Labs

Candidate Name: Ryonté Wilson

Subject: Biology
Centre Number: 100025
Candidate Number:10002024
Year of Examination: 2024-2025
Lab Number: 1
Date:
Title: Macromolecules

Introduction: To identify reducing sugars, Benedict's test involves heating a mixture of the
test solution and Benedict's solution, with a color change to orange, red, or brown indicating
a positive result. Starch is detected by adding iodine solution, which turns dark blue or black
in its presence. Lipids are identified using the emulsion test, where ethanol and the test
solution are mixed, followed by water, resulting in a cloudy emulsion if lipids are present.
For non-reducing sugars, the test solution is first boiled with hydrochloric acid, neutralized
with sodium hydrogen carbonate, and then subjected to the Benedict's test. Proteins are
detected using the Biuret test, where potassium hydroxide and copper(II) sulfate are added to
the test solution, with a violet or purple color indicating a positive result.

Aim:
1.​ To identify the types of macromolecules found in unknown mixtures
2.​ To accurately manipulate and measure devices and reagents used to identify various
macromolecules in unknown mixtures.

Apparatus/Materials: 10 boiling/test tubes per group, 1 beaker, Test tube holder, Water bath,
Mortar and pestle, Bunsen burner, 3 dropping pipettes, Benedict reagent, Dilute hydrochloric
acid (0.5 mol dm-3), Dilute sodium hydroxide/sodium bicarbonate, Biuret reagent,
Iodine-potassium iodide solution, Glucose solution, Sucrose solution (sugar water), Albumen
solution (egg solution), Prepared unknown mixture, Starch solution (corn starch) Oil,
Absolute alcohol

Diagram of apparatus:

Method:
1.​ All materials needed were collected.
2.​ The test tubes were labelled A-E
3.​ Test tubes were filled ¾ of the way with unknown solutions.
4.​ The other 5 test tubes were labelled A’-E’. They were used as the control for each
macromolecule.
5.​ The following tests were done on the samples in both sets of test tubes and the
information was recorded.
Benedict test (Reducing sugar)
1. Measure using the measuring cylinder 2cm3 of test solution and add to a test tube. Add an equal amount of
Benedict’s solution. Shake the mixture.
2. Use the test tube holder to place the test tube in a hot water bath in the beaker heated by the Bunsen burner and
bring to boil. Shake gently.

Starch test
1. Measure using the measuring cylinder 2cm3 of test solution and pour in petri dish placed on white tile.
2. Add 4-5 drops of potassium iodine solution and swirl gently.

Emulsion test (lipids)

1. Measure using the measuring cylinder 2cm3 ethanol to a test tube. Add equal amount of test solution.
2. Seal the top of the test tube and Shake the mixture vigorously.
3. Add an equal amount of cold water to the test tube and shake gently.

Non-reducing sugar test

1. Measure using the measuring cylinder 2cm3 of test solution and add to a test tube. Add 1 cm3 of diluted
hydrochloric acid
2. Use the test tube holder to Place the test tube in a hot water bath in the beaker heated by the Bunsen burner
and bring to boil for 1 minute.
3. Use the spatula to add sodium hydrogen bicarbonate until effervescence stops
4. Add 2cm3 of Benedict’s solution

Biuret test
1. Measure using the measuring cylinder 2cm3 of test solution and add to a test tube. Add an equal amount of 5%
potassium hydroxide solution. Swirl the mixture gently.

2. Add 4-5 drops of 1% copper (II) sulphate and swirl gently.

Observations:

Table showing the observations and reasons for the Benedict test.
Sample Observation Discussion Conclusion

Benedict test (Reducing sugar)

A: Cornflakes Turned Bright Cornflakes contain a significant amount of Positive

Orange. reducing sugars, causing a positive result.

B: Plantain Turned Bright Plantains contain a significant amount of Positive

Orange. reducing sugars, causing a positive result.

C: Crackers Turned Yellow. Plantains contain a good amount of reducing Positive

sugars, causing a positive result.

D: Egg The white part of the This change likely occurred due to the heat Negative
egg got hard. denaturing the egg white proteins rather than a
reaction with Benedict’s reagent, however,
eggs contain no significant reducing sugars.
 Table showing the observations and reasons for the non-reducing sugar test.

Sample Observation Discussion Conclusion

Non-Reducing Sugar Test

A: Cornflakes Turned Bright Orange. Benedict’s test for reducing sugars might be Positive
negative. However, after hydrolysing the
sample with dilute acid and neutralising it, the
presence of sucrose could break down into
glucose and fructose, resulting in a colour
change.

B: Plantain Turned Brick red. The plantain may also contain non-reducing Positive
sugars since it is mainly starch. After
hydrolysis, starch breaks down into simpler
sugars, leading to a positive result.

C: Crackers Turned Dark Green. Crackers are primarily made from starch, so Negative
Orange Precipitate. after hydrolysis, the starch in crackers breaks
Liquid turned green down into simple sugars. However, that was
Soid turned orange. not done.

D: Egg White turned Eggs mainly consist of proteins and fats, with Negative
completely opaque. little to no carbohydrate content.

Table showing the observations and reasons for the Iodine test.
Sample Observation Discussion Conclusion

Iodine Test (Strach)

A: Cornflakes Turned Black Cornflakes are made from corn, which Positive
contains starch. The cornflakes turned black
when iodine was added, indicating a positive
test for starch.

B: Plantain Turned Blueish-Black Plantains have a high starch content. The Positive
plantains turned blue- black when iodine was
added, indicating a positive test for starch.

C: Crackers Turned Dark-purple Crackers are (usually)made from wheat flour, Positive
which contains starch. The crackers turned
dark purple when iodine was added, indicating
a positive test for starch.

D: Egg No change Eggs are a primary source of protein, Negative

therefore, they contain no starch.
 Table showing the observations and reasons for the Biuret Test.
Sample Observation Discussion Conclusion

Biuret Test (Protien)

A: Cornflakes Turned Blue Cornflakes are mostly carbohydrates, so the sample Negative
remained blue.

B: Plantain Turned Blue Plantains are mostly carbohydrates, so the sample Negative
remained blue.

C: Crackers Light Purple Crackers are made from wheat, which contains some Positive
proteins, such as gluten. The crackers turned light
purple, indicating a positive test for starch.

D: Egg - - -

Table showing the observations and reasons for the Emulsion Test.
Sample Observation Discussion Conclusion

Emulsion Test (Lipids)

A: Cornflakes Turned Cloudy White Cornflakes are mostly carbohydrates and Positive
have little to no fat content. However, the
sample used may have contained a great
amount of lipids, causing a positive
result.

B: Plantain - Plantains are mostly carbohydrates and Negative

contain very little fat.

C: Crackers Turned Cloudy White Some crackers contain added oils or Positive
butter, causing the faint but positive
result.

D: Egg Turned Thick Cloudy Egg yolk contains fats, causing positive Positive
White results.

Conclusion:
Based on the results, it can be concluded that:
Cornflakes tested positive for: Reducing Sugar, Non-Reducing Sugar, Starch, Lipids
Plantains tested positive for: Reducing Sugar, Non-Reducing Sugar, Starch
Crackers tested positive for: Reducing Sugar, Starch, Protein, Lipids
Egg tested positive for: Lipids
 Criteria for Observation, Recording and Reporting Marks

Observations Table is drawn neatly using pencil and is enclosed 1

Table has correct titles and labels 1

The information in table is relevant to the aim of the lab 1

Information in the table is present and accurate (e.g Sample A= reducing 1

sugar and starch; Sample B Starch; Sample C Fat and Protein; Sample
D= Protein)

Reporting The lab report is written in the correction convention (date, introduction, 1
aim, apparatus &materials, procedure, result/observation,
interpretation/discussion and conclusion)

Each section of the report (e.g. procedure) is described in logical 1

sequence.

Report is written in past tense

Limited grammatical and spelling errors 1

The report does not include the use of personal pronouns 1

Each section of the report is in appropriate paragraphs 1

Recording The information in the results tables are recorded using (a) correct units 1
a table and (b) descriptive scientific terms (e.g. colour change)

Diagram of the apparatus is present with relevant and accurate 1

information recorded

Expected results are recorded in the result table or discussion section 1

Unexpected results are the interpretation section 1

Accurate, adequate and relevant details are recorded under each 1

sub-section (e.g Introduction, hypothesis aim, apparatus, conclusion etc.)
of the lab report

Steps taken to minimise observational errors are recorded in the 1

procedure or the precaution section

Total _____/18x12
____
Lab Number: 2
Date: November 4, 2024
Title: Basic skills of light Microscopy
Aims:
●​ To determine the magnification,
●​ To determine the size of the field of view using a transparent ruler,
●​ To prepare a wet mount of a biological specimen.

Skills: Measurement and Manipulation

Materials and Apparatus: microscope, wet biological specimen, paper, ruler
Diagram of Apparatus:

Introduction:
A microscope is an instrument that magnifies an image of a small object in details that are too
small to be seen by the naked eye. Light microscopes use glass lenses to refract or bend light
rays to produce a magnified image of the object. Magnification is the increase in an object's
size when viewed. The ocular magnification is the default magnification of the microscope’s
eyepiece lens, which is ×10. There are 3 other lenses on the microscope (called objective
lenses) for further magnification, which are: ×4 ×10 and ×40. The field of view is the
maximum area visible when looking through the microscope eyepiece.

Procedure:
Procedure 1:
1. The magnification of “e” was estimated by looking at the magnified image and then at the
“e” without using the microscope.
2. Each objective was examined, and the magnification of the objectives and oculars was
recorded in the table below.
3. The high-power objective was slowly rotated into place.
4. The iris diaphragm was readjusted because the high-magnification objective allows less
light to pass through to the ocular.
5. The fine adjustment knob was located at the side of a microscope to fine-focus the image
Procedure 2:
1. A clear plastic ruler with a metric scale was obtained.
2. The ruler was placed on the microscope's stage, and the nosepiece was rotated to the
objective with the lowest magnification.
3. The coarse adjustment was focused and then the fine adjustment until metric markings on
the ruler were clear.
4. The ruler was aligned to measure the diameter of the circular field of view.
5. The diameter of this low-magnification field of view was recorded in the table, and the
radius was calculated.
6. The field's medium and high magnification diameters were calculated and recorded.
7. The three magnifications' circular area of the field of view was calculated.

Procedure 3:
1. A drop of pond water was placed on a clean microscope slide.
2. The edge of a clean coverslip was placed at one edge of the drop, and the coverslip was
slowly lowered onto the drop so that no air bubbles were trapped
3. The preparation of the pond water was examined, and the organisms were sketched.

Observation and Results:

TABLE SHOWING THE OBJECTIVE OCULAR AND TOTAL MAGNIFICATION

OF THE IMAGE F.O.V DIAMETER AND AREA
Objective Ocular Total FOV diameter FOV area
magnification magnification magnification (mm) (mm 3)

×4 ×10 ×40 10mm 78.54mm3

×10 ×10 ×100 7mm 38.48mm3

×40 ×10 ×400 5mm 19.mm3

Sources of Error:
1.​ The student did not know how to use a microscope properly.
2.​ The measurements were hard to see due to the focus of the microscope.
Limitations:
1.​ The microscope was not in good condition.
Precautions:
1.​ Three different students checked the measurements to ensure accuracy.
Conclusion: It can be concluded that the Field of view at ×40 magnification is 10mm, at ×100
magnification is 7mm, and at ×400 magnification is 5mm.
Lab Number: 3
Date: November 4, 2024
Title: Drawing of a stem of a dicotyledon
Aim: To make a cross-sectional diagram of a dicotyledonous stem.
Method:
1. A wet mount slide was made by cutting a thin cross-section of a coleus (Joseph Coat) stem.
2. The specimen was placed on the slide
3. 2 drops of water were placed on the specimen and was covered.
4. The slide was placed under the microscope and examined.
5. The parts were drawn and labelled.
Lab Number: 4
Date: January , 2025
Title: Temperature stress on membranes
Aims: To show the effects of temperature stress on cell membranes

Materials and Apparatus:

●​ Beetroot disc
●​ Scalpel
●​ Distilled water
●​ Forceps
●​ Beakers
●​ Measuring cylinder
●​ Refrigerator

Diagram of Apparatus:

Method:
1.​ Four uninformed cylinders of beetroot were cut.
2.​ Three cylinders of beet tissue were placed in a beaker and rinsed with tap water for two
minutes to wash betacyanin from the injured cells on the surface.
3.​ One of the 4 beet sections was placed into each of the 4 dry test tubes.
4.​ The test tubes for the 4 temperature treatments were labelled and listed in the table.

Cold treatments
1.​ Test tubes 1 and 2 were placed in a refrigerator (13 degrees) and a freezer (-2 degrees).
2.​ The test tubes were left for 30 minutes.
3.​ After 30 minutes, the beets were removed from the freezer and refrigerator and 10 ml of
distilled water at room temperature was added to the test tube.
4.​ The cold-treated beets were allowed to soak in distilled water for 15 minutes and then
were removed, and the beets were discarded.

Hot treatment
1.​ The beet sections were taken out of tube 3 and immersed in a beaker of hot water at 70
degrees Celsius for exactly 1 minute.
2.​ The beet was handled with forceps carefully so that it did not rupture the cell.
3.​ After 1 minute at 70 degrees Celsius, the beet was returned to tube 3 and 10 ml of
distilled water at room temperature was added.
4.​ The beaker of hot water was cooled to 55 degrees Celsius and the beet from tube four
was immersed for 1 minute.
5.​ The beet was returned to tube 4 and 10 ml of distilled water at room temperature was
added.
6.​ The beaker of water was cooled, and the procedure was repeated for test tubes 1 and 2 at
40 and 20 degrees Celsius.

Observation and Results:

Table showing the measures of colour Intensity of betacyanin leaked from damaged cells
treated at different temperatures.

Tube Number Treatment (C) Colour Intensity Estimated

Percentage

1 Refrigerator (12) A somewhat cloudy 0.12

layer was formed at
the top of the water,
the water turned
slightly pink.

2 Freezer (-2) Water immediately 0.12

turned to pink when
room temperature
was added.

3 Heat (70) The water turned 1.62

light pink.

4 Cool (55) The water barely 0.83

showed a colour
change.

Discussion: Some factors that cause damage of the cell membrane are temperature, pH level,
chemicals and mechanical stress. Both high and low temperatures affect the membrane. High
temperatures make the phospholipids move around more, making the membrane too flowy,
causing it to tear. Extremely high temperatures can further disrupt the structure, causing the
cell insides to leak out. Low temperatures do the opposite. The phospholipids pack more
tightly, making the membrane stiff and causing the membrane to break. Extremely low
temperatures can cause the membrane to get rigid, causing it to crack, making anything
unable to enter or leave the cell freely. The temperature that damaged the cell membrane the
most was the freezer temperature (-2) because it had the fastest colour change.

Sources of Error:
1.​ Measurements were not taken properly

Limitations:
1.​ Impurities in the water used.
Precautions:
1.​ Handle the hot water carefully

Conclusion: It can be concluded that the freezer temperature damages the beetroot cell
membrane the fastest.
Lab Number: 5
Date: February 11, 2025
Title: The effect of Water Potential on cell membranes
Aims: ​To investigate the water potential of potato tissues.

Materials and Apparatus: petri dishes, test tubes, scalpel, Irish potato, cutting tile, ruler,
stopwatch, salt solutions (0.8, 0.6, 0.4, 0.2, 0.0) M
Diagram of Apparatus:

Procedure:
1.​ The test tubes and petri dishes were labelled with the different salt solutions (0.8, 0.6,
0.4, 0.2, 0.0) M, respectively.
2.​ A cork borer was used to obtain 10 cylinders of potato.
3.​ Each cylinder was cut into 3 cm pieces.
4.​ The different concentrations of salt solutions were poured into their respective test
tubes.
5.​ Two potato strips were immersed in each test tube.
6.​ The tubes were covered with cling wrap and left for 30 minutes.
7.​ The cylinders were removed from each test tube, and their lengths were measured.
8.​ The percentage change in length was calculated using the formula:

Observation and Results:

Table showing percentage change of different salt concentrations

Salt Concentration Percentage Change (%) Mena Percentage

Change (%)
Potato 1 Potato 2

0.8 -6.67 -3.33 -5

0.6 10 0 10

0.4 -6.9 -6.9 -6.9

0.2 5 10 7.5

0.0 0 0 0
Discussion:
There are 3 expected results. In distilled water, there should be no change because there is no
gradient. In lower salt concentrations, the potato will gain mass because water is going into
the cell. While in higher salt concentrations, the potato will lose mass because water is
leaving the cell. From the graph some observations can be made. Firstly, at 0.2M salt
concentration, the potatoes gained mass, showing that water moved into the cells due to
osmosis. This happens when the salt concentration of the outside solution is low, and water
enters the potato cells by osmosis, leading to an increase in mass. Secondly, at 0.4M and
0.8M salt concentrations, the potatoes lost mass, indicating water moved out due to a
hypertonic environment. This happens when the salt concentration of the outside solution is
high, and water leaves the potato cells by osmosis, leading to a decrease in mass. Lastly,
potato 1 and Potato 2 had slightly different mass changes at some salt concentrations, which
may be due to natural variability in potato structure or different initial water contents. To
improve accuracy, more potato strips could be used per salt concentration solution. This lab
can be used to show the process of osmosis in cells and its importance.

Sources of Error:
1.​ Water was lost due to evaporation

Limitations:
1.​ Vibration of test tubes when covering.

Precautions:
1.​ Avoid damaging the potato cells.

Conclusion: It can be concluded that when potato strips are placed in different salt solutions,
water moves into the cells when the environment has a lower salt concentration and out of the
cells when the environment has a higher salt concentration.
Topic: Water Potential Marks Marks
Skills Assessed: ORR Allotted

Proper Format
Aim, apparatus/material 2
Correct sequence of headings 1
Correct content under each heading 1

Appropriate language 2
(past tense, reported speech, no grammatical/spelling errors)

Diagram of Apparatus (suitable title, labelled, neat) 3

Table of Results 2
Completely bordered
Title, full capitalised
Record values to 1 decimal places

Graph:
Appropriate title, fully capitalised 1
Scale – correct units, occupies at least half of grid 1
Axes- labelled with quantity and units 1
Graph accurately drawn, line of best fit, interpolation shown
Calculations of percent change 2

Total Marks 16

16x12
Lab Number: 6
Date: February 12, 2025
Title: Enzymes
Aims: To investigate the effect of substrate concentration on the rate of reaction

Materials and Apparatus: test tubes, potato, scalpel, ruler, delivery tube, stop watch, hydrogen
peroxide, measuring cylinder.

Diagram of Apparatus:

Introduction:
Enzymes help to speed up reactions. In potatoes, catalase breaks down hydrogen peroxide
into water and oxygen. In this experiment, we'll see how changing the amount of hydrogen
peroxide affects how fast catalase works. We'll use potato pieces and different strengths of
hydrogen peroxide and count the oxygen bubbles made. The more hydrogen peroxide added,
the more bubbles will be produced, meaning a faster enzyme activity.

Procedure:
1.​ Two test tubes were obtained and labelled A and B.
2.​ 1 cm³ of 0.5 M hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) was added to test tube A, and test tube B
was filled to 50%.
3.​ Three pieces of 2 cm potato discs were added to test tube A.
4.​ Test tube A was sealed with a one-holed bung carrying a delivery tube. The other end
of the delivery tube was immersed in test tube B.
5.​ The number of bubbles given off in one minute was recorded.
6.​ Steps 1-4 were repeated using 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 M H₂O₂ to give three additional
readings.
7.​ Steps 1-5 were repeated using 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 M H₂O₂ solutions, respectively.
8.​ A graph was plotted with H₂O₂ concentration against the number of bubbles given off
per minute.
Observation and Results:
Table showing the number of bubbles produced per minute for each substrate
concentration
Substrate Rate of Reaction (No. of bubbles produced per minute)
Concentration
Trial 1 Trial 2

0.5 20 23

1.0 50 53

1.5 65 69

2.0 78 85

Discussion:
The data recorded shows that as substrate concentration increases, the rate of enzyme activity,
which is measured by the number of bubbles produced per minute, also increases. This shows
proof enzyme kinetics. At 0.5 substrate concentration, the reaction rate was low, averaging
21.5 bubbles per minute across two trials. As the concentration was doubled to 1.0, the
reaction rate more than doubled, which was a significant increase in enzyme activity. This
trend continued at substrate concentrations of 1.5 and 2.0, although the rate of increase
appeared to slow down slightly at the highest concentration. These observations can be
explained by the concept of enzyme saturation. At low substrate concentrations, there are
fewer substrate molecules available to bind to the active sites of the enzyme, which limits the
rate of product formation. As the substrate concentration increases, more active sites become
occupied, leading to a faster reaction rate. However, at a certain point, all available active
sites become saturated with substrate. Beyond this saturation point, adding more substrate
will not significantly increase the reaction rate, as the enzyme is already working at its
maximum capacity.

Sources of Error:
1.​ The bubbles could have been counted incorrectly due to the amount that was being
produced and how fast or slow the person was counting.

Limitations:
1.​ This experiment only tests for a limited amount of substrate concentration.

Precautions:
1.​ Ensure the test tube is sealed properly.

Conclusion: It can be concluded that increasing the amount of substrate increases the speed of
enzymatic reaction, but only up to a certain point. Once all the enzyme's active sites are used,
adding more substrate will not continue the reaction.
Lab Number: 7
Date: February 14, 2025
Title: DNA separation
Aim: To separate DNA from a living specimen using household products.

Introduction:
DNA is made up of nucleotides. Nucleotides have 3 parts: a base, a sugar and a phosphate.
DNA is found in the nucleus of the cell. It stores the genetic material of the body and can be
replicated so that the original DNA can remain in the body.DNA is tightly wrapped around
proteins and packed in chromosomes. DNA extraction is done so that we can see the
invisible. This is done by breaking down the walls of the cell and nucleus. This can be done
with the use of soap, salt and alcohol. By the end of the experiment, you'll be able to see a
clump of DNA together.

Materials and Apparatus: DNA extraction buffer (1000 ml of deionized water), clear
dishwashing liquid, salt, ripe bananas, Ziploc bag, filter paper, funnel, test tubes, ethanol,
mortar and pistol
Diagram of Apparatus:

Procedure:
1.​ A banana was placed in the Ziploc bag.
2.​ About 10-20 ml of the DNA extraction buffer was added, and the sample was mashed
in the buffer for about one minute.
3.​ A funnel and filter paper were used to filter the mixture into a beaker or test tube.
4.​ Cold alcohol was slowly poured or dripped over the top of the filtrate to form a single
layer.
5.​ White strands formed in the ethanol layer and were spooled using a stirring rod or
toothpick.
6.​ Observations were recorded.
Observation and Results:
Picture showing the clumps of DNA formed after the extraction.

Discussion:
During the experiment, dish soap, salt solution, and alcohol were used for the extraction to be
complete. The dish soap is used to break down the cell membrane. The salty solution is used
to clump the DNA together. Lastly, the cold alcohol is used to separate the DNA from the
other things in the cell. Biotechnologists use DNA extraction so they can study specific
genes, which can help them to learn about diseases. They also use it to identify organisms
since each DNA has a unique genetic makeup. If another specimen was used for this
experiment, the result may not be the same due to the cellulose in the cell wall, either making
it easier or harder to break down. Also the chemicals in the cell can either interfere with the
DNA process or help it.

Sources of Error:
1.​ The banana still had lumps in it.

Limitations:
1.​ The amount of DNA extracted can vary depending on the sample.

Precautions:
1.​ Avoid contaminating the sample solution.

Conclusion:
This experiment was done to extract DNA from a banana. DNA was successfully extracted
using a technique that involved dish soap, which was used to break down the cell membrane;
a salty solution, which was used to clump the DNA together; and cold alcohol, which was
used to separate the DNA from the other things in the cell. The DNA appeared as a stringy
substance.
Lab Number: 8
Date:
Title: Human Inheritance
Aims:
To determine personal phenotypes and genotypes for some observable traits.
To determine the frequencies (%) of dominant and recessive traits in a population.

Materials and Apparatus: Pencil or Pen, lab sheet

Procedure:
1.​ The phenotype was determined.
2.​ A prediction of the genotype was made.
3.​ If a dominant trait was shown, it was noted that the genotype could be homozygous
dominant or heterozygous.
4.​ If one parent showed the recessive trait, it was concluded that the individual was
heterozygous.
5.​ If neither parent showed the recessive trait, both possible genotypes (heterozygous
and homozygous dominant) were listed.

Personal Data
1.​ A table with three columns and 18 rows was made. The columns were headed Trait,
Phenotype, and Possible Genotypes. In the first column, the 17 traits were listed.
2.​ In the second column of the table, yes or no was written depending on whether or not
you possess each trait. If it was not a yes/no possibility, th trait shown was written.
For traits that cannot be observed directly, a partner was asked for help.

Class Data
1.​ A table with two columns and 18 rows was made. The columns were headed Trait and
Phenotype. In the first column, the 17 traits were listed below. 20 persons from the
class were interviewed about whether they possess the trait or not.
Discussion:

1.​ If a man does not have Hitchhiker’s thumb, what are the two possible genotypes?
His possible genotypes are (based on my table) JJ or Jj heterozygous or homozygous
dominant

2.​ If a man is homozygous for Hitchhiker’s thumb and marries a woman with
homozygous dominant alleles, what is the probability of them having children with
Hitchhiker’s thumb?
The probability of them having children with Hitchhiker’s thumb is zero. The possible
genotypes for all four children are Heterozygous.

3.​ There have been cases in history where a king divorced his queen because she
produced only daughters. Using your knowledge of genetics, explain why this was an
incorrect move.
During reproduction, the child will get one chromosome from each parent. The mother only
being able to give the X chromosome and the father being able to give either X or Y.
This was an uneducated decision, as during reproduction, the male is the one that determines
the gender of the child.

4.​ Is anyone dominant for every trait? Is anyone recessive for every trait? If not, what
does this show about the dominance and ‘recessiveness’ of traits in people?
Based on the results, at least 1 person is dominant for each trait, while everyone is recessive
for only 15 out of the 17 traits.

5.​ Two people that look alike have thousands of common traits. How often do you think
that genetic twins (aside from identical twins) exist? Explain your answer.
Even though siblings share many characteristics because of having the same parents, only
identical twins who are created from one fertilised egg that splits have the same genetic
composition. As a result, only identical twins are appropriately referred to as genetic twins,
since fraternal twins, despite sharing more characteristics than siblings, still have different
genetic compositions.

6.​ What is the ratio of tongue rollers to non-tongue rollers in the class? What is the
frequency (%) of tongue rollers in the class?
Based on the results, the ratio is 11:9 students (tongue roller : non-tongue roller).
The frequency is 11/20 x 100 = 55%
 7.​ What is the ratio of dimples to non-dimples in the class? What is the frequency (%) of
dimpled students in the class?
Based on the results, the ratio is 11:9 students (Dimples : No Dimples).
The frequency is 11/20 x 100 = 55%

8.​ What is the probability of having both of these traits (tongue-rolling and dimples)? To
determine this, multiply the percent of tongue rollers times the percent of those with
dimples. Remember, you cannot multiply %; you must make it a decimal first. This
will give you the percent frequency of someone having both traits.
Tongue-roller: 55% = 55/100 = 0.55
Dimples: 55% = 55/100 = 0.55
Probability of having both traits: 0.55 x 0.55 = 0.3025 x 100 = 30.25%

Sources of Error:
1.​ Test for traits was not done properly
Limitations:
Precautions:
1.​ Research each trait properly to ensure testing is done properly.

Conclusion:
By observing and analysing phenotypes, this lab demonstrated the concepts of inheritance.
We were able to predict possible genotypes for individuals by looking at the existence of
dominant and recessive traits. Additionally, we discovered that the genotype of an offspring
can be inferred from the phenotypes of its parents. Additionally, we were able to measure the
prevalence of these qualities by computing the frequencies of observed traits within the
sample. The basic ideas of genetics, such as dominance, recessiveness, and the part that
parental genes play in defining the traits of offspring, are reinforced in this lab.
Lab Number: 9
Date:
Title: Chi-square Test
Aim: To test the validity of conclusions drawn from observations.

Introduction:
In statistical analysis, when using a Chi-squared test, the degree of freedom represents the
number of independent values that can vary within a data set, impacting how we interpret
results. The null hypothesis is a statement that assumes no significant difference or
relationship exists between observed phenomena, acting as a baseline for comparison. The
relevance of Chi-squared values lies in their ability to quantify the discrepancy between
observed and expected data; a larger Chi-squared value suggests a lower probability that the
observed differences are due to chance alone, leading to potential rejection of the null
hypothesis and indicating a statistically significant result.

Procedure:
1.​ 5 traits that were observed in IA #8 were chosen.
2.​ A chi-squared analysis was run on the traits.
3.​ The results were placed in a table for each trait.
4.​ The degree of freedom, critical value, and the validity of the Null
hypothesis were found for each trait.
5.​ Reasons for these results were suggested.

Observation and Results:

Hallux Length Chi-Square Test

Category Observed Expected O-E (O-E)2 (O-E)2/E

Dominant 6 10 -4 16 1.6

Recessive 14 10 4 16 1.6

Chi-Squared 3.2

Eyelashes Chi-Square Test

Category Observed Expected O-E (O-E)2 (O-E)2/E

Dominant 12 10 2 4 0.4

Recessive 8 10 -2 4 0.4

Chi-Squared 0.8
 Red Hair Chi-Square Test
Category Observed Expected O-E (O-E)2 (O-E)2/E

Dominant 20 10 10 10.0

Recessive 0 10 -10 10.0

Chi-Squared 20.0

Left Over Right Thumb Crossing Chi-Square Test

Category Observed Expected O-E (O-E)2 (O-E)2/E

Dominant 8 10 -2 4 0.4

Recessive 12 10 2 4 0.4

Chi-Squared 0.8

CurlyHair Chi-Square Test

Category Observed Expected O-E (O-E)2 (O-E)2/E

Dominant 14 10 4 16 1.6

Recessive 6 10 -4 16 1.6

Chi-Squared 3.2
Lab number 10
Title: Cell division
Aim: To identify and draw a phase of mitosis from a microscope slide
Procedure:
1. The necessary materials were collected: slides and microscope.
2. The four phases of mitosis were drawn and labelled.
Lab Number 11
Title: Sexual Reproduction (Plants)
Aim: To draw and label the anther
Procedure:
A mature anther under high-power magnification was drawn and annotated.
Lab Number 12
Title: Sexual Reproduction (Animals)
Aim: To draw and label a transverse section of a human ovary and testis
Procedure:
●​ A transverse section of a human ovary and testis was drawn and labelled
Lab Number 13
Title: Planning and Designing Lab
Aim: to determine which type of grass digests faster

Statement: A farmer wants to find the best type of grass for his rabbits. He is told that Guinea
Grass digests faster than Star Grass. Plan and design an experiment to determine which type
of grass digests faster.
Background Information. Digestion is the process by which a substance is broken down to be
used by the body. It can be done with the help of enzymes (an enzyme is a catalyst). In a
rabbit's stomach, the main pigment found is a person. Pepsin is used to break down the
structure, in this case, the cell wall of the grass.
Hypothesis. The rabbit will digest the star grass faster due to the thinner cell wall and softer
texture.
Materials: Grass samples (star grass, guinea grass), HCI (Hydrochloric acid)
Apparatus: 6 beakers, 6 petri dishes, measuring cylinder, stopwatch, gloves

Method:
Collect all materials and apparatus.
Label the beakers. (Example: Star grass A-C, Guinea grass A-C.)
Measure 100ml of HCI and pour into each leaker.
Feel the texture of each sample and record
Place the samples into the correct beakers and start a timer for 4 hours.
After 4 hours, use tweezers to remove the samples and place each into a petri dish. Observe
and record results.
Observe the HCl solution for the amount of loose particles from the sample. Observe the
sample for colour changes and, using gloves, record texture change.

Variables:
Controlled Concentration of HCI
Manipulated. Type of grass
Responding: Rate of digestion (Normal and tectural charge of the grass
 Results:

Type of Grass Initial Initial Final Final Particles

Texture Colour Texture Colour in HCL

Star Grass Test A

Test B

Test C

Guinea Grass Test A

Test B

Test C

Precaution
1.​ Use gloves to avoid direct contact with hydrochloric acid.
Limitations:
1.​ The impurities in the grass may affect the breakdown.

Source of Error
1.​ The hydrochloric acid doesn't replicate the rabbit's stomach.

Assumptions:
The star grass will break down faster than the Guinea grass because of its soft texture and
thin cell wall (compared to guinea grass)