PRATHYUSHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

CS23402-COMPUTER NETWORKS
IAT2 Answers
1.Identify the network address in a class A subnet with the IP addresses of one of the hosts
as 25.34.12.56 and mask 255.255.0.0?

Given:

 IP address: 25.34.12.56
 Subnet mask: 255.255.0.0

First, express them in binary:

IP address (binary):

25 = 00011001
34 = 00100010
12 = 00001100
56 = 00111000

So 25.34.12.56 = 00011001.00100010.00001100.00111000

Subnet mask (binary):

255 = 11111111
255 = 11111111
0 = 00000000
0 = 00000000

So 255.255.0.0 = 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000

Now, perform a bitwise AND between IP address and subnet mask:

00011001.00100010.00001100.00111000 (IP)
AND
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000 (Subnet mask)
=
00011001.00100010.00000000.00000000

This gives us:

 First octet: 00011001 = 25

 Second octet: 00100010 = 34
 Third octet: 00000000 = 0
 Fourth octet: 00000000 = 0

Final Answer:

Network address = 25.34.0.0

2. Interpret the techniques that are used to overcome the count to infinity issue in distance
vector routing?
Split horizon technique and split horizon with poison reverse technique are used to overcome count
to infinity issue in distance vector routing.
3. Mark any one reason why a home user upgrading from a dial-up connection to high-
speed broadband might not see much improvement in website performance, even if the
network and the web server have ample capacity.
One reason: The website may contain large multimedia content or heavy scripts that take
time to load, causing slow performance regardless of the user's improved internet speed.

4. Compare the difference between stop and wait and sliding window protocol?

5. Explain the concept of CSMA protocol?

Carrier sense multiple access (CSMA) is a media access control (MAC) protocol in which a node
verifies the absence of other traffic before transmitting on a shared transmission medium.
Carrier sense means that a transmitter attempts to determine whether another transmission is in
progress before initiating a transmission. If a carrier is sensed, the node waits for the transmission
in progress to end before initiating its own
transmission. In other words, CSMA is based on the principle "sense before transmit". Multiple
access means that multiple nodes may send and receive on the medium. Transmissions by one
node are generally received by all other nodes connected to the medium.
PART B
6.a. Explain the Protocol which allows the Host Machine to configure dynamically in a
network and discuss about the protocol which generates error messages.
 The dynamic host configuration protocol is used to simplify the installation and
maintenance of networked computers.
 DHCP is derived from an earlier protocol called BOOTP.
 Ethernet addresses are configured into network by manufacturer and they are unique.
 IP addresses must be unique on a given internetwork but also must reflect the structure of
the internetwork
 Most host Operating Systems provide a way to manually configure the IP information for
the host
Drawbacks of manual configuration:
1. A lot of work to configure all the hosts in a large network
2.Configuration
  It is necessary to ensure that every host gets the correct network number and that no two
hosts receive the same IP address.
 For these reasons, automated configuration methods are required.
 The primary method uses a protocol known as the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP).
 The main goal of DHCP is to minimize the amount of manual configuration required for
a host.
 If a new computer is connected to a network, DHCP can provide it with all the necessary
information for full system integration into the network.
 DHCP is based on a client/server model.
 DHCP clients send a request to a DHCP server to which the server responds with an IP
address
 DHCP server is responsible for providing configuration information to hosts. There is at
least one DHCP server for an administrative domain.
 The DHCP server can function just as a centralized repository for host configuration
information.
 The DHCP server maintains a pool of available addresses that it hands out to hosts on
demand.

 A newly booted or attached host sends a DHCPDISCOVER message to a special IP

address (255.255.255.255., which is an IP broadcast address.
 This means it will be received by all hosts and routers on that network.
 DHCP uses the concept of a relay agent. There is at least one relay agent on each
network.
 DHCP relay agent is configured with the IP address of the DHCP server. When a relay
agent receives a DHCPDISCOVER message, it unicasts it to the DHCP server and awaits
the response, which it will then send back to the requesting client.

DHCP Message Format

A DHCP packet is actually sent using a protocol called the User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

6.b. Examine the frame format of IPV6 with neat diagram.

IPV6 - NEXT GENERATION IP:

IPv6 was evolved to solve address space problem and offers rich set of services.
Some hosts and routers will run IPv4 only, some will run IPv4 and IPv6 and some will run IPv6
only.
FEATURES OF IPV6
1. Better header format - IPv6 uses a new header format in which options are separated from the
base header and inserted, when needed, between the base header and the data. This simplifies and
speeds up the routing process because most of the options do not need to be checked by routers.
2. New options - IPv6 has new options to allow for additional functionalities.
3. Allowance for extension - IPv6 is designed to allow the extension of the protocol if required by
new technologies or applications.
4. Support for resource allocation - In IPv6, the type-of-service field has been removed, but two
new fields, traffic class and flow label, have been added to enable the source to request special
handling of the packet. This mechanism can be used to support traffic such as real-time audio and
video.
Additional Features:
1. Need to accommodate scalable routing and addressing
2. Support for real-time services
3. Security support
4. Autoconfiguration The ability of hosts to automatically configure themselves with such
information as their own IP address and domain name.
5. Enhanced routing functionality, including support for mobile hosts
6.Transition from ipv4 to ipv6
ADDRESS SPACE ALLOCATION OF IPV6
 IPv6 provides a 128-bit address space to handle up to 2128 nodes.
 IPv6 uses classless addressing, but classification is based on MSBs.
 The address space is subdivided in various ways based on the leading bits.
 The current assignment of prefixes is listed in Table
 A node may be assigned an “IPv4-compatible IPv6 address” by zero-extending a 32-bit
IPv4 address to128 bits.

 node that is only capable of understanding IPv4 can be assigned an “IPv4- mapped IPv6
address” by prefixing the 32-bit IPv4 address with 2 bytes of all 1s and then zero-extending the
result to 128 bits.

ADDRESS NOTATION OF IPV6:

Standard representation of IPv6 address is
x : x : x : x : x : x : x : x where x is a 16-bit hexadecimal address separated by colon (:).
For example, 47CD : 1234 : 4422 : ACO2 : 0022 : 1234 : A456 : 0124
Discards leading Zeros
Ex: 47CD : 1234 : 4422 : ACO2 : 0022 : 1234 : A456 : 0124
To
47CD : 1234 : 4422 : ACO2 : 22 : 1234 : A456 : 0124
Consecutive Zeros can be replaced by colon
For example, 47CD : 0000 : 0000 : 0000 : 0000 : 0000 : A456 : 0124 → 47CD : : A456 : 012
ADDRESS AGGREGATION OF IPV6
IPv6 provides aggregation of routing information to reduce the burden on routers. Aggregation is
done by assigning prefixes at continental level. For example, if all addresses in Europe have a
common prefix, then routers in other continents would need one routing table entry for all networks
in Europe.

Prefix - All addresses in the same continent have a common prefix

RegistryID ― identifies the continent
ProviderID ― identifies the provider for Internet access, i.e., ISP. \SubscriberID ― specifies the
subscriber identifier
SubnetID ― contains subnet of the subscriber.
InterfaceID ―contains link level or physical address.
PACKET FORMAT OF IPV6
IPv6 base header is 40 bytes long.
Extension Headers
Extension header provides greater functionality to IPv6.
Base header may be followed by six extension headers.
Each extension header contains a NextHeader field to identify the header following it.

Hop-by-Hop — source host sends information to all routers visited by the packet Destination
— source host information is passed to the destination only. Source Routing — routing
information provided by the source host.

ADDRESS RESOLUTION PROTOCOL(ARP)

 Fragmentation — In IPv6, only the source host can fragment. Source uses a path MTU
discovery technique to find smallest MTU on the path.
 Authentication — used to validate the sender and ensures data integrity.
 ESP (Encrypted Security Payload) — provides confidentiality against eavesdropping.

ADVANCED CAPABILITIES OF IPV6

Auto Configuration — Auto or stateless configuration of IP address to hosts without the need for
a DHCP server, i.e., plug and play.
Advanced Routing — Enhanced routing support for mobile hosts is provided. Additional
Functions ― Enhanced routing functionality with support for mobile hosts. Security ― Encryption
and authentication options provide confidentiality and integrity. Resource allocation ― Flow label
enables the source to request special handling of real-time audio and video packets
7.a. Apply a suitable routing algorithm for the network shown below(Fig 1).Show the
operation of it for computing the least cost path from router F to all destinations where the
cost of the link is based on the state of the link.

Answer:
Step-by-Step Process Using Dijkstra’s Algorithm (from node A):

We assume all nodes share their link-state information with others, and each router computes the
shortest path using Dijkstra’s algorithm.

Graph Nodes and Edges (Weights):

From the image:

 A → B (1), A → C (3), A → D (4)

 B → C (3), B → E (10), B → F (4)
 C → D (1)
 D → E (4)
 E → F (1)

Apply Dijkstra’s Algorithm from Node A:

Step Visited Distance from A Previous Node

Init A A=0, B=∞, C=∞, D=∞, E=∞, F=∞ -
1 A B=1 (via A), C=3 (via A), D=4 (via A) A
2 B C=3, D=4, E=11 (B→E=10+1), F=5 (B→F=4+1) B
3 C (No update; C→D=1+3=4, already 4) C
4 D E=8 (D→E=4+4), F=5 remains better D
5 F (F→E=1+5=6) → E=6 better than 8 F
6 E Done E

Final Shortest Paths from A:

Destination Distance Path

A 0 A
B 1 A→B
C 3 A→C
D 4 A→D
Destination Distance Path
E 6 A→B→F→E
F 5 A→B→F

7.b. Explain in detail the operation of OSPF Protocol by considering a suitable network.

Link State Packet Format

PART C
8.a. Assume the Scenario, that N number of devices shares a common Communication
Channel for data Sharing in which, apply a Media Access Control algorithm to detect the
occurrence of Collision using Carrier signals, Identify and explain the MAC algorithm.
Discuss why that same algorithm not used in wireless LAN.
 When two or more nodes transmit data at the same time, their frames will collide and the
link bandwidth is wasted during collision.
 To coordinate the access of multiple sending/receiving nodes to the shared link, we need a
protocol to coordinate the transmission.
 These protocols are called Medium or Multiple Access Control (MAC) Protocols. MAC
belongs to the data link layer of OSI model
 MAC defines rules for orderly access to the shared medium. It tries to ensure that no two
nodes are interfering with each other’s transmissions, and deals with the situation when
they do.
MECHANISMS USED
Wired Networks: o CSMA / CD – Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection
Wireless Networks: o CSMA / CA – Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Avoidance

8.b. Solve the cyclic redundancy check (CRC) based error detection scheme using the
generator polynomial x3+x+1x^3 + x + 1x3+x+1. Suppose the message '11000' is to be
transmitted. Find the codeword and show your detailed evaluation work.

Given:

 Message (M) = 11000

 Generator Polynomial (G(x)) = x3+x+1x^3 + x + 1x3+x+1

The binary form of the generator is:

 G=1011G = 1011G=1011 (because x3x^3x3 → 1, x2x^2x2 → 0, x1x^1x1 → 1, constant 1

→ 1)

Now, steps to find the CRC codeword:

Step 1: Append 3 zeros to the message (because the degree of generator is 3)

Message becomes: 11000 000

Step 2: Perform binary division (mod-2 division)

Let's divide 11000000 by 1011:

Division process:

First 4 bits: 1100 (take as many bits as generator length)

Since the first bit is 1, perform XOR with 1011:

1100
XOR
1011
-----
0111

Bring down the next bit (which is 0) → new bits: 1110

Again first bit is 1, XOR with 1011:

1110
XOR
1011
-----
0101

Bring down next bit (0) → new bits: 1010

First bit is 1, XOR with 1011:

1010
XOR
1011
-----
0001
Bring down next bit (0) → new bits: 0010
First bit is 0, so just bring down next bit (0) → 0100
First bit is 0, again bring down next bit (0) → 1000
Now first bit is 1, XOR with 1011:
1000
XOR
1011
-----
0011

No more bits left to bring down.

Thus, the remainder is 011.

Step 3: Attach remainder to the original message

 Original message (before zeros) = 11000

  Remainder = 011
 Codeword = 11000 + 011 = 11000011

Final Answer:
Codeword = 11000011