BASIC

SCIENCE
ZOMBA VOCATIONAL TRAINING CENTRE
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Unit Content

Outcome 1:0 The cell

Structure and its functions
- Plant cell
- Animal cell.

Outcome 2: Organs and systems of the body

 Central Nervous System
 Gastro-Intestinal Tract
 Circulatory
 Kidney and urinary system
 Lymphatic system (specific and non-specific, Immunity system.

Outcome 3: Basic chemistry

 Elements
 Compounds
 Molecules

Outcome 4: Chemistry of organic molecules

 Organic molecules
 Carbohydrates
 Proteins
 Fats: triglycerides and fatty acids
 Nucleic aids

Outcome 5: Acids and bases

Synthetic and natural organic polymers

Outcome 6: Classification of microbes:

 Viruses,
 Fungi,
 Bacteria,
 Protozoa,
 Mycoplasma,
 Rickettsia.
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THE CELL

 A cell is defined as the smallest, basic unit of life that is responsible for all of life’s processes.
 Cells are the basic, fundamental unit of life. So, if we were to break apart an organism to the
cellular level, the smallest independent component that we would find would be the cell.
 The study of cells from its basic structure to the functions of every cell organelle is called Cell
Biology. Robert Hooke was the first Biologist who discovered cells.
 All organisms are made up of cells. They may be made up of a single cell (unicellular), or
many cells (multicellular). Mycoplasmas are the smallest known cells. Cells are the building
blocks of all living beings. They provide structure to the body and convert the nutrients taken
from the food into energy.
 Cells are complex and their components perform various functions in an organism. They are of
different shapes and sizes, pretty much like bricks of the buildings. Our body is made up of
cells of different shapes and sizes.
 Cells are the lowest level of organisation in every life form. From organism to organism, the
count of cells may vary. Humans have the number of cells compared to that of bacteria.
 Cells comprise several cell organelles that perform specialised functions to carry out life
processes. Every organelle has a specific structure. The hereditary material of the organisms is
also present in the cells.

Characteristics of Cells
Following are the various essential characteristics of cells:
 Cells provide structure and support to the body of an organism.
 The cell interior is organised into different individual organelles surrounded by a separate
membrane.
 The nucleus (major organelle) holds genetic information necessary for reproduction and cell
growth.
 Every cell has one nucleus and membrane-bound organelles in the cytoplasm.
 Mitochondria, a double membrane-bound organelle is mainly responsible for the energy
transactions vital for the survival of the cell.
 Lysosomes digest unwanted materials in the cell.
 Endoplasmic reticulum plays a significant role in the internal organisation of the cell by
synthesising selective molecules and processing, directing and sorting them to their appropriate
locations.
Types of Cells
Cells are similar to factories with different labourers and departments that work towards a common
objective. Various types of cells perform different functions. Based on cellular structure, there are two
types of cells:
 Prokaryotes
 Eukaryotes
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1) Prokaryotic Cells

 Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus. Instead, some prokaryotes such as bacteria have a region
within the cell where the genetic material is freely suspended. This region is called the
nucleoid.
 They all are single-celled microorganisms. Examples include archaea, bacteria, and
cyanobacteria.
 The cell size ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 μm in diameter.
 The hereditary material can either be DNA or RNA.
 Prokaryotes generally reproduce by binary fission, a form of asexual reproduction. They are
also known to use conjugation which is often seen as the prokaryotic equivalent to sexual
reproduction (however, it is NOT sexual reproduction).

2) Eukaryotic Cells
 Eukaryotic cells are characterised by a true nucleus.
 The size of the cells ranges between 10–100 μm in diameter.
 This broad category involves plants, fungi, protozoans, and animals.
 The plasma membrane is responsible for monitoring the transport of nutrients and electrolytes
in and out of the cells. It is also responsible for cell to cell communication.
 They reproduce sexually as well as asexually.
 There are some contrasting features between plant and animal cells. For eg., the plant cell
contains chloroplast, central vacuoles, and other plastids, whereas the animal cells do not.

Cell Structure
The cell structure comprises individual components with specific functions essential to carry out life’s
processes. These components include- cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and cell
organelles. Read on to explore more insights on cell structure and function.

i. Cell Membrane
 The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the movement of substances in
and out of the cells. It separates the cell from the external environment. The cell membrane is
present in all the cells.
 The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other organelles, such as the
cytoplasm and nucleus, are enclosed.
 It is also referred to as the plasma membrane.
 By structure, it is a porous membrane (with pores) which permit the movement of selective
substances in and out of the cell.
 Besides this, the cell membrane also protects the cellular component from damage and leakage.
 It forms the wall-like structure between two cells as well as between the cell and its
surroundings.
 Plants are immobile, so their cell structures are well-adapted to protect them from external
factors. The cell wall helps to reinforce this function.

ii. Cell Wall

 The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell structure. It is made up of cellulose,
hemicellulose and pectin.
 The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects the plasma membrane and other
cellular components.
 The cell wall is also the outermost layer of plant cells.
 It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell membrane.
 It provides shape and support to the cells and protects them from mechanical shocks and
injuries.

iii. Cytoplasm
 The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell membrane.
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 Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm.
 The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, mitochondria, ribosomes, are
suspended in this cytoplasm.
iv. Nucleus
 The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA.
 It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide and die.
 The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope that separates the DNA from the rest of the
cell.
 The nucleus protects the DNA and is an integral component of a plant’s cell structure.

Cell Organelles
Cells are composed of various cell organelles that perform certain specific functions to carry out life’s
processes. The different cell organelles, along with its principal functions, are as follows
i. Nucleolus
 The nucleolus is the site of ribosome synthesis. Also, it is involved in controlling
cellular activities and cellular reproduction
ii. Nuclear membrane
 The nuclear membrane protects the nucleus by forming a boundary between the nucleus
and other cell organelles.
iii. Chromosomes
 Chromosomes play a crucial role in determining the sex of an individual. Each human
cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes
iv. Endoplasmic reticulum
 The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the transportation of substances throughout
the cell. It plays a primary role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, synthesis of lipids,
steroids and proteins.
v. Golgi Bodies
 Golgi bodies are called the cell’s post office as it is involved in the transportation of
materials within the cell
vi. Ribosome
 Ribosomes are the protein synthesisers of the cell
vii. Mitochondria
 The mitochondrion is called “the powerhouse of the cell.” It is called so because it
produces ATP – the cell’s energy currency
viii. Lysosomes
 Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies entering the cell and helps
in cell renewal. Therefore, it is known as the cell’s suicide bags
ix. Chloroplast
 Chloroplasts are the primary organelles for photosynthesis. It contains the pigment
chlorophyll
x. Vacuoles
 Vacuoles stores food, water, and other waste materials in the cell
Functions of Cell
A cell performs these major functions essential for the growth and development of an organism.
Important functions of cell are as follows:

1. Provides Support and Structure

All the organisms are made up of cells. They form the structural basis of all the organisms. The cell
wall and the cell membrane are the main components that function to provide support and structure to
the organism. For e.g. the skin is made up of a large number of cells. Xylem present in the vascular
plants is made of cells that provide structural support to the plants.

2. Facilitate Growth Mitosis

In the process of mitosis, the parent cell divides into the daughter cells. Thus, the cells multiply and
facilitate the growth in an organism.
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3. Allows Transport of Substances

Various nutrients are imported by the cells to carry out various chemical processes going on inside the
cells. The waste produced by the chemical processes is eliminated from the cells by active and passive
transport. Small molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethanol diffuse across the cell
membrane along the concentration gradient. This is known as passive transport. The larger molecules
diffuse across the cell membrane through active transport where the cells require a lot of energy to
transport the substances.

4. Energy Production
Cells require energy to carry out various chemical processes. This energy is produced by the cells
through a process called photosynthesis in plants and respiration in animals.

5. Aids in Reproduction
A cell aids in reproduction through the processes called mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is termed as the
asexual reproduction where the parent cell divides to form daughter cells. Meiosis causes the daughter
cells to be genetically different from the parent cells. Thus, we can understand why cells are known as
the structural and functional unit of life. This is because they are responsible for providing structure to
the organisms and performs several functions necessary for carrying out life’s processes

Difference Between Plant cell and Animal cell

In an ecosystem, plants have the role of producers while animals have taken the role of consumers.
Hence, their daily activities and functions vary, so do their cell structure. Cell structure and organelles
vary in plants and animals, and they are primarily classified based on their function. The difference in
their cell composition is the reason behind the difference between plants and animals, their structure
and functions.

Each cell organelle has a particular function to perform. Some of the cell organelles are present in both
plant cell and the animal cell, while others are unique to just one. Most of the earth’s higher organisms
are eukaryotes, including all plant and animals. Hence, these cells share some similarities typically
associated with eukaryotes. For example, all eukaryotic cells consist of a nucleus, plasma membrane,
cytoplasm, peroxisomes, mitochondria, ribosomes and other cell organelles.
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The major differences between the plant cell and animal cell are mentioned below:

PLANT CELL ANIMAL CEL

1. Shape Square or rectangular in shape Irregular or round in shape
2. Cell Wall Present Absent
3. Plasma/Cell Membrane Present Present
4. Endoplasmc Reticulum Present Present
5. Nucleus Present and lies on one side Present and lies in the centre
6. Lysosomes Present but are very rare Present
7. Centrosomes Absent Present
8. Golgi Apparatus Present Present
9. Cytoplasm Present Present
10. Ribosomes Present Present
11. Plastids Present Absent
12. Vacuoles Few large or single,centralised Usually small and numerous
13. Cilia Absent Present and are numerous
14. Mitochondria Present but fewer in number Present and are numerous
15. Mode of nutrition Pramirily autotrophic Heterotrophic

Conclusion
Both plant and animal cells comprise membrane-bound organelles, such as endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria, the nucleus, Golgi apparatus, peroxisomes, lysosomes. They also have similar
membranes, such as cytoskeletal elements and cytosol. The plant cell can also be larger than the
animal cell. The normal range of the animal cell varies from about 10 – 30 micrometres and that of
plant cell range between 10 – 100 micrometres.
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3. KIDNEY AND URINARY SYSTEM
The urinary system’s function is to filter blood and create urine as a waste by product. The organs of
the urinary system include the kidneys, renal pelvis, ureters, bladder and urethra.

The body takes nutrients from food and converts them to energy. After the body has taken the food
components that it needs, waste products are left behind in the bowel and in the blood.
The kidney and urinary systems ahelps the body to eliminate liquid waste called urea, and to keep
chemicals, such as potassium and sodium, and water in balance. Urea is produced when foods
containing protein, such as meat, poultry and certain vegetables, are broken down in the body. Urea is
carried in the bloodstream to the kidneys, where it is removed along with water and other wastes in the
form urine.

Other important functions of kidneys include blood pressure regulation and the production of
erythropoietin, which controls red blood cell production in the bone marrow. Kidney also regulates
the acid-base balance ad conserve fluids.
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KIDNEY AND URINARY SYSTEM PARTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
1. Two kidneys: This pair of purplish-brown organs is located below the ribs towards the middle
of the back. Their functions is to;
 Remove waste products and drugs from the body
 Balance the body’s fluids
 Release hormones to regulate blood pressure
 Control production of red blood cells
The kidneys remove urea from the blood through tiny filtering units called nephrons. Each
nephron consists of ball formed of small blood capillaries, called a renal tubule. Urea,
together with water and other waste substances, forms the urine as it passes through the
nephrons and down the renal tubules of the kidney.
2. Two ureters: these narrow tubes carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. Muscles in the
ureter walls continually tighten and relax forcing urine downward, away from the kidneys. If
urine backs up, or is allowed to stand still, kidney infection can develop. About every 10 to 15
seconds, small amount of urine are emptied into the bladder from the ureters.

3. Bladder: This triangle-shape, hollow organ is located in the lower abdomen. It is held in place
by ligaments that are attached to other organs and the pelvic bones. The bladder’s wall relax
and expand to store urine, and contract and flatten to empty urine through the urethra. The
typical healthy adult bladder can store up to two cups of urine for five hours.

4. Two sphincter muscles: these circular muscle help urine from leaking by closing tightly like a
rubber band around the opening of the bladder.

5. Nerves in the bladder: The nerves alert a person when it is time to urinate, or empty the
bladder.
6. Urethra: This tube allows urine to pass outside the body. The brain signals the bladder
muscles to tighten, which squeezes urine out of the bladder. At the same time, the brain signals
the sphincter muscles to relax to let urine exit the bladder through the urethra. When all the
signals occur in the correct order, normal urination occurs.
FACTS ABOUT URINE
1. Normal, healthy urine is a pale straw or transparent yellow color.
2. Darker yellow or honey colored urine means you need more water.
3. A dark, brownish color may indicate a liver problem or severe dehydration.
4. Pinkish or red urine may mean blood in the urine.
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BASIC CHEMISTRY

What is chemistry? Is a branch of science which deals with the study of composition, structure,
properties and change of matter. Every material in existence is made of matter- even our own bodies.
Chemistry is involved in everything that we do, from growing and cooking food to cleaning our
homes. Understanding basic chemistry concepts is important for almost every profession. Including
nutrition.
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
Matter is very thing that occupies space and has weight. It can be felt by felt by one one or more of our
senses. Everything that is around us including the pen, book, pencil, air, all living things are composed
of matter. They have weight and occupy space.
Classification of matter can be done by two ways- physical and chemical classification.

STATES OF MATTER
There are three states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
Differences between soli, liquid and gas

1. SOLID
 Have strong intermolecular force
 Very less intermolecular space
 Have definite shapeand volume
 Cannot flow
 High density
 Can not be compressed
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2. LIQUID
 Weak intermolecular force
 Large intermolecular space
 Do not have definite shape but have definite volume
 Can flow from higheir level to lower level
 Low density
 Can be compressed

3. GAS
 Very weak intermolecular force
 Very large intermolecular space
 Do not have definite shape and volume
 Can flow in all directions
 Very lowdensity
 Can be easily compressed

There are six distinct changes of phase which happens to different substances at different
temperatures. The six changes are
1. Freezing-the substances changes from a liquid to solid
2. Melting – the substance changes back from the solid to the liquid
3. Condensation-the substance changes from gas to liquid
4. Vaporization-the substance changes from a liquid to a gas
5. Sublimation-the substance changes directly from a solid to gas without going through the
liquid phase
6. Deposition-the substance changes directly from a gas to solid without going through the liquid
phase

ELEMENTS
An element is a simplest form of pure substance that can neither be decomposed into nor built up from
simpler substances by ordinary physical or chemical process. An element is a substance that is made
entirely from one type of atom. For example, the element hydrogen is made from atoms containing a
single proton and a single electron. If you change the number of protons an atom has, you change the
types of element it is.
There are total 118 elements with their atomic number 1 to 118. Out of which 92 occur naturally while
the rest are prepared artificially in the laboratories.
Elements are further classified as metals, non-metals and metalloids. Out of 118 elements of the
periodic table, 84 are metals, 7 are metalloids and rests of them are non-metals
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1. Metals: Metals are generally solids (except mercury, which is the only which exists in liquid
state in room temperature). They are good conductors of heat and electricity, and are malleable
(they can be hammered into sheets) and ductile (they can be drawn into wire). Iron, aluminum,
copper, silver and Gold are common example of metal

2. Non-metals : Non-metals are generally found in gaseous state but iodine is found in solid state
and bromine is found in liquid state. They are usually poor conductors of heat and electricity
and are not malleable and ductile. Examples of non-metal are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, sulphur, etc

3. Metalloids: The elements which possess both the characteristics of metals as well as non-
metals are called metalloids. In their physical properties, they are more like the non-metals, but
under certain circumstances, several of them can be made to conduct electricity. Some
examples of metalloid are Silicon, Arsenic, Bismuth, Antimony, etc.

COMPOUND
A compound is a pure substance formed by the chemical union of two or more elements in a fixed
proportional by weight. For example:- water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen combined
together in a fixed proportional 1:8 by weight.
The properties of compound are entirely different from it’s constituents. For example, hydrogen burns,
oxygen supports burning but water (containing hydrogen and oxygen) neither burns nor supports the
burning.

MIXTURE
Anything obtained by mixing two or more substances (elements or compounds) in any proportion so
that their components do not lose their identity is called mixture. Mixture can be separated by different
method depending upon the nature of mixture components. Some of the methods are filtration,
sublimation, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, etc
Two types of mixtures
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1. Homogenous mixture : The mixture in which the components mixed are uniformly distributed
throughout the mixture is called homogeneous mixture. The mixing is called homogeneous
mixture. The mixng is called homogeneous mixture. The mixing components cannot be seen.
Homogeneous mixture are also called as solutions
Example:- alcohol in water, air, petrol, sugar solution etc
2. Heterogeneous mixture:- The mixture in which the components mixed are not uniformly distributed in
the mixture is called heterogeneous mixture. The mixing is called heterogeneous mixture. The mixing
components can be seen through our naked. Examples:- Mixture of oil and water, sand and water, iron
and wood dust, etc

Differences between compound and mixture

Compound Mixture
 A compound is pure  Anything obtained by
substance formed by the mixing two or more
chemical union of two substances (elements or
or more elements in a compounds) in any
fixed proportional by proportion so that its
weight component does not
 The constituents of a lose their identity is
compound are always called mixture
present in fixed ration  The constituents of a
by weight mixture may be present
 Compounds are always in any ration.
homogenous in nature  The constituents of a
 The constituents of mixture may be present
compound cannot be in any ratio.
easily separated by  Mixture may be
simple mechanical homogenous or
methods heterogeneous.
 The properties of  The constituents of
compound are entirely mixture can be easily
different from it’s separated by simple
constients. mechanical methods.
 The have sharp melting  The properties of
and boiling point mixture are in between
 Examples:- Water, those of its constiuents.
HCL, NaCl, etc  They don’t have sharp
melting and boiling
point
 Examples; Air, salt
solution, etc

ATOMS AND MOLECULES

ATOM
An atom is the smallest particle of an element which take part in chemical reaction. Atom consists of
three fundamental particles like proton, neutron and electron. Atoms of same element are similar in
properties where atoms of same elements are similar in properties whereas atoms of diferent elements
are different in properties. Example:- ‘H’ represent the atom of hydrogen.
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Atoms may or may not have independent existence. Atoms of inert gases like helium, neon, argon, etc.
have independent existence whereas atoms of oxygen, nitrogen, etc. do not have independent
existence. Atoms combine with each other to form stable molecules (like O 2 )
MOLECULES:
Molecule is the smallest unit of an element or compound which can exist in free state in nature and
posses all the element or compound.
 Molecules containing atoms of same elements are called homoatomic molecules. Eg. H 2 , N2 ,P2,
O 2 , O 3 , S8 etc.
 Molecules containing atoms of different elemets are called heteroatomic molecules. E.g. HCL,
CO 2 , NH3 , CH4 , PCL5 etc
 Depending on the number of atoms present, a molecule is called monoatomic, diatomic and
polyatomic molecule. Eg.
(i) Monoatomic- He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn
(ii) Diatomic – H2 , Nacl, O 2 , HCL
(iii) Polyatomic- P4 ,NH3 ,H2 ,H2 SO 4
Difference between compound and molecule
 A compound is a substance that is composed from two or more different elements. Eg. Water
(H2 O), table salt (NaCl), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane (CH4 )
 A molecule is a group of two or more atoms held together by chemicsl bonds. E.g. H 2 , NaCl2 ,
N2
 All compounds are molecules but all molecules are not compounds. Things like nitrogen gas
(N 2 , Oxygen (O 2 ) are molecules butnot compounds since they only contain one kind of
element.
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Exercise
1. Air is an example of
a. Compound
b. Homogenous mixture
c. Heterogeneous mixture
d. Molecule
2. On heating, solid camphor directly changes to gas, this process is called;
a. Evaporation
b. Melting
c. Deposition
d. Sublimation
3. Proton and neutron combined forms
a. Electron
b. Atom
c. Nucleon
d. Element
4. ‘He’ indicates
a. An atom of helium
b. A molecule of helium
c. Both a and b
d. An ion of helium
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ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Organic compounds are defined as the hydrocarbons (compounds containing carbon and hydrogen)
and their derivatives in which covalently bonded carbon is essential constituent.
Organic compounds are classified as

Open chain organic compounds: are organic compounds in which the terminal C- atoms are joined
together are called open chain compounds. E.g.

The open chain organic compounds can be further classified as,

1. Alkanes: Alkanes are the saturated hydrocarbons with general formula Cn H2n+2 . They contain
only carbon-carbon and carbon-hydrogen single bonds in their molecules. For example:

Alkanes are also called paraffins (beacause they have a little affinity towards a general reagent. In
other words, alkane are less reactive substances. They undergo reactions under drastic conditions)
Alkanes are called saturated because all the possible sites (i.e. 4) are bonded with other atoms.
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2. Alkenes: Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with general formula C n H2n . They contain at
least one carbon to carbon bond in their molecules. For example:

 Alkenes are also called olefins (i.e. oil forming because they form oily liquids on reaction with
chlorine gas.
3. Akaynes: Alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with general formula C n H2n-2 . They contain at
least one carbon to carbon triple bond in their molecules. For example:

Formula of organic compounds

1. Molecular formular
It represents actual number of atoms of all the elements present in one molecule of the compound.
For example:
Methane= CH4
Ethane=C2 H4
Benzene=C6 H6
2. Empirical formula
It represents simple whole number of atoms of all the elements in one molecule of the compound.
For example:
Ethane =CH3
Ethene=CH2
Benzene=CH
3. Electron-dot formula
In this formula valance electron are represented by dots placed around the chemical symbol. It is
also called Lewis formula. For example:

4. Structural formula
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It indicates how the atoms are bonded in a molecule of the compound. For example:

5. Contracted or condensed formula

It is the structural formula in contracted form to save space and time

Functional group
An atom or group of atoms in molecule which largely determines the chemical properties of the
organic compound is known as functional group. All the compounds having same functional group
show similar properties and constititute a class or a family.
For example: organic compounds having –OH as functional group constitutes a class of compounds
called alcohol
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Some other examples of functional group are
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CLASSIFICATION OF MICROBES

BACTERIA

 Bacteria are among the smallest living organisms

 They usually band together in colonies
 Bacteria can be autotrophic, make their own food or heterotrophic, feed off of other organisms
Characteristics Of Bacteria
1. Basic shapes of Bacteria
i. Rod shaped called bacilli

ii. Round shaped called cocci

iii. Spiral shaped

2. Basic Structure of Bacteria

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a. Capsule
 Some bacteria (often pathogens) are surrounded by a thick polysaccharide capsule
 This is a loose jelly-like or mucus-like layer
 It helps prevent immune system cells from reaching the bacteria, and it forms part of
biofilms
b. Pili
 They are hairs projecting from the surface. They are composed of pilin protein
 DNA can be transferred between bacteria by conjugation, which is initiated when sex
pili on the donor cell attach to and draw in the recipient cell.
 They are also used to attach the bacteria to target cells on surface
c. Flagella
 They are long hairs used to propel the cells. They are composed of flagellin protein
Movement and Feeding

 Bacteria get around in many ways

 Some bacteria move using flagella
 Others have a slimy layer to grip surfaces
 Some are carried by the movement of air or liquids
 Photosynthesis bacteria can make their own food from sunlight and carbon dixide, just
like plants
 Bacteria that break down dead organisms get their food by absorbing it
BENEFITS OF BACTERIA
1. Certain bacteria are used to make food cheese and yoghourt
2. Bacteria break down waste products in sewage
3. Bacteria can help clean up oil spills
4. Bacteria are an important part of the nutrient cycles that all life depends upon

HARMFUL EFFECTS OF BACTERIA

 Certain bacteria acts as pathogens and cause tetanus, typhoid fever, pneumonia, syphilis,
cholera, food-borne illness and tuberculosis.
 Steptococcus bacterian may cause small infections like strep throat
 Some of the stomach bacteria enter the body through the mouth, and they can survive in the
acidic conditions in the stomach.
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 Harmful bacteria in food cause botulism, which can cause paralysis
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