Topic 2:

Cells: Basic
unit of life
 Organisation
 Cells are the basic units of life.
 All organisms are made up of cells.
 Organic compounds such as proteins, lipids and
carbohydrates.
 Organelles: small structures within the cell that
carry out various functions.
 Cells are organized in such a way that they form very
efficient and complex organisms.
 Difference in size, shape & structure - cells
 Different cells have different sizes, i.e., some cells are
microscopic while others are macroscopic.
 Microscopic cells are so small they cannot be seen
with the naked eye.
 They can only be viewed under the microscope.
 Examples: plant cell, animal cell and bacteria.
 Difference in size, shape & structure - cells
 Macroscopic cells are large enough to be seen with
the naked eye.
 This means that you do not need a microscope.
 Examples: human egg → big as the full stop at the
end of this sentence; ostrich egg cell.
 Difference in size, shape & structure - cells
 Macroscopic cells are large enough to be seen with
the naked eye.
 This means that you do not need the microscope.
 Examples: human egg which is as big as the full stop
at the end of this sentence and the ostrich egg cell.
 Difference in size, shape & structure - cells
 Since cells are so small the normal units of
measurement are too large to use.
 Different units, smaller than cm and mm, are used.
 Units of measurement:
 microns/micrometer (μm)
 nanometers (nm).
 Difference in size, shape & structure - cells
 The relationship between the micron and nanometer
is shown below:
1mm = 1000 μm
1 μm = 1000 nm
 Examples of the sizes of cells:
 Chloroplast is 1 μm
 Atom is 1 nm
 Calculations - cells
1. Express the size of chloroplast in nm. Show your
workings.
2. Express the size of an atom in μm. Show your
workings.
 Calculations - cells
1. 1 μm * 1 000 = 1 000 nm
2. 1 nm / 1 000 = 0,001 μm
 Difference in size, shape & structure - cells
 Cells have many different shapes and structures:
 regular shape: can be named e.g., circular/round,
square, rectangle.
 irregular shape: cannot be named or may be
changing e.g., amoeba.
 The shape of the cells has to do with the function it
performs.
 Components of all cells:
 Cell membrane:
 a thin boundary that encloses the cytoplasm
 cytoplasm and the cell membrane = protoplasm
 Nucleus:
 the control centre of the cell
 Cytoplasm:
 a thick, jelly-like liquid that holds particles and
structures
 Components of all cells:
 Organelles:
 structures found as single units within the cell
 make up the cell
 have particular functions for metabolism
 Cell wall (structure):
 Rigid, non-living layer.
 Found outside the cell membrane and surrounds the
cell.
 In plants, the wall is comprised of cellulose.
 It consists of three layers that help support the plant.
 These layers include the middle lamella, the primary
cell wall and the secondary cell wall.
 Cell wall (structure):
 Middle lamella:
 separates one cell from another.
 a thin membranous layer on the outside of the cell.
 made of a sticky substance called pectin.
 Primary cell wall:
 found on the inside of the middle lamella.
 it is mainly composed of cellulose.
 Cell wall (structure):
 Secondary cell wall:
 lies alongside the cell membrane.
 made up of a thick and tough layer of cellulose
 held together by a hard, waterproof substance
called lignin.
 only found in cells which provide mechanical
support in plants, e.g., wood.
 Cell wall (function):
 Protects the inner parts of the cell.
 Encloses the cell.
 Gives plant cells a more uniform and regular shape.
 Provides support for the plant body.
 Middle lamella binds the cells together.
 Cell wall is permeable, so it is involved in transport,
allow most substances to pass through.
 Cytoplasm (structure):
 Jelly-like substance that fills the cell.
 Consists of up to 90% water.
 Contains dissolved nutrients and waste products.
 Cytoplasm (function):
 Hold together the organelles which make up the
cytoplasm.
 Nourishes the cell by supplying it with salts and
sugars.
 Provides a medium for metabolic reactions to occur.
 Cell membrane (structure):
 Also called the plasma membrane or plasma lemma.
 Composed of a double layer of lipids (fats) called a
phospholipid bilayer.
 Physically separates the intracellular (inside cell)
space from the extracellular (outside cell)
environment.
 All plant and animal cells have cell membranes.
 Cell membrane (structure):
Surrounds the cytoplasm which is part of the
protoplasm and is the living component of the cell.
 Cell membrane (structure):
 Scientist have studied the behaviour of the cell
membrane under various conditions.
 These results were used to develop theories or
models on the structure of the cell membrane.
 Fluid mosaic model: proposes the cell membrane is
made up of lipids and proteins.
 Cell membrane (structure):
 Two layers of phospholipids that are stuck together.
 Protein molecules are arranged throughout these
two layers e.g., some protein molecules go right
through the two layers.
 Small openings found at regular intervals called
pores.
 They allow only some substances to pass through.
 Cell membrane (function):
 Protect the contents of an animal cell because it is
the outermost layer.
 Controls the entry and exit of certain substances
only.
 Selectively permeable → selects the substances
that are allowed to enter or leave the cell membrane.
 Cell membrane (function):
 Substances need to enter and leave the cell to carry
out its functions.
 Example: waste substances (CO2) need to leave the
cell and glucose need to enter the cell for cellular
respiration.
 These substances need to move across the cell
membrane to enter and leave a cell.
 Movement across membranes:
 Three ways substances can enter and leave the cell:
1. Diffusion
2. Osmosis
3. Active transport
 1. Diffusion
 Movement of liquid or gas particles from a region
of high concentration to a region of low
concentration until equilibrium is reached.
 These particles move because of their kinetic energy.
 Rate of diffusion can be altered:
 increasing or decreasing the kinetic energy of
these particles.
 1. Diffusion
 Passive process → does not require any energy input.
 Occurs across a living or non-living membrane.
 Occurs in a liquid or gas medium.
 Gases enter and leave cells through diffusion.
 1. Diffusion
 Oxygen enters the cells and alveoli of the lung by
diffusion and carbon dioxide leaves the cells and the
alveoli of the lung by diffusion.
 Glucose and amino acids leaves the intestines and
enters the cells by diffusion.
 2. Osmosis
 Movement of a liquid from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration
across a differentially permeable membrane
until equilibrium is reached.
 Movement of water always occurs down a
concentration gradient.
 From higher water potential (dilute solution) to
lower potential (concentrated solution).
 2. Osmosis
 Passive process → does not require any input of
energy.
 Cell membranes allow molecules of water to pass
through but do not allow molecules of most dissolved
substances, e.g. salt and sugar, to pass through.
 It is vital to plant and animal cell survival.
 2. Osmosis
 Plant cells use osmosis to absorb water from the soil
and transport it to the leaves.
 Osmosis in the kidneys keeps the water and salt
levels in the body and blood at the correct levels.
 3. Active Transport
 Movement of substances against a concentration
gradient i.e., from a region of low concentration to
high concentration using an input of energy.
 Form in which this energy occurs is adenosine
triphosphate (ATP).
 The process transports substances through a
membrane protein.
 3. Active Transport
 The movement of substances is selective via the
carrier proteins and can occur into or out of the cell.
 Mitochondria (structure):
 Found in the cytoplasm of both plant and animal
cells.
 Number of mitochondria vary in the different cells.
 The more active the cell, the larger the number of
mitochondria present.
 Example: muscle cell will have many more
mitochondria than the skin cell.
 Mitochondria (structure):
 Cylindrically shaped and is enclosed by a double
membrane.
 The double membrane is made up of an outer
membrane and an inner membrane.
 Inner membrane contains folds known as cristae.
 Cristae increase the inner surface area of the
mitochondrion where chemical reactions take place.
 Mitochondria (structure):
 The inner membrane encloses a ground substance
called the matrix.
 It is a semi-fluid substance.
 The DNA, RNA and the ribosomes are found in the
matrix.
 Mitochondria (function):
 It is the site of cellular respiration.
 During this process, the mitochondria releases
energy.
 Plastids (structure):
 Organelles found only in plants.
 Three different types:
1. Leucoplasts: white plastids found in roots; used for
storage of starches, lipids and proteins.
2. Chloroplasts: green-coloured plastids found in
plants and algae
3. Chromoplasts: contain red, orange or yellow
pigments; common in ripening fruit, flowers or
autumn leaves
 Plastids - Chloroplast (structure):
 Green organelles → contain the pigment chlorophyll.
 Double-membraned organelle.
 Within the double membrane is a gel-like substance
called stroma.
 Stroma contains enzymes for photosynthesis.
 Suspended in the stroma are stack-like structures
called grana (singular = granum).
 Plastids - Chloroplast (structure):
 Each granum is a stack of thylakoid discs.
 Chlorophyll molecules (green pigments) are found on
the surface of the thylakoid discs.
 Grana are connected by lamellae (intergrana).
 Lamellae keep the stacks apart from each other.
 Plastids - Chloroplast (function):
 Chlorophyll absorbs energy from the sun for
photosynthesis to take place in the chloroplasts.
 Chloroplasts contain a high density of thylakoid discs
and numerous grana to allow for increased surface
area.
 This enables absorption of sunlight, thus producing a
high quantity of food for the plant.
 Plastids - Chloroplast (function):
 Gives parts of the plant their green colour.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) (structure):
 Organelle found in eukaryotic cells only.
 Double membrane consisting of a network of hollow
tubes, flattened sheets, and round sacs.
 Located in cytoplasm.
 Connected to the nuclear envelope.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) (structure):
 Twotypes of ER:
1. Smooth ER → has no ribosomes on its surface.
2. Rough ER → has ribosomes on its surface.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) (function):
 Transports substances from one part of the
cytoplasm to another.
 Smooth ER is involved in the synthesis of lipids, oils,
phospholipids and steroids.
 Rough ER is responsible for protein synthesis and
plays a role in membrane production.
 Ribosomes (structure):
 Small, grain-like structures.
 Composed of RNA and protein.
 May occur singly in the cytoplasm; in the plastids; may
be attached to ER → rough ER.
 Sites where protein synthesis occurs.
 Ribosomes (function):
 Essential for protein production.
 Golgi body (structure):
 Also called the dictyosomes.
 First identified in 1898 in the brain cells by Camillo
Golgi.
 Occurs in plant and animal cells.
 Found near the nucleus and ER.
 Consists of a stack of flat membrane-bound sacs
called cisternae.
 Golgi body (function):
 It is the sorting organelle of the cell.
 It prepares proteins for transport to other parts of
the cell.
 Plays a role in producing and processing secretions
e.g., mucus and saliva.
 Vacuoles (structure):
 Membrane-bound, fluid-filled organelles.
 Occur in the cytoplasm of most plant cells.
 Very small or completely absent from animal cells.
 Each vacuole is surrounded by a selectively
permeable membrane called the tonoplast.
 Tonoplast encloses a liquid called the cell sap.
 Vacuoles (structure):
 Cell sap is a solution of water, mineral salts, sugars
and amino acids.
 Cell sap creates pressure within the cell called turgor
pressure.
Turgor pressure maintains the shape of the cell.
 Vacuoles (function):
 Important for digestion and excretion of cellular
waste.
 Stores water and organic and inorganic substances.
 Takes in and releases water by osmosis in response
to changes in the cytoplasm, as well as in the
environment around the cell.
 Other types of vacuoles:
 Vesicles - small, spherical sacs which facilitate the
metabolism, transport and storage of molecules.
 Lysosomes - small vesicles, mainly found in animal
cells, that are filled with digestive enzymes.
 These powerful enzymes can digest cell structures
and food molecules such as carbohydrates and
proteins.
 Nucleus (structure):
 Largest organelle in the cell.
 Contains all the cell’s genetic information in the form
of DNA.
 The presence of a nucleus is the primary factor that
distinguishes eukaryotes from prokaryotes.
Nuclear envelope:
 two lipid membranes that are studded with special
proteins.
 separates the nucleus and its contents from the
cytoplasm.
Nuclear pores:
 tiny holes, found in the nuclear envelope.
 help to regulate the exchange of materials
between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
 Chromatin:
 thin long strands of DNA and protein.
 Nucleolus:
 makes RNA, another type of nucleic acid.
 Nucleus (function):
 To control gene expression and facilitate DNA
replication during the cell cycle.
 Controls the metabolic functions of the cell by
producing mRNA which encodes for enzymes e.g.,
insulin.
 Controls the structure of the cell by transcribing
DNA which encodes for structural proteins such as
keratin.
 Nucleus (function):
 Site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis, which is
important for the construction of ribosomes.
 Characteristics are transmitted from parent to
offspring through genetic material contained in the
nucleus.
 Centrioles (structure):
 Animal cells contain a special organelle called a
centriole.
 A cylindrical, tube-like structure that is composed of
microtubules arranged in a very particular pattern.
 Two centrioles arranged perpendicular to each other
are referred to as a centrosome.
 Centrioles (function):
 Centrosome plays a very important role in cell
division.
 Centrioles are responsible for organising the
microtubules that position the chromosomes in the
correct location during cell division.