in a mold and saturated with resin.
Resin is applied by hand or brush, and layers are built up to the desired
 thickness. It’s labor-intensive but allows precise control over fiber
orientation. Used for boat hulls, RV components, and custom parts.

 Spray-Up:

A chopper gun sprays a mix of chopped fibers and resin onto the mold,
creating a homogeneous layer quickly. It’s faster than hand lay-up and
suits large, complex shapes like bathtubs or truck fenders. However, it’s
less precise and emits more volatile organic compounds (VOCs), leading
to its decline due to environmental regulations.

o Advantages:

Low-cost tooling, flexibility for large parts, and suitability for custom designs.

o Challenges:

Labor-intensive, inconsistent quality, and higher VOC emissions.

2. Closed Molding

o Description: Materials are processed in a sealed, two-sided mold or vacuum bag,

offering better control over curing, higher fiber volume fractions, and improved
mechanical properties. It’s preferred for high-volume production and parts
requiring a two-sided finish.

o Common Methods:

 Vacuum Bag Molding:

Fibers are laid in a mold, covered with a vacuum bag, and resin is drawn
through under vacuum pressure. This reduces voids, eliminates excess
resin, and enhances mechanical properties. It’s used for large structures
like wind turbine blades and aerospace components.

 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM):

Dry fibers are placed in a closed mold, and resin is injected under low
pressure. It produces high-quality, complex parts with smooth finishes on
all surfaces. Variants like High-Pressure RTM (HP-RTM) use pressures up
to 150 bar for mass production (100–10,000 units/year). Common in
automotive and aerospace industries.

 Compression Molding:
 A preheated mix of resin and fibers (e.g., sheet molding compound or
bulk molding compound) is placed in a mold, compressed, and cured
under heat and pressure. It’s ideal for small, complex parts with Class A
surface finishes, widely used in automotive panels.

 Autoclave Molding:

Prepreg materials (fibers pre-impregnated with resin) are laid in a mold,

placed in an autoclave, and cured under high pressure and temperature.
This yields high-strength parts with excellent surface finish, used in
aerospace for carbon fiber components.

o Advantages:

Precise material control, reduced emissions, and suitability for complex, high-
performance parts.

o Challenges:

Higher tooling costs and longer cycle times for some methods.

3. Cast Polymer Molding

o Description:

A mixture of resin and fillers (without fiber reinforcement) is poured into a mold
and cured. It’s used for non-structural parts like countertops or sanitary ware.

o Process:

Resin and fillers are mixed, poured into open or closed molds, and left to harden.
No reinforcement fibers are used, making it simpler but less strong than other
methods.

o Applications:

Decorative panels, sinks, and architectural elements.

Specialized Processing Techniques

 Filament Winding:

Continuous fiber strands are impregnated with resin and wound onto a rotating
mandrel at specific angles to form hollow structures like pipes, tanks, or rocket casings.
It’s automated, reducing labor costs, and ideal for tubular parts with high hoop strength.
  Pultrusion: Continuous fibers are pulled through a resin bath and a heated die to form
long, uniform profiles (e.g., rods, beams). It’s cost-effective for high-volume production
of consistent shapes like golf club shafts or structural sections.

 Automated Fiber Placement (AFP) and Automated Tape Laying (ATL):

Robotic systems precisely lay down prepreg tapes or fibers in specific orientations,
optimizing strength for complex parts. These are used in aerospace for high-
performance components.

 3D Printing (Additive Manufacturing):

Emerging for composites, it involves layering fiber-reinforced polymers to create

complex geometries. It’s still developing but shows promise for customized parts with
reduced waste.

 Sheet Lamination:

Layers of thermoplastic materials are bonded using heat and pressure, often for rapid
prototyping or low-volume parts.

Fundamental Steps in Composite Manufacturing

Regardless of the method, composite processing typically involves four key steps, though their
order and execution vary:

1. Impregnation: Fibers are saturated with resin, either manually (hand lay-up),
mechanically (spray-up, pultrusion), or pre-impregnated (prepreg). Prepreg is common
in aerospace for consistent resin content.

2. Lay-Up: Fibers or prepregs are placed in a mold or on a mandrel in specific orientations

to achieve desired strength and stiffness. This can be manual (hand lay-up) or automated
(AFP/ATL).

3. Consolidation: Pressure (via vacuum, compression, or autoclave) compacts the material,

removing air voids and ensuring fiber-resin adhesion.

4. Solidification/Curing: The resin hardens, either at room temperature, with heat

(thermosets), or through cooling (thermoplastics). Thermosets require careful
temperature control to optimize cross-linking, while thermoplastics solidify faster.
Materials and Considerations

 Reinforcements: Common fibers include carbon, glass, aramid (e.g., Kevlar), and natural
fibers (e.g., flax). Fiber orientation and volume fraction significantly affect mechanical
properties.

 Matrices: Polymer matrices (thermosets like epoxy or thermoplastics like polypropylene)

are most common, with ceramics or metals used for high-temperature applications.
Thermosets dominate due to ease of processing, while thermoplastics offer recyclability.

 Design Factors: Processing method selection depends on part size, complexity,

production volume, and cost. For example, hand lay-up suits low-volume custom parts,
while RTM or compression molding is better for mass production.

 Environmental Impact: Open molding emits VOCs (e.g., styrene), prompting a shift to
closed molding. Recycling composites remains challenging, with life cycle assessments
highlighting landfill issues.

 Applications:
Composite materials, combining two or more distinct materials to achieve superior
properties, have diverse applications across industries due to their high strength-to-
weight ratio, durability, and versatility. Below is a concise overview of key applications:
1. Aerospace:
o Used in aircraft and spacecraft for components like wings, fuselages, and turbine
blades (e.g., carbon fiber-reinforced polymers in Boeing 787 Dreamliner).
o Benefits: Lightweight, fuel efficiency, corrosion resistance.
2. Automotive:
o Employed in car bodies, chassis, and interiors (e.g., carbon fiber in high-
performance vehicles like Formula 1 cars or Tesla’s structural components).
o Benefits: Reduced weight, improved fuel efficiency, crash resistance.
3. Construction:
o Applied in bridges, buildings, and rebar (e.g., fiber-reinforced concrete, glass
fiber-reinforced polymers for structural retrofitting).
o Benefits: High strength, corrosion resistance, longevity.
4. Marine:
 o Used in boat hulls, decks, and masts (e.g., fiberglass in yachts or composite
panels in naval vessels).
o Benefits: Resistance to water and corrosion, lightweight.
5. Sports and Recreation:
o Found in bicycles, tennis rackets, golf clubs, and helmets (e.g., carbon fiber in
professional cycling frames).
o Benefits: Lightweight, high stiffness, tailored performance.
6. Renewable Energy:
o Utilized in wind turbine blades and solar panel supports (e.g., glass/carbon fiber
composites for longer, durable blades).
o Benefits: High strength, fatigue resistance, reduced maintenance.
7. Medical:
o Used in prosthetics, implants, and medical imaging tables (e.g., carbon fiber
composites in lightweight prosthetics).
o Benefits: Biocompatibility, radiolucency, durability.
8. Defense:
o Applied in body armor, vehicle armor, and unmanned vehicles (e.g., Kevlar
composites in bulletproof vests).
o Benefits: High impact resistance, lightweight.
9. Electronics:
o Used in circuit boards and device casings (e.g., glass fiber composites in PCBs).
o Benefits: Electrical insulation, thermal stability.
10. Industrial:
o Employed in pipes, tanks, and machinery components (e.g., composite pressure
vessels for gas storage).
o Benefits: Chemical resistance, reduced maintenance costs.