PHY101 lecture 1 to 22

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Lecture no 1

What is Physics?

The branch of science concerned with the nature and properties of matter and
energy. The subject matter of physics includes mechanics, heat, light and other
radiation, sound, electricity, magnetism, and the structure of atoms.

Define the category of Classical mechanics.

Classical mechanics is a physical theory describing the motion of macroscopic

objects.

(OR)

Classical mechanics is the part of physics that describes how everyday things move
and how their motion changes because of forces.

Define the category of electromagnetism.

Electromagnetism is a branch of physics involving the study of the electromagnetic

force, a type of physical interaction that occurs between electrically charged
particles.

Define the category of thermal physics.

Thermal physics is the combined study of thermodynamics, statistical mechanics,

and kinetic theory of gases.

Define the category of quantum mechanics.

Science dealing with the behavior of matter and light on the atomic and subatomic
scale is known as quantum mechanics
Points to be noted imp quiz

✓ Every physical quantity can be expressed in terms of three fundamental

dimensions: Mass (M), Length (L), and Time (T).

✓ You cannot add quantities that have different dimensions. So force can be
added
to force, but force can never be added to energy.
➢ Do not confuse units and dimensions. We can use different units to measure
the same physical quantity.

✓ Always check your equations to see if they have the same dimensions on the
left side as on the right.
✓ MKS stand for Meter Kilogram-Second system
Formula

• Area has dimensions of L2

• Density has dimensions of M / L3 (or ML-3)

• Frequency has dimensions of 1/T

• Speed has dimensions of L/T

Lecture 2 – KINEMATICS I

Function

Position of a body at time t is denoted as x(t) x is called a function of t.

Displacement

In geometry and mechanics, a displacement is a vector whose length is the shortest

distance from the initial to the final position of a point P undergoing motion.

Formula

If a body is moving with average speed v then in time t it will cover a distance
d=vt
Speed and Velocity

The velocity of an object is the rate of change of its position with respect to a
frame of reference, and is a function of time. Velocity is equivalent to a
specification of an object's speed and direction of motion.
total distance traveled
Average velocity =
total time

displacement x 2 – x1 x
Average velocity= = 2 1 =
total time t –t t

Acceleration

In mechanics, acceleration is the rate of change of the velocity of an object with

respect to time. Accelerations are vector quantities. The orientation of an object's
acceleration is given by the orientation of the net force acting on that object.

Constant Acceleration

If the velocity of the particle changes at a constant rate, then this rate is called
the constant acceleration.
Formula
x = xo + vot + ½at2
v = vo + at

Vectors

A vector is an object that has both a magnitude and a direction. Geometrically,

we can picture a vector as a directed line segment, whose length is the magnitude
of the vector and with an arrow indicating the direction. Both force and velocity
are in a particular direction.

Velocity Vector

A velocity vector represents the rate of change of the position of an object. The
magnitude of a velocity vector gives the speed of an object while the vector
direction gives its direction.

Formula

rx = x = r cos 
ry = y = r sin 

where r = r and  = arctan( y / x)

Magnitude (length) of r is found by Pythagorean Theorem:
r = r = x2 + y 2

 = arctan(C y / Cx )

Vector Addition

To add vectors, lay the first one on a set of axes with its tail at the origin. Place
the next vector with its tail at the previous vector's head. When there are no
more vectors, draw a straight line from the origin to the head of the last vector.
This line is the sum of the vectors.

Formula C = A + B

Lecture 3 – KINEMATICS II

Derivative
In mathematics, the rate of change of a function with respect to a variable.
Geometrically, the derivative of a function can be interpreted as the slope of the
graph of the function or, more precisely, as the slope of the tangent line at a point.

dx x
 lim
dt  t → 0 t
x(t + t ) − x(t )
= lim
t → 0 t
How small should t be?

x(t ) = t
x = x(t + t ) − x(t )
= ( t + t ) − t = t
dx x
  lim =1
dt t → 0 t
x(t ) = t 2
x = ( t + t ) − t 2
2

= t 2 + ( t ) + 2t t − t 2
2

x
= t + 2t
t
x dx
 lim = = 2t
t → 0 t dt
x(t ) = t 3
x = (t + t )3 − t 3
= t 3 + 3t 2 t + 3t t 2 + t 3 − t 3
x
= ( t ) + 3t 2 + 3t t
2

t
x dx
 lim = = 3t 2
t →0 t dt
If x(t ) = t n
then:
dx x
 lim = nt n −1a
dt t →0 t
Unit vector

A unit vector is a vector that has magnitude 1 (no units). A unit vector is obtained
by

Dividing a vector by its length.

Formula Â= A
A

Scalar product

In mathematics, the dot product or scalar product is an algebraic operation that

takes two equal-length sequences of numbers, and returns a single number. In
Euclidean geometry, the dot product of the Cartesian coordinates of two vectors is
widely used.

A  B = AB cos  , 0    
A  B = ( A)( B cos  )
= (length of A)  (projection of B on A)
 ➢ Acceleration along y is ay = – g

➢ Acceleration along x is ax = 0

➢ Velocity along x is constant

Lecture 4 – FORCE AND NEWTON’S LAWS

NEWTONS FIRST LAW

Isaac Newton (1643–1727) wrote Principia Mathematical in 1687 and proposed

three “laws” of motion. An object will remain at rest or move with constant
velocity unless acted upon by a net external force.

Inertial frame

A non-accelerating frame is called an inertial frame. Newton’s first law holds only
in inertial frames. In an accelerating frame we experience apparent forces.
Inertia: resistance to change in motion i.e. resistance to acceleration. Mass is a
measure of inertia.

Newton’s First Law:

Newton's first law of motion is often stated as. An object at rest stays at rest and
an object in motion stays in motion with the same speed and in the same direction
unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.

More force leads to more acceleration  aF

More mass leads to less acceleration  a  1

m
F
Conclude that: a
m
Newton's Second Law:

Newton's second law is a quantitative description of the changes that a force can
produce on the motion of a body. It states that the time rate of change of the
momentum of a body is equal in both magnitude and direction to the force
imposed on it.

F = ma (or a = F / m)
where F = F1 + F2 + F3 + 
➢ Force has dimensions of [mass]  [acceleration] = M L T-2

➢ In the MKS system the unit of force is the Newton. It has the symbol N
where:1 N = 1 kg.m/s2

The weight of a body is the force which gravity exerts upon it. Mass and weight
are two completely different quantities.

Newton's Third Law:

Newton's third law states that when two bodies interact, they apply forces to one
another that are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. The third law is also
known as the law of action and reaction. If a body has net force acting on it, it
undergoes accelerated motion in accordance with the second law.

FA on B = – FB on A
CLAIM: If something is moving, there must be a net force on it.

FALSE. A body moving at constant velocity has no net force on it. An accelerating
body must have a net force on it.

CLAIM: All equal and opposite forces are action-reaction pairs.

FALSE. The weight of a book sitting on a tabletop and the normal force of the
table acting on the book are equal and opposite, but they are not an action-reaction
pair!

CLAIM: If there is a force on an object, it must be accelerating.

FALSE. Only a net force on the object leads to acceleration.

Lecture 5 – APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON’S LAWS – I

EQUILIBRIUM
 States in which opposing forces or actions are balanced so that one is not
stronger or greater than the other Supply and demand were in equilibrium.
Chemical equilibrium.

Or

A state of emotional balance or calmness It took me several minutes to recover my

equilibrium.

Example :-Equilibrium is when hot air and cold air are entering the room at the
same time so that the overall temperature of the room does not change at all.
An aircraft of mass m has position
vector that is measured to be:
r = (at + bt 3 )iˆ + (ct 2 + dt 4 ) ˆj
What force is acting upon it?
SOLUTION:
d 2x ˆ d2y ˆ
F=m 2 i + m 2 j
dt dt
= 6 b m t iˆ + m(2 c + 12d t 2 ) ˆj

Tension force

In physics, tension is described as the pulling force transmitted axially by the

means of a string, a cable, chain, or similar object, or by each end of a rod, truss
member, or similar three-dimensional object; tension might also be described as
the action-reaction pair of forces acting at each end of said elements.

Consider a horizontal segment of rope:

By Newton’s 2nd Law:

S F = T2 - T1 = m a

So if m = 0 (i.e. the rope is light) then T1 = T2

The direction of the force provided by a rope is along the direction of the rope.

 F = T – mg = may
since ay = 0 therefore:

T – mg = 0

T = mg

Masses connected by strings

If m1 is pulled by a force F then a tension T develops in the string.

Friction

Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and
material elements sliding against each other. There are several types of friction:
Dry friction is a force that opposes the relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces
in contact.

STATIC FRICTION

Static friction is friction between two or more solid objects that are not moving
relative to each other.
For example, static friction can prevent an object from sliding down a sloped
surface. The coefficient of static friction, typically denoted as μs, is usually higher
than the coefficient of kinetic friction.
Lecture 6 – APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON’S LAWS – II

Newton’s second law states that the acceleration of an object depends upon two
variables – the net force acting on the object and the mass of the
object. The acceleration of the body is directly proportional to the net force acting
on the body and inversely proportional to the mass of the body. This means that as
the force acting upon an object is increased, the acceleration of the object is
increased. Likewise, as the mass of an object is increased, the acceleration of the
object is decreased.

Fnet
a= a = the above equation can be rearranged to a familiar form as
m
F=ma since force is a vector, Newton’s second law can be written as
F→=ma→ the equation shows that the direction of the total acceleration vector
points in the same direction as the net force vector.
Lecture 7 – WORK AND ENERGY

Definition of work
In physics, work is the energy transferred to or from an object via the application
of force along a displacement. In its simplest form, it is often represented as the
product of force and displacement.

W = F d
= Fd cos 

➢ Work is a scalar

➢ Work has dimensions: M L T-2 L = M L2 T-2

➢ Work has units: Newton · Meter  Joule (J)

W1 = F1x
W2 = F2 x
W3 = F3x

W = W1 + W2 +  + WN

= F1x + F2 x +  + FN x

or
N
W =  Fn x
n =1

To get the exact result let x → 0 and the number of

intervals N →  :

W = lim  Fn x
x → 0
n =1

 xf

Definition: lim  Fn x   F(x)dx

x → 0
n =1 xi

is the integral of F with respect to x from xi to x f .

The total work done by F in moving a body from xi and x f is:

xf

W=  F(x)dx
xi
Energy is the capacity of a physical system to do work

➢ it comes in many forms

➢ it can be stored

➢ it can be converted into different forms

➢ it can never be created or destroyed

Important

Recall: v 22 - v12 = 2a (x 2 - x1 )
where: v 2 = final velocity
x 2 = final position
v1 = initial velocity
Work Kinetic-Energy Principle
x1 = initial position
v 2 - v12 on object= Change in KE of object
 = 2 done
Net awork
2d
Work can be:
Calculate work:
➢ WPositive
= F d (KE increases)
= ma d
➢ Negative (KE decreases)
v 22 - v12
= m
Energy has the same d
2d units as work: Joule = Newton Meter
W = F =x 2 mv 2 − 2 mv1
1 2 1 2

Work does not

Define depend on
KINETIC time!
ENERGY:

➢KE = 1 does
Time mv 2 matter for power !
2
➢ Power is the “rate of doing work”

Work done
Power =
Time taken
 If the force does not depend on time:
Work F x
= =Fv
Time t
 Power = F v

Units of power: J/sec = Watts

Old units: horsepower (hp)

1 hp = 746 W = 0.746 kW

The power is P = F v = T v
In the x direction: T = mg sin 

Lecture 8 – CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Potential energy

Potential energy stored energy that depends upon the relative position
of various parts of a system. A spring has more potential energy when it
is compressed or stretched. A steel ball has more potential energy raised
above the ground than it has after falling to Earth.

The spring pulls/pushes with a restoring force proportional to the extension x :

Fspring = – k x x x
1
W =  Fdx =  k xdx = k x 2
Work due to external force gives the elastic potential energy:
0 0
2

x x
1
W =  Fdx =  k xdx = k x 2
0 0
2

Total mechanical energy is:Emech = KE + PE

IF no friction then Emech is conserved :

 (Emech)= (KE) + (PE) = 0

Emech = KE + PE is constant !!!

1 1
mv A 2 + mgh = mv B 2 + mgh
2 2
1 h 1
= mvC 2 + mg = mv D 2
2 2 2

v A = vB , vC = v02 + gh , vD = v02 + 2 gh

1 2 kx 2
kx = mgd sin   d=
2 2mg sin 

CONSERVATIVE FORCE

Work does not depend on path take

➢ gravity

➢ electric force

➢ springs

Potential energy can be defined!

h
mgh = fx =  mgx  x =
g

Lecture 9 – MOMENTUM

Momentum

Momentum is the "quantity of motion" possessed by a body. More precisely, it is

defined as: Dimensions of momentum: MLT-1

Units of momentum: kg-m/s

Momentum = mass  velocity

 Definition of linear momentum

The momentum of translation being a vector quantity in classical

physics equal to the product of the mass and the velocity of the

P = mv
center of mass.

NEW FORM OF SECOND LAW

The rate of change of momentum of a body is equal to the resultant force acting
on the body and is in the direction of that force.

ma = F (old form)
dp
= F (new form of Newton's Law)
dt
They are the same:
dp d (mv ) dv
= =m = ma = F
dt dt dt

Newton’s 2nd law for several particles

P = p1 + p 2 +  p N
d d d d
P = p1 + p 2 +  p N
dt dt dt dt
= F1 + F2 +  FN
i= N
=  Fi = total external force
i =1
 Momentum is conserved:

Initial momentum = final momentum

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

a) Linear momentum is conserved:

Pf = Pi
MV + m(v + V ) = 0
mv (72kg )(55m / s )
V =− =−
m+M 1300kg + 72kg
V = −2.9 m / s
b) v E = v + V
= 55m / s + (−2.9 m / s )
v E = 52m / s

Suppose the total distance moved on the flat part before it comes to rest is x.

h
mgh = fx =  mgx  x =
g

Impulse and Momentum

F=
dp
dp = Fdt
dt
t2 pf
t2

Define: I   Fdt
t1
Since  Fdt =  dp
t1 pi
 I = p f − pi

Lecture 10 – COLLISIONS

COLLISIONS
 In physics, a collision is any event in which two or more bodies exert forces on
each other in a relatively short time.

m1 = m2
m1 − m 2 2m 2
v1 = ( )u1 + ( )u2
m1 + m 2 m1 + m 2
2m1 m 2 − m1
v2 = ( )u1 + ( )u
m1 + m 2 m1 + m 2
v1 = u2
v 2 = u1

Massive target at rest

m2  m1 , u2 = 0
m1 − m 2 2m 2
v1 = ( )u1 + ( )u2
m1 + m 2 m1 + m 2
2m1 m 2 − m1
v2 = ( )u1 + ( )u2
m1 + m 2 m1 + m 2

 v1 = u1 and v2 = 0
Lighter target at rest
m2  m1 u2 = 0
m1 − m 2 2m 2
v1 = ( )u1 + ( )u2
m1 + m 2 m1 + m 2
2m1 m 2 − m1
v2 = ( )u1 + ( )u2
m1 + m 2 m1 + m 2
 v1 = u1 and v 2 = 0
Elastic and inelastic collisions

The difference between elastic and an inelastic collision is the loss or

conservation of kinetic energy. In an inelastic collision kinetic energy is not
conserved, and will change forms into sound, heat, radiation, or some other form.
In an elastic collision kinetic energy is conserved and does not change forms.
Fractional decrease in neutron K.E :
Ki − Kf K v2
= 1− f = 1− f2
Ki Ki vi
For a target at rest:
m − m2
vf = ( 1 )vi
m1 + m2
Ki − Kf 4m1m2
=
Ki (m1 + m2 ) 2

A car A of mass 1000 kg is traveling north at 15 m/s collides with another car
B of mass 2000 kg traveling east at 10 m/s. After collision they move as one
mass. Find the total momentum just after the collision.
Conservation of energy gives,
mv = ( m + M )V
1
(m + M ) (m + M )V 2 = (m + M ) gy
v= V 2
m
V = 2 gy
(m + M )
v= 2 gy
m

Px = p Ax + pBx = m A v Ax + m B v Bx
= 2 104 kg m / s
Py = p Ay + pBy = m A v Ay + m B v By
= 1.5 104 kg m / s
P = Px 2 + Py 2 = 2.5 104 kg m / s
Py
tan  = = 0.75   = 37 0
Lecture 11 – ROTATIONAL KINEMATICS Px

Definition of rotational kinematics

Kinematics is the description of motion. The kinematics of rotational motion
describes the relationships among rotation angle, angular velocity,
angular acceleration, and time.

arc length = radius  angular displacement

s = r
one revolution = 2π radians
= 360 degrees
1 radian = 57.30
1 radian = 0.159 revolution

2 − 1 
= =
t2 − t1 t

 = lim
t →0 t
d
= s = 2 r = total circumference
dt

To familiarize ourselves with the notion of angular speed, let us compute for a
clock second, minute and hour hands:
2
=
T
2
second = = 0.105 rad / s
60
2
minute = = 1.75 10−3 rad / s
60  60
2
hour = = 1.45 10−4 rad / s
60  60 12

Our sun is 2.3 x 104 light years away from the centre of our Milky Way galaxy. It
moves in a circle around this centre at 250 km/s.

(a) How long does it take the sun to make one revolution about the galactic
center?
 (b) How many revolutions has the sun completed since it was formed about 4.5
x 109 years ago?  2
v = R = R =R
t T
a) 1 Light Year = 9.46 1015 m 2 R
 for one revolution T =
v
T = 5.5 10 s = 1.74 10 years
15 8

4.5 109
b) = 26 revolutions
1.74 108
 −  
= 2 1=
t2 − t1 t

 = lim
t →0 t

d d d d 2
= = =
dt dt dt dt 2

s = r
ds d
=r
dt dt
v = r
dv d
=r
dt dt
a T = r

Relationship between linear and angular variables

The Relations between Linear and Angular Variables: Each of the angular
variables θ, ω, and α is related to its corresponding linear variable x, v, and
at by factor R, the radius of rotation. x = Rθ ; v = Rω ; at = Rα . (at means
tangential acceleration).
 Translational Motion Rotational Motion
v = v0 + a t  = 0 +  t
1 1
x = x0 + v0 t + a t 2  = 0 + 0 t +  t 2
2 2
v = v0 + 2a ( x − x0 )
2 2
 = 0 + 2 ( − 0 )
2 2

Centripetal acceleration

Centripetal acceleration, the acceleration of a body traversing a circular

path. Because velocity is a vector quantity (that is, it has a magnitude, the
speed, and a direction), when a body travels on a circular path, its direction
constantly changes and thus its velocity changes, producing an
acceleration.

v  v
v v v2
a=  =
t r / v r
v v 2
a = lim =
t → 0  t r
2
v
aR = − r
r

Cross product (vector product)

is defined as,
A  B = AB sin  nˆ
nˆ is perpendicular to AB-plane
   
i j = k
  
k i = j
  
j k = i

A  B = −B  A
A A = 0
→ →
( A + B)  c = ( A  B) + ( A  c )
iˆ ˆj kˆ
A  B = Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz

= ( Ay Bz − Az By ) iˆ + ( Az Bx − Ax Bz ) ˆj + ( Ax By − Ay Bx )kˆ

Lecture 12 – PHYSICS OF MANY PARTICLES

Centre

A body is made of a collection of particles. We would like to think of this body having a
"Centre". For two masses the "center of mass" is defined as:
For two masses the centre of mass is:
m r + m2 r2
rcm  1 1
m1 + m2

m1r1 + m2 r2
rcm 
m1 + m2
m1 x1 + m2 x2
 xcm =
m1 + m2
m1 y1 + m2 y2
ycm =
m1 + m2

For N masses the obvious generalization of the Centre of mass position is the following:

For N masses the centre of mass is:

m r + m2 r2 +  + mN rN
rcm = 1 1
m1 + m2 +  + mN

=
1
M
( m r ) n n

Our definition of the cm allows Newton's Second Law to be written for entire collection of
particles:

vcm =
d rcm
dt
=
1
M
(  mn vn )
a cm
dv
= cm =
dt M
1
(  mna n )
(
M a cm =  Fn =  Fext + Fint )
F ext =M a cm
Rotational Energy of Rigid Bodies

Consider rotational motion now for a rigid system of N particles. Rigid means that all particles
have a fixed distance from the origin. The kinetic energy is,

Total kinetic energy:

1 1 1
K= m1v12 + m2 v 22 + m3 v32 + 
2 2 2
1 1 1
= m1r12 2 + m2 r22 2 + m3r32 2 + 
2 2 2
1
(
K =  mi ri 2  2
2
)
Rotational Inertia
K = 1
2 ( m r )
i i
2 2

 K = 1 I  2 , where I   mi ri 2
2
1
Compare with K = Mv 2 !!
2
Solid plate about cylinder axis
I =  r 2 dm (dm = 2 rdr 0 )
R
=  2 r 3 dr 0
0

1
= ( R 2 0 ) R 2
2
1
= M R2
2

Rotational Dynamics of Rigid Bodies

Torque:

In physics and mechanics, torque is the rotational equivalent of linear force. It is also referred to
as the moment, moment of force, rotational force or turning effect, depending on the field of
study. The concept originated with the studies by Archimedes of the usage of levers.

 = r F
 = r F sin 
Force

A force is a push or pull upon an object resulting from the object's interaction with another
object. Whenever there is an interaction between two objects, there is a force upon each of the
objects. Forces only exist as a result of an interaction.

Force (N) = mass (kg) × acceleration (m/s²).

Work done

Work is done whenever a force moves something over a distance. You can calculate the
energy transferred, or work done, by multiplying the force by the distance moved in the direction
of the force.

Energy transferred = work done = force x distance moved in the direction of the force.

dW = F  d s = F cos  ds
= ( F cos  )( rd )
dW =  d
dWnet = ( F1 cos 1 ) r1d + ( F2 cos  2 ) r2 d +
 + ( Fn cos  n ) rn d
dWnet = ( 1 +  2 +  + n ) d

dWnet = (  ext ) d = (  ext )  dt

1 
dK = d  I  2  = I  d  = ( I ) dt
2 
dWnet = dK   ext = I 
Like Newton's second law !!!

Translational Rotational

x, M , I
v=
dx d
dt
=
dt
dv
a= d
dt =
F = Ma dt
W =  Fdx
 = I
Combined Rotational and Translational Motion
1 1
K= 2
M vcm + I cm  2
2 2
WHY ?

1 1
K =  mi vcm
2
+  mi vi 2
2 2
1 1
= M vcm
2
+  mi ri2 2
2 2
1 1
K = M vcm
2
+ I cm  2
2 2

Rolling without slipping

v cm = R
1 1  v2 
K= 2
Mvcm + I cm  cm2 
2 2 R 
1 1
K = MR 2 2 + I cm 2
2 2
1 1
K= 2
Mvcm + I cm 2
2 2
2
11 2   v cm 
2
1
Mgh = Mvcm +  MR  
2

2 22  R 
Lecture413 – ANGULAR MOMENTUM
vcm = gh
3
ANGULAR MOMENTUM

The quantity of rotation of a body, which is the product of its moment of inertia and its angular
velocity
r r r
L=rp
Angular Momentum
L = r p sin 
L = ( r sin  ) p = r⊥ p
L = r ( p sin  ) = r p⊥
Just different ways of writing L !!
Relation between torque and angular momentum
r r r
L=rp
r r r r r r
L + L = ( r + r )  ( p + p )
r r r r r r r r r r
L + L = r  p + r  p + r  p + r  p
r r r r r
L = r  p + r  p
 r r r r r r r
L r   p +  r  p r  p  r r
= =r + p
t t t t
Take limit as t → 0 :
r r
L dL
Q lim =
t →0 t dt
r r r
dL r d p d r r
 =r + p
dt dt dt
r
dr r r r
But is v and p = m v !
dt
r
dr r r r r r
 p = v  mv = m ( v  v ) = 0
dt
and we are left with only
r r
dL r d p
=r
dt dt
Now use Newton’s second law :
r d pr
F=
dt
r
dL r r
 = r F
dt
r
dL r
 =
dt
r
dL r
= 
dt
The torque on a system of particles can come both from external and internal forces.
r r r
 = r F
r r
where F = mg
  = Mgr sin 
r r
 is perpendicular to L.
 it cannot change the
r
magnitude of L !!
r r
L =  t
L
 =
L sin 
 t
=
L sin 
Precession speed P is:

P =
t
 Mgr sin  Mgr
= = =
L sin  L sin  L

Angular momentum for a system of particles

r r r r N r
L = L1 + L2 +  + LN =  Ln
n =1
r r r r N
r
dL dL1 dL2 dLN dLn
= + +  + =
dt dt dt dt n =1 dt
r
d Ln r
Since =n
dt
r
dL N r
=  n
dt n =1

There are two sources of the torque acting on the system

1) The torque exerted on the particles of the system by internal forces between the
particles

2) The torque exerted on the particles of the system by external forces

 r r r
 =  int
+  ext

If the forces between two particles not only are equal and opposite but are also directed
along the line joining the two particles, then the total internal torque is zero.
r
 =0int
r r r
 int =  1 +  2
r r r r
= r1  F12 + r2  F21
but
r r
F12 = − F21 = F rˆ12
r r r r r
  int = ( r1 − r2 )  F12 = r12  ( F rˆ12 )
r
= F ( r12  rˆ12 ) = 0
Hence
r
r r dL
 =  ext
=
dt
Conservation of Angular Momentum

If no net external torque acts on the system, then the angular momentum of the system
does not change with the time.
r
dL r
= 0  L = a constant
dt
r
r d pr r dL
F=  =
dt dt
r r r
p = m v  L = ??
r
L depends on the choice of the origin:
r r r r r r r r r
L = r   p = ( c + r )  p = c  p + L

Rotation of Rigid Bodies

When a rigid body is in pure rotational motion all particles in the body rotate through the same
angle during the same time interval. Thus, all particles have the same angular velocity and the
same angular acceleration.
v =r
v =  r sin 
dv d
a= = (  r )
dt dt
d dr
= r +
dt dt
= r +v
a = aT + aR

Linear and angular acceleration:

at=rΔωΔt a t = r Δ ω Δ t . These equations mean that linear acceleration and angular

acceleration are directly proportional. The greater the angular acceleration is, the larger the linear
(tangential) acceleration is, and vice versa.

length of the arrow

minimum speed =
time to pass one spoke
2 r
s = distance traveled by one spoke =
8
distance traveled by one spoke
time to pass one spoke =
speed of spoke
s 2 r
time to pass one spoke = =
v 8r
 8r
So minimum speed = = 4.8 m/s
2 r
  F = mg − T = ma
1 a
 = TR = 2 MR 2
 
R
1
T= Ma
2
2m
a=g = 4.8 m/s 2
M + 2m
M
T = mg = 6.0 N
M + 2m
a
 = = 3.8 rev/s 2
R

Lecture 14 – EQUILIBRIUM OF RIGID BODIES

EQUILIBRIUM OF RIGID BODIES

Equilibrium is a defined as any point where the total amount of external force or torque is
zero. This point may be anywhere near the center of mass.

r r
where F =  Fext is net external force.
r r
dp
In equilibrium: =0  F = 0
dt
(Must hold for all components !!).

The rotational motion of a rigid body is governed by:

r
r dL
 =
dt
r r
where  =  ext is net external torque.
r
dL r
In equilibrium =0   = 0.
dt

Conditions for Equilibrium

Conditions for equilibrium require that the sum of all external forces acting on the body is
zero (first condition of equilibrium), and the sum of all external torques from external forces is
zero (second condition of equilibrium). These two conditions must be simultaneously satisfied in
equilibrium.
A rigid body is in mechanicalrequilibrium
if both the linear
r momentum P and angular
momentum r L have a constant
r value.
dP dL
i.e., = 0 and =0
r dt r dt
P = 0 and L = 0  static equilibrium

Angular momentum and torque depend on where you choose the origin of your coordinates for a
body in equilibrium, the choice of origin for calculating torques is unimportant.
r r r r
 O =  1 +  2 +  +  N
r r r r
= r1  F1 + r2  F2 + 
r r
 + rN  FN

r r r r r r r
 P = ( r1 − rP )  F1 + ( r2 − rP )  F1 + 
r r r
 + ( rN − rP )  FN
r r r r r r
=  r1  F1 + r2  F2 +  + rN  FN 
 
r r r r r r
−  rP  F1 + rP  F2 +  + rP  FN 
 
( )
r r r r r
=  O −  rP  F1 + F2 +  + FN 
 
( )
r r r
=  O −  rP   Fext 
 
r
but  ext = 0, for a body in translational equilibrium
F
r r
  P = O

Let us use the equilibrium conditions to do something of definite practical importance.

Suppose the gravitational acceleration g
has the same value at all points of a body.
Then:
1) The weight is equal to M g , and
2) The center of gravity coincides with
the centre of mass
The net force on the
whole = sum over all
individual particles
F = m g i

Since g has the same value for every particle

of the body   F = g  mi = M g

The net torque about

the origin O :
 =  ( r  m g )
i i

= (m r  g ) i i

  = M r  g = r cm cm M g
The torque due to gravity about the
centre of mass of a body is zero !!

Center of gravity (COG)

Center of gravity is the point where the mass of the body is concentrated. The center of
gravity (COG) of the human body is a hypothetical point around which the force of gravity
appears to act. It is point at which the combined mass of the body appears to be concentrated.
The center of gravity of an object is calculated by taking the sum of its moments divided by
the overall weight of the object. The moment is the product of the weight and its location as
measured from a set point called the origin.
Review: For two masses the CM is:
m r + m2 r2
rcm  1 1
m1 + m2

Suppose the gravitational acceleration g

has the same value at all points of a body.
Then:
1) The weight is equal to M g , and
2) The center of gravity coincides with
the centre of mass
The net force on the
whole = sum over all
individual particles
F = m g i

Since g has the same value for every particle

of the body   F = g  mi = M g
The net torque about
the origin O :
 =  ( r  m g )
i i

= (m r  g )i i

  = M r  g = r
cm cm M g
The torque due to gravity about the
centre of mass of a body is zero !!
Types of Equilibrium

a) Stable equilibrium: object returns to its original position if displaced slightly.

b) Unstable equilibrium: object moves farther away from its original position if displaced
slightly
c) Neutral equilibrium: object stays in its new position if displaced slightly.

Lecture 15 – OSCILLATIONS: I

Oscillations are everywhere!

➢ pendulum sitar and guitar strings

➢ boats bobbing at anchor

➢ quartz crystal in a watch

➢ masses on springs

An oscillation is any self-repeating motion. This motion is characterized by:

A. The period T, this is the time for completing one full cycle.
B. The frequency F = 1/T, which is the number of per second. (Another frequently used
symbol is ).
C. The amplitude A, which is the maximum displacement from equilibrium (or the size of
the oscillation).

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

Simple Harmonic Motion or SHM is defined as a motion in which the restoring force is directly
proportional to the displacement of the body from its mean position. ... The acceleration of a
particle executing simple harmonic motion is given by, a(t) = -ω2 x(t). Here, ω is the angular
velocity of the particle.
Displacement: x = -A
Acceleration: |a| = Max
Speed: |v| = 0
For there to be periodic motion, there must be:

➢ an equilibrium position

➢ a restoring force
 ➢ energy transformation (kinetic  potential)

x
The restoring force depends on the displacement
Frestore = −k x

F ( x) = −kx
where k is the force constant and measures stiffness of the spring
1
U ( x) = kx 2
2
(stored energy)
F ( x) = −kx
ma = F 
d 2x
m 2 = −kx
dt
2
d x k
+ x=0
dt 2 m
This is called equation of motion of the simple harmonic oscillator

Simple Harmonic Motion

d 2x k
+ x=0
dt 2 m
d 2x
2
= − 2 x
dt
k
2 =
m
d
How to calculate cos t ?
dt
x ( t ) = cos t
x ( t + t ) = cos  ( t + t )
x ( t + t ) − x(t ) = cos  ( t + t ) − cos t
= − sin t sin(t + t / 2)
 −t sin t
 d
 cos t = − sin t
dt
Remember two important results:
d
( sin t ) =  cos t
dt
d
( cos t ) = − sin t
dt
Remember two important results:
d
= ( sin t ) =  cos t
dt
d
= ( cos t ) = − sin t
dt

Physical significance of constant 

 2 
x = xm cos   t +
  
= xm cos (t + 2 )
= xm cos t
That is, the function merely repeats it self after a time 2 / 
So 2 /  is the period of the motion T
2 m
T= = 2
 k
The frequency  of the oscillator is the number of complete vibrations per unit time:
1 1 k
= =
T 2 m
2 k
 = 2 = =
T m
 is called the angular frequency
dim   = T −1 Unit of  is radian/second

Energy of simple harmonic motion

The total energy in simple harmonic motion is the sum of its potential energy and kinetic
energy. Thus, the total energy in the simple harmonic motion of a particle is: Directly
proportional to its mass. Directly proportional to the square of the frequency of oscillations and.

The quantity  = t +  is called the phase of the motion. The constant 

is called the phase constant.
Energy of simple harmonic motion
x = xm cos t
1 1
U = kx 2 = kxm2 cos 2 t
2 2
1 2 1
K = mv = m 2 xm2 sin 2 t
2 2

1 2
= kxm sin 2 t
2
E = K +U
1 1
= kxm2 cos 2 t + kxm2 sin 2 t
2 2
1
(
= kxm2 cos 2 t + sin 2 t
2
)
1
= kxm2
2
1 1 1
E = mv 2 + kx 2 = kxm2
2 2 2

v=
dx
dt
=
k 2
m
(
xm − x 2 )
speed is maximum at x=0
speed is zero at x =  xm
Lecture 16 – OSCILLATIONS: II

Simple pendulum

A pendulum is a weight suspended from a pivot so that it can swing freely. When a pendulum is
displaced sideways from its resting, equilibrium position, it is subject to a restoring force due to
gravity that will accelerate it back toward the equilibrium position.

For example

F = − mg sin 
For small value of 
sin   
x = L
x
F = − mg = − mg
L
 mg 
= − x
 L 
 mg 
2
d x
F = m 2 = − x
dt  L 
d 2x g
= −  x
dt 2 L
Solution : x = xm cos t
g
=
L
The physical pendulum

A pendulum is a weight suspended from a pivot so that it can swing freely. When a pendulum is
displaced sideways from its resting, equilibrium position, it is subject to a restoring force due to
gravity that will accelerate it back toward the equilibrium position.
 = − Mgd sin 
For small  , sin   
 = − Mgd
d 2
 = I = I = − Mgd
dt 2

d 2  Mgd 
= − 
 I 
2
dt
Its time period will be :
Mgd
=
I
Mgd
or I =
2

The quantities on the right are all measurable. Using this formula we can determine the rotational
inertia of anybody about an axis of rotation other than through the center of mass.

The physical pendulum includes the simple pendulum as a special case

d = L and I = ML2
I ML2
T = 2 = 2
Mgd MgL
L
= 2
g

Center of gyration

The center of gyration with respect to the axis of a rotating body is a point at which if the entire
mass of the body were concentrated its moment of inertia would remain unchanged. The distance
of this point from the axis is the radius of gyration.

L I I
T = 2 = 2 L=
g Mgd Md

Simple harmonic motion and uniform circular motion

Uniform Circular Motion describes the movement of an object traveling a circular path with
constant speed. The one-dimensional projection of this motion can be described as simple
harmonic motion. A point P moving on a circular path with a constant angular velocity ω is
undergoing uniform circular motion.

Acceleration of the particle is

r v2
a = − rˆ = − R 2 rˆ
R

acceleration along x direction is :

ax = − R 2 cos 
but
x = R cos 
d 2x
 ax = 2 = − 2 x
dt
Thus point P executes simple harmonic motion
Acceleration of the point Q is :
a y = − R 2 sin 
but
y = R sin 
d2y
 ay = 2
= − 2 y
dt
Q also executes simple harmonic motion

Sum of two simple harmonic motions of the same period along the same line:

x1 = A1 sin t and x2 = A2 sin (t +  )

The resultant displacement
x = x1 + x2
= A1 sin t + A2 sin (t +  )
= A1 sin t + A2 sin t cos  + A2 sin  cos t
= sin t ( A1 + A2 cos  ) + cos t ( A2 sin  )
Let A1 + A2 cos  = R cos 
and A2 sin  = R sin 
We get x = R sin (t +  )
Thus the resultant motion is also simple harmonic motion along the same line and has the
same time period . Its amplitude is
R = A12 + A22 + A1 A2 cos 

A2 sin 
tan  =
A1 + A2 cos 

Special cases :
If  = 0 then

( A1 + A2 )
2
R = A12 + A22 + A1 A2 = = A1 + A2
and
tan  = 0   = 0
We get x = ( A1 + A2 ) sin t
This is constructive interference
If  =  then

( A1 − A2 )
2
R = A12 + A22 − A1 A2 = = A1 − A2
and
tan  = 0   = 0
We get x = ( A1 − A2 ) sin t
This is destructive interference

Composition of two simple harmonic motions of the same period at right angles to each other

x = A sin t and y = B sin (t +  )

x
sin t = = and cos t = 1 − x 2 / A2
A
y
= sin t cos  + sin  cos t
B
x
= cos  + sin  1 − x 2 / A2
A
squaring and rearranging

x2 y 2 xy
2
+ 2 −2 cos  = sin 2  =
A B AB
This is the equation of an ellipse.
Special cases :
If  = 0 then
2
x2 y 2 xy x y
+ 2 −2 =0 −  =0
 A B
2
A B AB

Lissajous Figures

A Lissajous curve, also known as Lissajous figure or Bowditch curve, is the graph of a system of
parametric equations x=A\sin, \quad y=B\sin, which describe complex harmonic motion.

Or

If two oscillations of different frequencies at right angles are combined, the resulting motion is
more complicated. It is not even periodic unless the two frequencies are in the ratio of integers.
These resulting curves are called Lissajous figures.

x = A sin xt and y = B sin ( y t +  )

x
= integers  periodic motion
y
Damped harmonic motion

Damped harmonic motion is a real oscillation, in which an object is hanging on a spring.

Because of the existence of internal friction and air resistance, the system will over time
experience a decrease in amplitude. The decrease of amplitude is due to the fact that the energy
goes into thermal energy.
 dx
Damping force = −b where b  0
dt
From Newton’s second law
r r
 = ma
F
dx d 2x
− kx − b =m 2
dt dt
2
d x dx
 m 2 + b + kx = 0
dt dt
2
k  b 
Its solution for   is
m  2m 
x = xm e − bt /2 m cos ( ' t +  )
2
k  b 
where  ' = − 
m  2m 

d 2x
m 2 + k x = F0 cos t
dt
F0
Solution : x = cos t
(
m 02 −  2 )
mF (− 2 ) + kF
Check : LHS = cos t = RHS
(
m 02 −  2 )
Here 0 is the natural frequency of the
k
system and is given by 0 =
m
There is a characteristic value of the driving frequency  at which the amplitude of
oscillation is a maximum. This condition is called resonance. For negligible damping
resonance occurs at  = 0
Two body oscillations
d 2 x1 d 2 x2
m1 2 = − kx m2 2 = + kx
dt dt
d 2 x1 d 2 x2
m1m2 2 − m1m2 2 = − m2 kx − m1kx
dt dt
 m1m2  d 2
  2 ( x1 − x2 ) = − kx
 1
m + m 2  dt

 mm 
let m =  1 2 
 m1 + m2 
d d dx
( x1 − x2 ) = ( x + L ) =
dt dt dt
d 2x k
+ x=0
dt 2 m

Lecture 17 – PHYSICS OF MATERIALS

Elasticity:

The property, by virtue of which a body tends to regain its original shape and size when external
forces are removed, is called elasticity.

Perfectly elastic:

{If a body completely recovers its original shape and size, it is called perfectly elastic. 0r. If a
body has no tendency to regain its original shape and size, it is called perfectly plastic.}Nobody
in nature is perfectly elastic or perfectly plastic. Common plastics, kneaded dough, solid honey,
etc are plastics.

Stress:

Stress characterizes the strength of the forces causing the stretch, squeeze, or twist, usually on a
“force per unit area” basis.

Stress = Force/Area

SI unit of stress is N/m

There are three types of stresses

1. Longitudinal stress or tensile stress or compressive stress.

2. volume stress
3. tangential or shearing stress

Longitudinal stress or tensile stress or compressive stress

If the deforming force is applied along some linear dimension of a body, the corresponding stress
is called longitudinal stress or tensile stress or compressive stress.

Volume stress

If the force acts normally and uniformly fromall sides, the stress is called volume stress.

Tangential or shearing stress

If the force is applied tangentially to one face of a rectangular body, keeping the other face fixed,
the stress is called tangential or shearing stress.

Strain

When deforming forces are applied on a body, it undergoes a change in shape or size. The
fractional (or relative) change in shape or size is called the strain.

change in dimension
Strain =
original dimension
Three types of strain

Longitudinal (linear) strain is the ratio of the change in length (L) to original length (l )
l
Linear strain =
l
Volume strain is the ratio of the change in volume (V ) to original volume (V )
V
Volume strain =
V

Shearing strain: The angular deformation ( ) in radians is called shearing stress.

For small  :
x
Shearing strain: =   tan  =
l

Hooke’s Law
This law states that for small deformations, stress is proportional to strain.

Strain = E (strain)

The constant E is called modulus of elasticity

E has the same units as stress
There are three moduli of elasticity:

Young’s Modulus (Y)

Young's modulus (E or Y) is a measure of a solid's stiffness or resistance to elastic

deformation under load. It relates stress (force per unit area) to strain (proportional
deformation) along an axis or line. A high Young's modulus value means a solid is inelastic or
stiff.

longitudinal stress
Y =
longitudinal strain
F/A
=
l / l

Bulk’s Modulus (B)

It is defined as the ratio between pressure increase and the resulting decrease in a material's
volume. Together with Young's modulus, the shear modulus, and Hooke's law, the bulk modulus
describes a material's response to stress or strain. Usually, bulk modulus is indicated by K or B in
equations and tables.

Volume Stress
B =
Volume Strain

P
B −
V / V
1/ B is called compressibility. A material having a small value of
B can be compressed easily.

Shear Modulus (h)

The shear modulus is the earth's material response to the shear deformation. It is defined as the
ratio of shear stress and shear strain. This valuable property tells us in advance how resistant a
material is to shearing deformation.
 shearing stress
 =
shearing strain
Shearing modulusis also called modulus of rigidity
F/A F Fl
 = = =
 A tan  Ax
Poisson’s ratio

When a wire is stretched, its length increases and radius decreases. The ratio of the lateral strain
to the longitudinal strain is called Poisson’s ratio.

r / r
 = Its value lies between 0 and 0.5.
l / l
Work done in stretching a wire

YA
F= x
l
The work done in extending the wire through l is given by
YA ( l )
l l 2
YA
W =  Fdx =
l 0
xdx =
0
l 2

YA ( l )
2
1  Y l  l 
W= = ( Al )   
l 2 2  l  l 
1
=  volume  stress  strain
2
1
Work / unit volume =  stress  strain
2
1  YAl  1
W=   l =  load  extension
2 l  2

Volumetric Stress

When the deforming force or applied force acts from all dimensions resulting in the change of
volume of the object then such stress in called volumetric stress or Bulk stress. In short, when
the volume of body changes due to the deforming force it is termed as Volume stress.

Force F
Stress = = = Pressure
Area A
Volumetric Strain:

The volumetric strain is the unit change in volume, i.e. the change in volume divided by the
original volume.

Change in volume ΔV
Strain = =
Original volume V

Bulk Modulus

The relative change in the volume of a body produced by a unit compressive or tensile stress
acting uniformly over its surface
Volumetric Stress
Bulk Modulus =
Volumetric Strain
p
B=
V / V
Fluid Statics
A fluid is a substance that can flow and does not have a shape of its own. Thus all liquids and
gases are fluids. Solids possess all the three moduli of elasticity whereas fluid possesses only
bulk modulus. A fluid at rest cannot sustain a tangential force. If such force is applied to a fluid,
the different layers simply slide over one another. Therefore the forces acting on a fluid at rest
have to be normal to the surface.
Fluid Pressure

F
The normal force per unit area is called pressure P = .
A

Pressure is a scalar quantity

Its unit is N/m2, or Pascal (Pa)

Typical Pressures

Centre of earth 4 x 1011 Pa

Ocean bottom 1 x 108 Pa
Car tyre 2 x 105 Pa
Atmosphere 1 x 105 Pa
Blood pressure 1.6 x 104 Pa
Lab vacuum 1 x 10-12 Pa
 m
A measure of the amount of information on a storage medium  = . Density has no
V
m m
directional property and is a scalar quantity. If density is uniform then  = =
V V

Density of water is 1000 kg/m3

Variation of pressure in fluid at rest

Consider a small element of form of disc of fluid volume submerged within the body of the fluid.
The mass of this volume is

dm =  dV =  Ady
and its weight is
( dm ) g =  gAdy

F y =0
pA − ( p + dp ) A −  gAdy = 0
dp
 = − g
dy
dp
= − g
dy
Therefor as the elevation increases (dy positive),
the pressure decreases (dy negative) .The quantity  g is called weight density of the
fluid. It is the weight per unit volume of the fluid.For liquids, which are nearly incompressible, 
is practically constant.

  g = constant
dp p p2 − p1
 = = = − g
dy y y2 − y1
p2 − p1 = −  g ( y2 − y1 )
for a homogeneous liquid

If liquid has a free surface, then this becomes the natural level from where we can measure the
distances.
Therefore
p2 − p1 = −  g ( y2 − y1 )
becomes
p0 − p = −  g ( y2 − y1 )
but y2 − y1 = h, therefore p = p0 +  gh

To what height should a cylindrical vessel be filled with a homogeneous liquid to make the force
with which the liquid presses on the sides of the wall equal to the force exerted by the liquid on
the bottom of the vessel?

Force exerted by the liquid

on the bottom = ( hg  )  r 2
1
Mean pressure on the wall = ( hg  )
2
Area of the wall in contact
with the liquid = 2 rh
Force exerted by the liquid
1 
on the wall =  hg   2 rh
2 
Since the two forces are equal
1 
 hg   2 rh = ( hg  )  r
2

2 
h=r

Pascal’s Principle

Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted to every portion of the fluid and to the walls
of the containing vessel

p = pext +  gh
p = pext +  (  gh )
Since the liquid is incompressible, the density is constant

 (  gh ) = 0
 p = pext

Hydraulic Lever
 Fi
The pressure on the Iiquid at the smaller piston due to our externally applied force is pi = .
Ai

F0
According to Pascal's principle this "input pressure"must be equal to the "output pressure" p0 =
A0

Fi F0
pi = p0  =
Ai A0
or
A  A 
Fi = F0  i  = Mg  i 
 A0   A0 
Ai
Q Ai = A0  = 1
A0
 Fi = F0 = Mg
The downward movement of the smaller piston through a distance di displaces
a volume of fluid
V = di Ai
If the fluid is incompressible, then this volume must be equal to the volume displaced by the
upward motion of the larger piston
V = di Ai = d 0 A0
or
A 
d 0 = di  i 
 A0 
Now
A
Q i = 1  d0 = di
A0
The price we pay for gaining the ability to lift a larger load is losing the ability to move
it very far.

Also :
A  d 
Fi = F0  i  = F0  0   Fi di = F0 d 0
 A0   di 
Therefore, work done by the external force on the smaller piston equals the work
done by the fluid on the larger fluid

Gauge pressure
Gauge pressure = actual pressure – atmospheric pressure

Measuring Pressure

The space above the mercury column is in effect a vacuum containing only mercury vapor,
whose pressure is so small at ordinary temperatures that it can be neglected.

i.e., p2 = 0
p1 = p is the unknown pressure
Therefore
p2 − p1 = −  g ( y2 − y1 )

or
0 − p = −  gh
Q h = y2 − y1
 p =  gh

Measuring the height of the column above the surface of the dish then gives the pressure.

Manometer

The open tube manometer measures gauge pressure. The U-shaped tube contains often mercury
or water

The pressure at the

bottom of the tube due
to the fluid in the left column is p0 +  gy2

And the pressure at the bottom of the tube due

to the fluid in the right column is p +  gy1
These pressure are measured at the same point so they must be equal
p +  gy1 = p0 + +  gy2
p − p0 =  g ( y2 − y1 ) =  gh
Thus the gauge pressure p − p0 is proportional to the difference
in height of the liquid column in the U-tube
Therefore equating the
pressures at point C on
each side, we obtain
p0 +  w g ( 2a ) = p0 +  g ( 2a + d )
 2a 
  =  w
 2a + d 
Archimedes’ principle
Q pbelow  pabove
Fbelow Fabove
 
A A
 Fbelow  Fabove
Fb = Fbelow − Fabove  0

This net upward force is called the buoyant force or buoyancy.

This force acts through the center of gravity of the displaced fluid, called the center of buoyancy.

Thus a body appears to weigh less when immersed in a fluid Apparent Weight = True Weight -
Upthrust

Suppose a body of the volume V and density 

is fully immersed in a liquid of density  , Then
Weight of the body = W =  gV
Weight of the liquid displaced = W  =  gV
 Net downward force, or, apparent weight
  
Wa = (  −   ) gV =  gV 1 − 
 
  
Wa = (  −   ) gV = W 1 − 
 
The following possibilities may occur :
1) If     , Wa  0. Therefore, the body will sink to the bottom.
2) If   =  , Wa = 0. Therefore, the body will just float or remain hanging at whatever height it is
left inside the liquid
3) If     , the upthrust will be greater than the weight of the body. Therefore, the body will
move partly out of the free surface of the liquid untill the upthrust becomes equal to W. The body
will then float. Thus the principle of floatation is:

"For a body to float in a liquid, the weight of the liquid displaced by the immersed portion of the
body must be equal to its own weight".

Lecture 18 – PHYSICS OF FLUIDS

Fluid

A fluid is matter that has no definite shape and adjusts to the container that it is placed in. Gases
and liquids are both fluids. All fluids are made of molecules. Every molecules attracts other
molecules around it.

Surface tension

Leaves and insect can be observed to float on the surface of a body of water. They are not
partially submerged and thus not buoyed up because of Archimedes’ principle. In this case the
object is completely on the surface and none of it is submerged.

Quantitative measurement of surface tension

w = weight of the sliding wire
T = pull force
T + w = F = net downward force
Since film has both front and back surfaces so the force F acts along a
total length of 2 L
The surface tension in the film is defined as
F
=  F = 2 L
2L
In equilibrium
F = 2 L = w + T
w+T
 =
2L
U = F x =  Lx
where L is the length of the surface layer
Lx = A = change in area of the surface that
occurs when we stretch it
Therefore
U
F=
A
Surface tension is the surface potential energy
per unit area !

Liquid in contact with a solid surface

A liquid surface in contact with a solid boundary, e.g. with the vertical wall of the container, will
in general not meet it at right angles. The angle α between the bounding plane and the tangent to
the liquid surface at the point of contact is called the angle of contact between the particular
liquid and solid.

Angle of contact

The angle between the tangent planes to the liquid and the solid surfaces,
measured through the liquid, is called the angle of contact ( )
If   900 liquid wets the solid
If   900 liquid does not wet the solid
Pressure inside a bubble

Surface tension causes a pressure difference between the inside and outside of a soap bubble or a
liquid drop. A soap bubble consists of two spherical surface films with a thin layer of liquid
p = pressure exerted by the upper half
between p0 = external pressure
Surface tension force acts on the circumference of the bubble

 force exerted due to

surface tension = 2(2 r )
Q bubble has two surfaces
At equilibrium
 r 2 p = 2(2 r ) +  r 2 p0
Therefore
4
Excess pressure = p − p0 = ( soap bubble )
r
A liquid drop has only one surface film
2
Excess pressure = p − p0 = ( liquid drop )
r
capilliarity

The rise and fall of a liquid in a capillary tube dipped in the liquid is called capilliarity.

Surface tension causes the capillarity

If angle of contact is less than 900, liquid rises in the tube and if the angle of contact is greater
than 900, the liquid is depressed

4
Excess pressure = p − p0 =
R
but p − p0 =  gh
and r = R cos 
Therefore
4 cos 
h=
r g
Thus narrower the tube, the greater the rise

Fluid flow can be steady or non-steady:

For steady flow, pressure density and velocity
are constant in time, e.g., a gently flowing stream
Example of non-steady flow is water fall
Fluid flow can be compressible or incompressible

If the density  of a fluid is a constant, independent of x, y ,z and t its flow is

called incompressible flow.
Liquid can usually be considered as flowing incompressibly, but gases are
considered to be incompressible.

Fluid flow can be viscous or non-viscous

Viscosity in fluid motion is the analogue of friction in the motion of solid

When a fluid flows such that no energy is dissipated through viscous forces, the flow is said to
nonviscous.

Two main types of fluid flow:

1) laminar

Fluid “particles” follow fixed paths (streamlines)

Streamlines do not cross or meet

Velocity is tangent to streamlines

2) turbulent

Equation of continuity

Consider water flowing in a pipe with a changing diameter:

Volume of water flowing past here per second = Volume of water flowing past here per second

V1 / t = V2 / t  V1 = V2

V1 = A1L1 = A1v1t V2 = A2 L2 = A2 v2t

V1 / t = V2 / t  A1v1 = A2 v2

Smaller area  greater speed

dV
= Av = constant
dt

dV
= Av = constant Continuity Equation
dt

Human circulatory system

➢ Large arteries  slow blood flow

➢ Small arteries  fast blood flow

Work done due to p1 = p1 A1l1

Work done due to p2 = − p2 A2 l2
Work done
by gravity
is associated
with lifting the
fluid element from y1 to y2 = −mg ( y2 − y1 )

W = p1 A1l1 − p2 A2 l2 − mg ( y2 − y1 )

Now A1l1 = A2 l2 = V = m / 
W = ( p1 − p2 )( m /  ) − mg ( y2 − y1 )
The change in kinetic energy of the fluid element is
1 1
K = mv 22 − mv12
2 2
From energy conservation,
W = K
1 1
( p1 − p2 )( m /  ) − mg ( y2 − y1 ) = mv22 − mv12
2 2

1 2 1
p1 +  v1 +  gy2 = p2 +  v 22 +  gy1
2 2
1 2
p +  v +  gy = constant
2

This is called Bernoulli’s equation for steady incompressible, non-viscous and irrotational flow.
Lecture 19 – PHYSICS OF SOUND

Decibels (db): a relative measure to compare the intensity of different sounds with one another

I 0  threshold of hearing
=10-12 watts per cm3
R  relative intensity of sound I
I
=log10
I0
At time t = 0,
2
y ( x, 0 ) = ym sin x

At time t , in x direction;
2
y ( x, t ) = ym sin ( x − vt )


The period T of a wave is the time to undergo one complete cycle of motion  = vT

The frequency n is the number of waves crossing a particular point every second:

1
=
T
x t 
y ( x, t ) = ym sin 2  − 
 T 

y at any given time, has the same value at x, x +  , x + 2 

y at any given position, has the same value at t, t + T , t + 2T 
Introduce wavenumber k
and angular frequency  ,
2
k=

2
= = 2
T
Relative motion between source and observer causes Doppler Effect.

➢ Moving Observer, Source at Rest

➢ Moving Source, Observer at Rest

Number of waves received by an observer at rest is v t /  .

Additional number of waves received by an observer moving toward source with speed v0 in the
same time is v0 t /  .

number of waves received

frequency actually heard =
unit time
vt v0t
+
v + v0
 =   =
t 
v + v0 v + v0
= =
v / v
 v 
  =  1 + 0 
 v 

Moving Source, Observer at Rest

vs
Each wavelength is reduced by .
f

v v vs
  but   = −
  

v v v
 = = =
 ( v − vs ) /  ( v − v s )
If both source and observer are moving then:

v + vo
  =
v − vs
Lecture 20 – WAVE MOTION

Wave motion is any kind of self-repeating (periodic, or oscillatory) motion that transports energy
from one point to another. Waves are of two basic kinds:

➢ Longitudinal Waves: the oscillation Longitudinal Waves is parallel to the direction of

wave travel. Examples: sound, spring, "P-type" earthquake waves.
➢ Transverse Waves: the oscillation is perpendicular to the direction of wave travel
Transverse Waves. Examples: radio or light waves, string, "S-type" earthquake waves.

Waves transport energy, not matter.

Amplitude

The height of a wave is called the amplitude.

1 1
Amplitude  Power 
r r2

Spherically sound waves are emitted uniformly in all directions from a point source, the radiated
power P being 25 W. What are the intensity and the sound level of the sound waves a distance r
= 2.5 m from the source?

Let P be the radiated power

4 r12 I1 = P1
4 r22 I 2 = P2
But P1 = P2 = P
I1 r22
 =
I 2 r12
P = 25 W, r = 2.5 m
P
I= 2
=.32 W/m 2
4πr
I
SL = 10 log = 115dB
I0

Phase

If the displacement y is not zero at x = 0 at t = 0 then,

y ( x, t ) = ym sin ( kx − t −  ) kx − t −  is called the phase.
 is called the phase constant.

The phase constant only moves the wave forward or backward in space or time:
    
y ( x, t ) = ym sin  k  x −  − t 
  k 
   
y ( x, t ) = ym sin  kx −   t +  
   
y ( x, t ) = y1 ( x, t ) + y2 ( x, t )
When two sources are present the total amplitude at any point is the
sum of the two separate amplitudes.

A = A1 + A 2
Power  A 2 = ( A1 + A 2 )
2

y1 ( x, t ) = ym sin ( kx − t − 1 )
y2 ( x, t ) = ym sin ( kx − t − 2 )
y ( x, t ) = y1 ( x, t ) + y2 ( x, t )
= ym sin ( kx − t − 1 ) + sin ( kx − t − 2 ) 
1
sin B + sin C = 2sin ( B + C )  cos ( B − C )
2
y ( x, t ) = ym sin ( kx − t − 1 ) + sin ( kx − t − 2 ) 
    
=  2 ym cos     sin ( kx − t −   )
  2 
 = 2 − 1

 =
(1 + 2 )
2
For constructive interference,

= 0,  , 2 , 
2
For destructive interference,
  3
= , , 
2 2 2

Two speakers, which are separated by a distance D of 2.3 m, emit a pure tone. The waves are in
phase when they leave the speakers. For what wavelengths will the listener hear a minimum in
the sound intensity?
D = 2.3m
x2 = 1.2m, x1 = ?
x1 = x22 + D 2 = 2.6m
x1 = x22 + D 2 = 2.6m
x1 − x2 = 1.4m
  
1.4m = ,3 ,5 , 
2 2 2
 = 2.8m, 0.93m, 0.56m, 
y1 ( x, t ) = ym sin ( kx − t )
y2 ( x, t ) = ym sin ( kx + t )
y ( x, t ) = y1 ( x, t ) + y2 ( x, t )
= ym sin ( kx − t ) + sin ( kx + t ) 
=  2 ym sin kx  cos t
y ( x, t ) =  2 ym sin kx  cos t
( remember that k = 2 /  !)
kx =  , 2 ,3 , 
 3
x = ,  , , 
2 2
p1 ( t ) = p0 sin 1t
p2 ( t ) = p0 sin 2t
p ( t ) = p1 ( t ) + p2 ( t )
= p0 ( sin 1t + sin 2t )
   − 2    1 + 2 
=  2 p0 cos  1  t  sin  t
  2    2 
 + 2
= 1
2
 −
diff = 1 2
2
p ( t ) =  2pm cos diff t  sin  t
beat = 2diff = 1 − 2
The speed of a pulse

He pulse wave in man travels in the arteries at a speed of 4 to 10 metres per second.

At time t = 0,
y ( x, 0 ) = f ( x )
At time t ,
y ( x, t ) = f ( x ) = f ( x − vt )
where, x = x − vt
x − vt = constant
dx
−v=0
dt
dx
=v
dt
phase velocity, independent of any property of the wave.

If vs > v then,
v
sin  =
vs
Lecture 21 – GRAVITY

GRAVITY

Gravity, also called gravitation, in mechanics, the universal force of attraction acting between
all matters.

Force of attraction between m1 and m2 is:

m1m2
F
r2
mm
F = G 12 2 dim[G ] = M −1 L3T −2
r

G is called the universal gravitational constant.

r
F21 = Force on m2 by m1
r
F12 = Force on m1 by m2
r r
F12 = F21 = F

Experiment to find G

Gravitational torque
 GmM  L
= 2 2 
 r 2
Restoring torque = 
 can be measured by observing the deflection of the beam of the light reflected from the small mirror.

In equilibrium both torques will be equal:

GmML  r 2
=   G =
r2 GmML
 can be found from
I 4 2 I
T = 2  = 2
 T
2
mL
with I =
2
G = 6.67259 10−11 N .m 2 / kg 2
Mass of the Earth
The magnitude of the force with which Earth attracts the body towards its center is F = GmM2 E
RE

Apply law of motion:

GmM E
F = mg =
RE 2
gRE 2
 ME = = 5.97 1024 kg
G

Density of the Earth

Considering Earth to a perfect sphere, we can find its density

4
Volume of Earth = VE =  RE 3
3
= 1.08  1021 m3
V
 Density of Earth =  E = E
ME
= 5462 kg m −3

This is 5.5 times the density of the water

Gravitational Potential

It is the work done in moving a unit mass from infinity to a given point.

U (r ) GM
V (r ) = =−
m r
Proof: Conservation of energy says,
0 
dV = − Fdr  
V (R)
dV = −  drF
r
 
dr 1
0 − V ( R) = GM  2 = −GM  
R
r  r R
GM
V ( R) = −
R

Potential energy near the surface of Earth

 1 1 
U = U ( R + h) − U ( R ) = GMm  − 
 R R+h

= GMm 1 −
1
 1+ h / R 

(
 = GMm 1 − (1 + h / R )
−1
)
(1 + h / R )
−1
For h = R, = 1− h / R
 GM 
U = GMm (1 − (1 − h / R ) ) = m   h = mgh
 R 

Escape Velocity

In celestial mechanics, escape velocity or escape speed is the minimum speed needed for a free,
non-propelled object to escape from the gravitational influence of a primary body, thus reaching
an infinite distance from it. It is typically stated as an ideal speed, ignoring atmospheric friction.

( KE + PE )r = R = ( KE + PE )r =
1 2 GMm
mve − = 0+0
2 R
2GM
ve = = 2 gR
R
Earth escape: ve = 11.2 km/s
Sun escape: ve = 618 km/s

Black Holes

A black hole is a region of space time where gravity is so strong that nothing no particles or
even electromagnetic radiation such as light can escape from it. The theory of general relativity
predicts that a sufficiently compact mass can deform space time to form a black hole.

2GM
ve =
R
put ve = c
2GM
R=
c2
is called the Schwarzchild radius of a black hole

Orbital Velocity

Orbital velocity is the speed required to achieve orbit around a celestial body, such as a
planet or a star. This requires traveling at a sustained speed that: Aligns with the celestial body's
rotational velocity. Is fast enough to counteract the force of gravity pulling the orbiting object
toward the body's surface.
mv o2 GMm GM
= 2  vo =
r r r
If R is the radius of the planet and h is the height of the
satellite above the surface, then r = R + h
GM GM
vo = , for h = R, v o = = gR
R+h R

Time Period Of Revolution

The motion around the sun along its orbit is called a revolution. The amount of time it takes for a
single trip around the sun is called a period of revolution. The period for the Earth to revolve
around the sun is 365.24 days or one year.

2 2 r
T= =
 vo
r 2 3/2
= 2 r = r
GM GM
or
4 2 3
T2 = r
GM
i.e.,
T 2  r3

Energy of a Satellite

The total energy of a satellite is just the sum of its gravitational potential and kinetic
energies. Assuming that mechanical energy is conserved the sum of the kinetic and potential
energies of the satellite would remain constant.

E = KE + PE
1 GMm
= mv o2 −
2 r
GM
but v o =
2

r
1 GMm GMm 1 GMm
E = − =−
2 r r 2 r

Geostationary Satellite

An Earth satellite so positioned that it appears stationary to an observer on Earth is called a

geostationary satellite. Its time period of revolution is I day.
 4 2 3
T2 = r
GM
 GM  RT
2
gRT 2
 r3 =   2 =
 R  4 4 2
= 42.33 106 m
 Height of the satellite = r − R = 35.93 106 m

Kepler’s laws of planetary motion

1) Law of Orbits
All planets move in elliptic orbits with Sun at one focus.
2) Law of Areas
The line joining a planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time.
1
 A = r ( r  )
2
dA A
= lim
dt  t → 0 t
1 2  
= r  lim 
2  t → 0  t 
1 L
= r 2 =
2 2m

3) Law of Periods
The square of the period of revolution of any planet is proportional to the cube of the
planet’s mean distance from the Sun.
Let’s prove this result for circular orbits.
GMm 2
2
= m 2 r , where  =
r T
GM  2   4 2  3
2

 2 =  r or T 2
=  r
r  T   GM 
A similar result is obtained for elliptic orbits, with the radius r replaced by the semi major
axis a.
 A planet has a speed v1 at a distance d1 from the Sun. What will be its speed at
distance d 2 ?
Using the law of conservation of angular momentum
vd
mv 2 d 2 = mv1d1  v 2 = 1 1
d2
energy conservation :
GMm 1 2 GMm 1 2
− + mv1 = − + mv 2
d1 2 d2 2
v1d1
v2 =
d2
Solving these equations, we get
2GMd 2
v1 =
d1 ( d1 + d 2 )
2GMd1d 2
 Angular momentum = mv1d1 = m
( d1 + d 2 )

Sling shot effect

The effect known as the gravity assist or slingshot effect is a way of using the motion of a
planet to accelerate a space probe on its journey towards the outer planets. Sling shot effect
is a non-impact collision used to give an extra boost to spacecraft.

QM ? m
V will remain constant during the interaction
This is a one dimensional elastic collision !
speed of approach = speed of recession
vi + V = − ( v f + V )
vf = − ( v + 2V )

Gravitational effect of a spherical distributional of matter

“A uniformly dense spherical shell attracts an external point mass as if the mass of the shell were
concentrated at its center”

1) Variation of g

Value of g at the surface of the Earth. The magnitude of the force with which Earth attracts the
body towards its center is
 GmM E
F = mg =
RE 2
GM E
g=
RE 2

Value of g will be constant all over the surface for a perfectly spherical Earth.

2) Variation of g with altitude

The magnitude of the force with which Earth attracts the body towards its center is
GmM E
F= .
( h + RE )
2

According to Newton’s second law

GmM E GM E
F = mg h =  gh =
( h + RE ) ( h + RE )
2 2

GM E GM E g
gh = = =
( h + RE )
2 2 2
 h   h 
R 1 +
2
E  1 + 
 RE   RE 

h
For h = RE , or = 1
RE
−2
 h   2h 
g h = g 1 +  ; g 1 − 
 RE   RE 
For h = 0, g h = g

3) Variation of g depth below the surface of Earth

As the particle lies inside the shell of radius d , there is no force on the particle due to the shell.
The only force exerted on the particle comes from the sphere of radius RE − d .
 4 3
Mass of the smaller sphere = M E =  E   ( RE − d ) 
3 
4 
but  E = M E /   RE3 
3 
Now the force will be
GmM E
F = mg d =
( RE − d )
2

GM E  d 
 gd = 1 − 
RE2  RE 
 d 
= g 1 − 
 RE 
For d = RE , g d = 0

The value of g is zero at the center of the Earth.

where r is distance from the center of the Earth

_________________________