energies

Article
CFD Study on the Ventilation Effectiveness in a Public Toilet
under Three Ventilation Methods
Zhonghua Zhang 1 , Lingjie Zeng 2 , Huixian Shi 1 , Hua Liu 2 , Wenjun Yin 2 , Haowen Shen 1 , Libin Yang 2 ,
Jun Gao 3 , Lina Wang 4 , Yalei Zhang 2 and Xuefei Zhou 2, *

1 National Engineering Research Center of Protected Agriculture, New Rural Development Institute of Tongji
University, Shanghai 200092, China; 1833039@tongji.edu.cn (Z.Z.); huixian_shi@mail.tongji.edu.cn (H.S.);
shw083@tongji.edu.cn (H.S.)
2 State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and
Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; zenglingjie1990@sina.com (L.Z.);
hualiu@tongji.edu.cn (H.L.); yinwenjun1991@tongji.edu.cn (W.Y.); neuqyanglibin@126.com (L.Y.);
zhangyalei@tongji.edu.cn (Y.Z.)
3 School of Mechanical Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; gaojun-hvac@tongji.edu.cn
4 Shanghai Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Particle Pollution and Prevention (LAP3), Department of
Environmental Science and Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China; wanglina@fudan.edu.cn
* Correspondence: zhouxuefei@tongji.edu.cn

Abstract: The indoor air quality (IAQ) of severely polluted toilets is associated with the transmission
of diseases. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methods and experimental measurements were
used to analyze the diffusion characteristics of pollutants. This study investigated the diffusion
characteristics and normalized concentration of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide pollutants under





 three ventilation systems—mixing ventilation (MV), personalized ventilation (PV), and impinging jet
Citation: Zhang, Z.; Zeng, L.; Shi, H.;
ventilation (IJV)—in a public toilet. The mean age of air (MAA) and air exchange efficiency (AEE)
Liu, H.; Yin, W.; Shen, H.; Yang, L.; were also analyzed in our study. The results show that the MV scheme has a poor removal effect on
Gao, J.; Wang, L.; Zhang, Y.; et al. pollutants compared with PV and IJV. IJV has advantages in reducing the normalized concentration
CFD Study on the Ventilation of pollutants and improving the IAQ. Increasing the number of air changes per hour (ACH) may
Effectiveness in a Public Toilet under lead to a longer MAA and reduced air exchange efficiency. Choosing an appropriate number of air
Three Ventilation Methods. Energies changes is very important to improve the IAQ in the toilet.
2021, 14, 8379. https://doi.org/
10.3390/en14248379 Keywords: public toilet; indoor air quality; CFD; mean age of air; air exchange efficiency

Academic Editor: Kamel Hooman

Received: 10 November 2021

1. Introduction
Accepted: 7 December 2021
Published: 12 December 2021
Indoor air pollution is harmful to human health [1,2], causing issues such as respiratory
infections, asthma, and lung cancer [3–5]. We spend more than 90% of our time indoors [6].
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
Hence, indoor air quality (IAQ) is vital to our well-being [7]. People are now paying much
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
attention to the IAQ [8]. The toilet is frequently used, and it emits many undesirable odors
published maps and institutional affil- such as ammonia and hydrogen sulfide [9,10]. The maximum ammonia and hydrogen
iations. sulfide concentration in first-class public toilets should be 0.3 mg·m−3 and 0.01 mg·m−3 ,
respectively [11]. It is essential to remove pollutants quickly and provide sufficient fresh air
to achieve suitable IAQ [12–14]. Natural ventilation is an energy-efficient way to improve
the IAQ, but it often cannot meet the ventilation needs.
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
There is little literature on toilet ventilation, including the overall ventilation performance
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
of the toilet, the efficiency of toilet components, and IAQ measurements [15]. Tung et al. [16–18]
This article is an open access article
constructed experimental modeling of foul-odor diffusion from the toilet, and the conclusion is
distributed under the terms and that the forced ceiling-supply and wall-exhaust systems show the best ventilation performance.
conditions of the Creative Commons Tung et al. [17] analyzed the effects of the ACH on the distribution of the pollutant concentration.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// Chung et al. [19] analyzed the influence of the number of windows on the distribution of air
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ pollutants in a public toilet. The results show that a sufficient number of sunshade windows
4.0/). and suitable installation positions help to achieve the best ventilation effect.

Energies 2021, 14, 8379. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14248379 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2021, 14, 8379 2 of 25

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) was widely used in air distribution [20–23],
pollutant diffusion [24–26], and particle transportation [27]. Cao et al. [28] stated that the
MV system aims to produce low-pollution-concentration air for the room; however, the
fresh air in breathing zones is less than 1%. Wang et al. [29] compared the difference in
air particles between MV and IJV, indicating that the IJV has high efficiency in removing
pollutants. For mixed ventilation, the location of the pollutant source has a negligible effect
on the diffusion of pollutants in the respiratory zone [30].
The concept of personalized air was presented in 1999 [31]. Personalized ventilation
(PV) supplies fresh air directly to the occupant’s breathing zone [32]. As an efficient
ventilation method, PV has attracted increasing attention [33]. Melikov and Cermak [3,34]
found that PV could reduce the concentration of pollutants, and could significantly improve
the thermal comfort [35,36]. However, it may affect the transmission of pollutants in some
unfavorable combinations [37,38].
The IJV system recommended in the late 1990s was considered a new method of
ventilation [20]. IJV has attracted much attention owing to its advantages in energy saving
and being suitable for heating and cooling modes [39]; it has a better mean MAA and
velocity field due to the better balance between buoyancy and momentum [40,41]. The IJV
system improved the air quality in the breathing zone and consumed less energy than the
MV system in heating mode [42,43], and researchers have been working on optimizing its
performance in HVAC systems [44,45]. The IJV system has a lower airflow rate than the
MV and DV systems in cooling mode [46].
Karimipanah et al. [20,40] focused on the performance of IJV and DV systems and
found that the IJV system has a higher ventilation effectiveness and produces better velocity
distribution in the occupants’ zone. Yao et al. [47] studied the flow characteristics of the
isothermal impinging jet in a closed cabin using experimental methods and discussed the
multi-purpose characteristics of the jet impinging structure. Research to investigate the
shape of the appropriate supply device has been carried out. Cooper et al. [48] investigated
the flow field of a three-dimensional turbulent impinging jet using experimental methods
and then discussed the attenuation of the axial velocity and rate of jet growth.
The local mean MAA characterizes the time needed for air to move from the inlet
to a particular location in the indoor space [49–52]. Buratti and Palladino [53] studied
the influence of window airtightness and environmental conditions on MAA and the
application of artificial neural networks in the prediction of indoor CO2 . They found
that airtightness and indoor and outdoor air temperature have a great influence on the
air quality of naturally ventilated buildings. The artificial neural network is reliable in
predicting the concentration of CO2 in the room and can be used to assess the age of
the indoor air. Mao et al. [54] concluded that the lower MAA is a good indicator of the
well-ventilated zones. The local MAA is a better and more sensitive parameter than the
average air velocity. It is used to highlight areas with insufficient ventilation to evaluate
the ventilation efficiency of industrial food factories [55]. Ng et al. [56] discussed the
advantages of the monotonic resolution scheme in the study of indoor airflow; the results
show that the accuracy of the scheme was very high, and the simulation results were in
good agreement with the measured results. The air exchange efficiency (AEE) was used to
characterize indoor airflow patterns and analyze their ventilation performance [18,57].
At present, many studies have focused on the natural or mechanical ventilation of
buildings. Scholars have seldom studied the distribution of pollutants in public toilets,
especially the application of MV, PV, and IJV in toilet ventilation. The evaluation of IAQ
and ventilation efficiency of public toilets is not perfect. The present study investigated
pollutant diffusion using numerical simulations and experimental methods.

2. Methods
2.1. Physical Model
A public toilet in Zhejiang (China) was chosen as the research model (see Figure 1). A test
chamber was used to verify the numerical model, as shown in Figure S1 in Supplementary
Energies 2021, 14, 8379 3 of 25

Energies 2021, 14, 8379 4 of 27

materials. The geometric data of the investigated model are shown in Table 1. Table 2 lists the
ACH in each case.

Figure 1. Geometry of the public toilet model: (a) vent positions in MV, PV, and IJV; (b) vent positions in IJV; (c) top view.
Figure 1. Geometry of the public toilet model: (a) vent positions in MV, PV, and IJV; (b) vent positions in IJV; (c) top view.
1—M1 ; 2—M2 ; 3—PV-U1 ; 4—PV-S1 ; 5—PV-S3 ; 6—J6 , 7—J7 ; 8—J1 ; 9—Urinal; 10—Stall; 11—Window; 12—Window;
1—M1; 2—M2; 3—PV-U1; 4—PV-S1; 5—PV-S3; 6—J6, 7—J7; 8—J1; 9—Urinal; 10—Stall; 11—Window; 12—Window; 13—
13—Door.
Door. M1, SM , S2 , S3M
2, 1S3,and
, and M2 are outlet;
2 are outlet; J1, J2, J3J,1J, 6J,2J,7,J3and
, J6 , SJ71 ,are
andinlet.
S1 are inlet.
Energies 2021, 14, 8379 4 of 25

Table 1. Geometric data.

Parts of the Model Geometric Data (m)

Public toilet 7.8 × 4.3 × 2.6
Test chamber 0.96 × 0.96 × 2.2
Pollution source 0.5 × 0.2
M1 (X) 0.2 × (Y) 0.2
M2 (Y) 0.4 × (Z) 0.4
U1 (X) 0.2 × (Z) 0.2
S1 (X) 0.2 × (Z) 0.2
S3 (X) 0.2 × (Z) 0.2
J1 (X) 0.2 × (Y) 0.2
J6 , J7 (Y) 0.3 × (Z) 0.06
Urinal r = 0.1
Stall (X) 0.2 × (Y) 0.3
Window-1 (X) 0.965 × (Z) 0.6
Window-2 (Y) 0.55 × (Z) 1.4
Door (Y) 1.2 × (Z) 2.1

Table 2. Case description.

Case Exhaust Fan Position ACH (h−1 )

MV-1 M1 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30
MV-2 M2 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30
PV-1 U1 , S1 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5, 15
PV-2 U1 , S2 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5, 15
PV-3 U1 , S3 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5, 15
IJV-1 U1 , J1 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5, 15
IJV-2 U1 , J1 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5, 15
IJV-3 J1 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30
IJV-4 J2 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30
IJV-5 J3 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30
IJV-6 J6 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30
IJV-7 J7 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30

2.2. Experimental Setup

SF6 is often used as a tracer gas in experiments [58]. It flows out from the gas cylinder
into the test chamber (see Figure S1). The release rate was 60 mL/min.
An XLA-BX-SF6 instrument with an error of ±0.01 ppm was used to measure the gas
concentration. Each measurement time was 45 min, and data were recorded every 30 s.

2.3. CFD Setup

2.3.1. Numerical Method
The standard k–ε, RNG k–ε, realizable k–ε, and low-Re k–ε models were used to
simulate the gas turbulence [59]. The CFD model was constructed according to the condi-
tions applied in the experiments (see Figure S1); an unstructured computational grid of
polygon elements with a mesh number of 1.09 million (when it increases to 1.65 million,
the maximum difference between the two results is 3%) (Figure S2a).
Governing equations are as follows:

∂ρ ∂(ρu) ∂(ρv) ∂(ρw)

+ + + = 0, (1)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z

Turbulence equation:
"  #
∂(ρK ) ∂(ρKui ) ∂ ut ∂K
+ = µ+ + GK + Gb − ρe (2)
∂τ ∂Xi ∂Xi σK ∂X j
Energies 2021, 14, 8379 5 of 25

Species transport equation:

∂(ρucs ) ∂(ρvcs ) ∂(ρwcs ) ∂ Ds ∂(ρcs ) ∂ Ds ∂(ρcs ) ∂ Ds ∂(ρcs )

+ + = ( )+ ( )+ ( ) (3)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z

Momentum equation:

∂(ρu) ∂p ∂τxx ∂τyx ∂τzx

+ div(ρuV ) = − + + + + FX (4)
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z

∂(ρv) ∂p ∂τxx ∂τyx ∂τzy

+ div(ρvV ) = − + + + + FY (5)
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂(ρω ) ∂p ∂τxz ∂τyz ∂τzz
+ div(ρωV ) = − + + + + FZ (6)
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z
Energy equation:
 
∂(ρT ) k
+ div(ρuT ) = div gradT + ST (7)
∂t cp

where ρ is the air density; t is the time; u, v, and w are the velocity components in the
x, y, and z directions; τ is the time; K is the turbulent kinetic energy; CS is the volume
concentration of the component s; and DS is the diffusion coefficient of the component s.

2.3.2. Boundary Conditions

The exhaust outlet and windows were set as the velocity outlet and pressure outlet,
respectively [10,60]. He ammonia release concentration was 2.5 × 10−7 kg/s and hydrogen
sulfide release concentration was 6 × 10−8 kg/s.
An unstructured computational grid was applied (Figure S3). Different numbers of
grids were divided for grid verification, which were 1,028,048, 1,498,338, 2,346,227, and
3,343,910, respectively. When the mesh number was greater than 2,346,227, the pollutant
concentration and flow rate changed little, and the maximum difference between the two
results was 7%, 9%, and 5%; we chose this for our study (Figure S4).

2.4. Evaluation Index

The normalized concentration of the pollutant was selected for the analysis [61].

C
ε= (8)
c NV

where CNV and C are the average pollutant concentration under natural ventilation and
mechanical ventilation, respectively.
The local mean τs age of air (MAA) is calculated by the following equation:

Z∞
60Cs (t)dt
τs = , (9)
C0
0

where Cs (t) stands for the pollutant concentration at the monitoring surface Z = 1.5 m at
time t, and C0 is the concentration of the pollution source within the toilet. This study
developed a user-defined function (UDF) in ANSYS Fluent to solve for MAA [49].
The room mean MAA was τr used to calculate the AEE of the toilet and is calculated
by the following equation [57]:
R∞
t · Ce (t)dt
0
τr = , (10)
R∞
Ce (t)dt
0
Energies 2021, 14, 8379 6 of 25

where t refers to the decay period, s, and Ce (t) is the concentration of the tracer gas in the
exhaust air at time t, mg/m3 .
To evaluate the ventilation performance of the toilet, AEE is calculated by the following
equation [62]:
τn
AEE = × 100% (11)
2τr
where τn and τr indicate the nominal time constant, min., and the MAA, respectively. The
nominal time constant is defined as the ratio of the interior volume of the toilet (V), m3 , to
the volumetric outdoor airflow rate entering the toilet (Q), m3 /s.

2.5. Validation of the CFD Simulation Method

The experiment was carried out in the school laboratory of Tongji University. The test
chamber was fully ventilated before starting the experiment to prevent the residual SF6
gas in the test chamber from affecting the experimental results (Figure S1).
The CFD simulation results and the experimental data under the same conditions are
compared, as shown in Figure S2b. The results of the standard k-ε model are reasonable,
revealing the largest and smallest differences of 10% and 4%, respectively. The standard k-ε
model has been widely used, and the difference between simulated data and experimental
data is small. This model can be used to predict the distribution of indoor pollutants [21,61].

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Performance of MV, PV, and IJV with Ammonia in the Occupied Zone
The ACH should be greater than 5 h−1 [11] and 10–15 h−1 in toilets [63]. This article
chose 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 h−1 (Table 2). The normalized ammonia concentration value
of the Z = 1.5 m cross-section is shown in Figure 2. The normalized ammonia concentration
value gradually decreases with the increase in the ACH. When the ACH is 5, the normalized
concentration value achieves the maximum and minimum values in M V-2 and IJV-7, which
are 0.597 and 0.176, respectively. The normalized concentration values of IJV-2 and IJV-6
are 0.283 and 0.221, respectively; the normalized concentration values of other schemes are
greater than 0.3. The ammonia concentration and velocity cloud diagrams of the Z = 1.5 m
section are shown in Figures 3 and 4, respectively. The ammonia concentration directly
above the urinal and in the toilet stall of MV-2 is high, and the ammonia concentration near
the door hole and the exhaust fan is low (Figure 3b); the gas velocity near the exhaust fan
is large and streamlined. It is denser than other areas in the toilet, and the flow lines in the
toilet stalls become sparse due to the obstruction of the baffle (Figure 4b).
IJV-7 has a low ammonia pollutant concentration, high pollutant concentration in
a small area in the toilet stall, and very low pollutant concentration at the toilet door
(Figure 3l); this program has a low vent position inside the toilet stall. The gas velocity is
small, and the flow lines are sparse. The flow lines in other areas of the toilet are dense.
Near the doorway, the flow velocity is very high (Figure 4l). IJV-6 and IJV-7 use the
same ventilation method, but the positions of the vents are different. IJV-6 has a higher
normalized concentration value than the IJV-7, and the pollutant concentration in the stall
closest to the vent is higher (Figure 3k); the wall directly opposite the vent has a high flow
velocity, dense flow lines, dense flow lines near the urinal, and high wind speed (Figure 4k).
The concentration of pollutants at the entrance of the IJV-2 is lower than that in other areas.
Natural ventilation enters the toilet through the door opening, and the pollutants are easily
diffused. The area of high concentration area is small (Figure 3g), and the airflow in the
toilet stall is dense, the wind speed is high in the area near the wall, and the vortex is
formed in the toilet stall, which may hinder the diffusion of pollutants (Figure 4g).
MV-1 has a normalized concentration value of 0.345, the distance between the urinal
and the air outlet is long, and the baffle between the stalls obstructs the flow of gas, so the
concentration of pollutants directly above the urinal and the stalls is very high, and the
concentration of pollutants in the other positions is low (Figure 3a), whilst the air velocity
directly above the toilet is high. Due to the obstruction of the baffle, a vortex is formed in
Energies 2021, 14, 8379 7 of 25

Energies 2021, 14, 8379 8 of 27

the toilet. Natural ventilation enters the toilet from the door hole. The flow lines near the
door hole are dense and have a high wind speed (Figure 4a).

Figure2.2.The
Figure Thenormalized
normalizedconcentration
concentrationof
ofammonia
ammoniaatatZZ==1.5
1.5m
msection.
section.

The
Thenormalized
normalized concentration
concentration values
values of of PV-1,
PV-1,PV-2,PV-2,andandPV-3
PV-3are are0.319,
0.319,0.308,
0.308,and
and
0.367, respectively. The air supply positions near the urinals of the three
0.367, respectively. The air supply positions near the urinals of the three schemes are the schemes are the
same,
same,thetheair
airsupply
supplypositions
positionsbetween
betweenthe thestalls
stallsare
aredifferent,
different,andandthe
theair
airsupply
supplyposition
position
isisin
in the stall. When the door opening is located (PV-2), a better ventilationeffect
the stall. When the door opening is located (PV-2), a better ventilation effectcan
canbe be
obtained.
obtained. In the PV-1 program, the concentration in the toilet stall and the vicinity ofthe
In the PV-1 program, the concentration in the toilet stall and the vicinity of the
two
twourinals
urinalsarearehigh,
high,and
andininthethe
rest area
rest is very
area lowlow
is very (Figure 3c), 3c),
(Figure andand
the wind speed
the wind at theat
speed
baffle of theoftoilet
the baffle in theinmiddle
the toilet of theoftoilet
the middle is high
the toilet is (Figure 4c); the
high (Figure PV-2
4c); the scheme has high
PV-2 scheme has
concentration near the baffle in the toilet stall and near a urinal, low pollutant
high concentration near the baffle in the toilet stall and near a urinal, low pollutant con- concentration
in other areas
centration (Figure
in other 3d),(Figure
areas and high 3d),flow
andvelocity
high flow near the airnear
velocity outlet
the(Figure
air outlet4d); the PV-3
(Figure 4d);
program has a high pollutant concentration near the doorway
the PV-3 program has a high pollutant concentration near the doorway (Figure 3e),(Figure 3e), the wind speedthe
near
windthe doorway
speed near is high,
the and the
doorway is wind
high, speed
and the in wind
the rest of theinarea
speed the is low.
rest of The position
the area of
is low.
The position of the air outlet of this program is relatively low, and the airflow velocity of
the air outlet has little effect on the monitoring surface speed (Figure 4e).
 Energies 2021, 14, 8379 8 of 25

Energies 2021, 14, 8379 the air outlet of this program is relatively low, and the airflow velocity of the air outlet has9 of 27
little effect on the monitoring surface speed (Figure 4e).

Figure 3. Ammonia concentration cloud diagram in different cases (Z = 1.5 m, ACH = 5): (a–l) MV-1–IJV-7. (a): MV-1;
Figure
(b):3.MV-2;
Ammonia concentration
(c): PV-1; (d): PV-2; (e):cloud
PV-3;diagram
(f): IJV-1; in
(g):different
IJV-2; (h):cases
IJV-3;(Z(i):
= 1.5 m,(j):
IJV-4; ACH = 5):
IJV-5; (k):(a–l) MV-1–IJV-7.
IJV-6; (l): IJV-7. (a): MV-1; (b):
MV-2; (c): PV-1; (d): PV-2; (e): PV-3; (f): IJV-1; (g): IJV -2; (h): IJV-3; (i): IJV-4; (j): IJV-5; (k): IJV-6; (l): IJV-7.
 Energies
Energies 2021, 2021, 14, 8379
14, 8379 9 of 25
10 of 27

Figure 4. Velocity vector contours in different cases (Z = 1.5 m, ACH = 5): (a–l) MV-1–IJV-7.
Figure 4. Velocity vector contours in different cases (Z = 1.5 m, ACH = 5): (a–l) MV-1–IJV-7.
The normalized concentration value of IJV-1 is higher than IJV-2, which is 0.309. The
two programs use the same ventilation method near the stall. IJV-1 provides air near the
The normalized concentration value of IJV-1 is higher than IJV-2, which is 0.309. The
urinal, the concentration of pollutants in some areas near the urinal is relatively high, and
two programs use the same ventilation method near the stall. IJV-1 provides air near the
the air supply has a weak ability to take away pollutants (Figure 3f). The flow lines in the
urinal,
middletheofconcentration of pollutants
the toilet are relatively denseinand
some areas
have near
a high thespeed
wind urinal(Figure
is relatively
4f). Thehigh,
nor- and
themalized
air supply has a weak ability to take away pollutants (Figure 3f). The flow lines
concentration values of IJV-3, IJV-4, and IJV-5 are 0.32, 0.326, and 0.312, respectively.in the
middle of theoftoilet
The height areoutlet
the air relatively
of the dense and have
three schemes a high wind
is different. speed (Figure
The pollutant 4f). The nor-
concentration
malized concentration values of IJV-3, IJV-4, and IJV-5 are 0.32, 0.326, and 0.312, respec-
tively. The height of the air outlet of the three schemes is different. The pollutant concen-
tration distribution law of the monitoring surface (Z = 1.5 m) is different (Figure 3h–j); the
Energies 2021, 14, 8379 10 of 25

distribution law of the monitoring surface (Z = 1.5 m) is different (Figure 3h–j); the three
schemes form a vortex in the toilet stall, the airflow velocity is high, and the streamlines
are dense; in the rest of the area, the streamlines are sparse, and the speed is relatively low
(Figure 4h–j). IJV-5 is close to the monitoring surface, so the wind speed is high.
When ACH is 10, the normalized concentration value achieves the maximum and
minimum values in the schemes MV-2 and IJV-7, which are 0.428 and 0.105, respectively.
The normalized concentration values of MV-1 and PV-3 are 0.227 and 0.209, respectively,
and the normalized concentration values of the other schemes are less than 0.2. When the
ACH increases from 5 to 10, the normalized concentration values of the twelve schemes are,
respectively, reduced by 0.118 (MV-1), 0.169 (MV-2), 0.127 (PV-1), 0.133 (PV-2), 0.158 (PV-3),
0.131 (IJV-1), 0.119 (IJV-2), 0.146 (IJV-3), 0.153 (IJV-4), 0.145 (IJV-5), 0.101 (IJV-6), and 0.071
(IJV-7). The normalized concentration of IJV-7 drops by less than 0.1, and the drops in
the normalized concentration values of the other schemes all exceed 0.1. The normalized
concentration values of different schemes are affected differently by the number of air
changes; increasing the number of air changes can effectively remove ammonia pollutants.
When the ACH is 15, the normalized concentration value achieves the maximum and
minimum values in the schemes MV-2 and IJV-7, which are 0.4 and 0.082, respectively.
The normalized concentration value of IJV-6 is 0.086, and the normalized concentration
value of the other schemes is greater than 0.1. In the MV-2 program, the concentration
of ammonia gas in the toilet stalls is very high, especially in the stall near the doorway
(Figure 5b). The wind speed in the toilet stalls is low. Wind speed in the toilet is low
and the ammonia emission is not smooth. The flow lines near the exhaust fan are dense,
and the flow velocity is high (Figure 6b). In the IJV-7 scheme, there is a high ammonia
concentration in the toilet stalls and a very low ammonia concentration in the rest of the
area (Figure 5l). The wind speed in the area near the doorway is relatively high, which
accelerates the diffusion of pollutants (Figure 6l). The normalized concentration values of
IJV-6 and IJV-7 are shallow, so the IJV-6 program has a good pollutant removal effect, and
the pollutant concentration is deficient (Figure 5k). The wind speed near the window is
high, which is good for pollutants. Exhaust through the window is shown in Figure 6k. In
the other schemes, the high concentration area of the pollutant concentration cloud map is
small, so the normalized concentration is low.
When the ACH increases from 10 to 15, the normalized concentration value reduc-
tion in different schemes is different; the maximum value is 0.056 (PV-1), the minimum
value is 0.023 (IJV-7). When the ACH increases from 15 to 20, the maximum normalized
concentration reduction in the twelve schemes is 0.071 (PV-3) and the minimum is 0.002
(MV-1); when the ACH increases from 20 to 25, the normalized concentration of the twelve
schemes decreases; the maximum value is 0.054 (MV-2), and the minimum value is 0.006
(IJV-4); when the ACH increases from 25 to 30, the maximum reduction in the normalized
concentration of the twelve schemes is 0.039 (IJV-7), and the minimum value is 0.001 (IJV-2).
As ACH increases, the reduction in the normalized concentration value becomes smaller.
When the exhaust fan is located directly opposite the doorway, the normalized con-
centration value of the mixed ventilation is the highest (under the same number of air
changes). When it is on the ceiling, the normalized concentration value is also high, so
the effect of the mixed ventilation removing pollutants is not good. The position of the
air supply port has a particular impact on the pollutant removal effect; IJV has the best
pollutant removal effect.
The normalized concentration values of the Z = 0.9 m and Z = 1.5 m cross-sections
have similar changes. The positions of the two sections are shown in the Figure S5. The
normalized concentration value of MV-2 is the largest, and the normalized concentration
value of IJV-7 is the smallest (under the same number of air changes) (Figure S6).
 Energies
Energies 14,14,
2021,
2021, 83798379 11 of12
25of 27

Figure 5. Ammonia concentration distribution for different cases (Z = 1.5 m, ACH = 15): (a–l) MV-1–IJV-7.
Figure 5. Ammonia concentration distribution for different cases (Z = 1.5 m, ACH = 15): (a–l) MV-1–IJV-7.
3.2. Performance of MV, PV, and IJV with Hydrogen Sulfide in the Occupied Zone
The normalized concentration of hydrogen sulfide is shown in Figure 7 (Z = 1.5 m). It
can be seen from the figure that the normalized concentration of hydrogen sulfide gradually
decreases with the increase in the ACH. Among the twelve schemes, the normalized
concentration value of MV-2 is the highest; IJV-5 has the lowest normalized concentration
value. When the ACH is 5, the hydrogen sulfide concentration cloud diagram of the
Z = 1.5 m section is shown in Figure 8. The concentration in the toilet stall of MV-2 is
high, and the concentration of hydrogen sulfide near the door hole and exhaust fan is
 Energies 2021, 14, 8379 12 of 25

low (Figure 8b); the gas velocity near the exhaust fan is large, the flow lines in the toilet
stalls are sparse, and the hydrogen sulfide gas discharge effect is not good (Figure 4b). The
normalized concentration value of IJV-5 is small, the concentration of hydrogen sulfide
Energies 2021, 14, 8379
pollutants is low, and the concentration of pollutants in some areas of the toilet stalls13isof 27
high (Figure 8l); the vent of this scheme is relatively close to the monitoring surface, and
the monitoring surface is hydrogen sulfide. The gas concentration is relatively low.

Figure 6. Velocity vector contours in different cases (Z = 1.5 m, ACH = 15): (a–l) MV-1–IJV-7.
Figure 6. Velocity vector contours in different cases (Z = 1.5 m, ACH = 15): (a–l) MV-1–IJV-7.

3.2. Performance of MV, PV, and IJV with Hydrogen Sulfide in the Occupied Zone
The normalized concentration of hydrogen sulfide is shown in Figure 7 (Z = 1.5 m).
It can be seen from the figure that the normalized concentration of hydrogen sulfide grad-
ually decreases with the increase in the ACH. Among the twelve schemes, the normalized
Energies 2021, 14, 8379 15 of 27

The normalized concentration values of Z = 0.9 m and Z = 1.5 m cross-sections have

Energies 2021, 14, 8379 similar changes. The normalized concentration value of MV-2 is the largest, and13the nor-
of 25
malized concentration value of IJV-5 is the smallest (under the same ACH) (Figure S7).

Figure7.7.The
Figure Thenormalized
normalizedconcentration ofof
concentration hydrogen sulfide
hydrogen at Z
sulfide at=Z1.5 mm
= 1.5 section.
section.

When the ACH isconcentration

The normalized 5, the normalized concentration
values of different values of IJV-2
ventilation are 0.34;
schemes arethe nor-dif-
quite
malized concentration values of other schemes are less than 0.3. IJV-2 has exhaust
ferent (under the same number of air changes), increasing the number of air changes. airThe
near the urinal, and hydrogen sulfide gas will diffuse from the stalls to the vicinity of the
urinal (Figure 8g). The normalized concentration of MV-1 is 0.294. The concentration in
the stalls is high because the baffle between the stalls hinders the flow of hydrogen sulfide
gas, and the concentration of hydrogen sulfide gas in other positions is low (Figure 8a).
 Energies 2021, 14, 8379 14 of 25

Energies 2021, 14, 8379 16 of 27

The normalized concentration values of PV-1, PV-2, and PV-3 are 0.272, 0.248, and 0.246,
respectively. When the toilet stall is exhausted (PV-3), a better ventilation effect can be
pollutant
obtained.removal rate can
The pollutant be improved,
concentration buttoilet
in the the indoor
stalls ofwind
PV-1 speed
and PV-2willisincrease
high, andaccord-
the
pollutant concentration in other areas is shallow (Figure 8c,d). PV-3 has a high
ingly, and the high indoor airspeed will affect the comfort of the toilet. MV is not as good pollutant
asconcentration
PV and IJV innear the doorway
reducing (Figure 8e).concentration
the normalized The position of the airJet
value. outlet of this scheme
ventilation is
in the toilet
relatively
stalls low, whichremove
can effectively is beneficial to thesulfide
hydrogen diffusion
gasofand
hydrogen
improvesulfide gas. in toilets.
the IAQ

Figure 8. Hydrogen sulfide concentration distribution for different cases (Z = 1.5 m, ACH = 5): (a–l) MV-1– IJV-7.
Figure 8. Hydrogen sulfide concentration distribution for different cases (Z = 1.5 m, ACH = 5): (a–l) MV-1– IJV-7.
Energies 2021, 14, 8379 15 of 25

The normalized concentration value of IJV-1 is lower than IJV-2, which is 0.266. The
two schemes use the same ventilation method near the toilet. The hydrogen sulfide
gas is distributed in the toilet stalls (Figure 8f). The flow lines in the middle area of
the toilet are relatively dense, with a high wind speed and low pollutant concentration
(Figure 4f). The normalized concentration values of IJV-3, IJV-4, and IJV-5 are 0.227, 0.231,
and 0.038, respectively. The height of the air outlet of the three schemes is different, and the
pollutant concentration distribution law of the monitoring surface (Z = 1.5 m) is different
(Figure 8h–j); the three solutions form a vortex in the toilet stalls, the airflow velocity is
high, the streamline is dense, and the removal effect of hydrogen sulfide pollutant is good
(Figure 4h–j). The normalized concentration value of IJV-6 is higher than that of IJV-7. The
two schemes use the same ventilation method, but the position of the vent is different, and
the pollutant concentration in the toilet stall near the vent is high (Figure 8k,l).
When ACH is 10, the normalized concentration values of MV-2 and IJV-5 are 0.404
and 0.023, respectively, and the normalized concentration values of the other schemes are
less than 0.2. When ACH increases from 5 to 10, the normalized concentration drop in IJV-5
is less than 0.07, and the other plans’ normalized concentration value drop values are all
greater than 0.07. The normalized concentration value of different plans is affected by the
number of air changes. Increasing the number of air changes can be effective in removing
hydrogen sulfide pollutants.
When the ACH is 15, the normalized concentration of MV-2 is the largest, and the
hydrogen sulfide concentration in the toilet stall near the doorway is very high (Figure 9b).
The ventilation in this area is not smooth, and the pollutant removal effect is not good.
The normalized concentration values of IJV-3, IJV-5, and IJV-6 are 0.091, 0.019, and 0.079,
respectively, and the normalized concentration values of other schemes are greater than
0.1. The area with high hydrogen sulfide concentration in other schemes is small, so the
normalized concentration value is less than 0.2.
When the ACH increases from 10 to 15, the normalized concentration reduction values
of different schemes are different; the maximum value is 0.048 (PV-2), and the minimum
value is 0.003 (MV-2). When the ACH increases from 15 to 20, the maximum reduction
in the normalized concentration of the twelve schemes is 0.065 (IJV-2), and the minimum
is 0.002 (IJV-5). When the ACH increases from 20 to 25, the maximum reduction in the
normalized concentration of the twelve schemes is 0.058 (MV-2), and the minimum value
is 0.001 (IJV-4, IJV-5). When the ACH increases from 25 to 30, the maximum reduction in
the normalized concentration the twelve schemes is 0.052 (IJV-7), and the minimum value
is 0.001 (IJV-5). As the ACH increase, the reduction in the normalized concentration value
becomes smaller.
The normalized concentration values of Z = 0.9 m and Z = 1.5 m cross-sections have
similar changes. The normalized concentration value of MV-2 is the largest, and the
normalized concentration value of IJV-5 is the smallest (under the same ACH) (Figure S7).
The normalized concentration values of different ventilation schemes are quite dif-
ferent (under the same number of air changes), increasing the number of air changes.
The pollutant removal rate can be improved, but the indoor wind speed will increase
accordingly, and the high indoor airspeed will affect the comfort of the toilet. MV is not as
good as PV and IJV in reducing the normalized concentration value. Jet ventilation in the
toilet stalls can effectively remove hydrogen sulfide gas and improve the IAQ in toilets.

3.3. Air Age in the Occupied Zone under MV, PV, and IJV
The concept of MAA can be applied to pollutants or any tracer gas that simulates
pollutants [64]. Assuming that pollutants are "born" when they enter the plenum, the
local MAA at any point is the average time it takes for all pollutant particles to reach
that point from the entrance area. This means that the "youngest" air is still at the air
supply port, while the "oldest" air may be located in the stagnant zone or trapped in the air
outlet [65]. If part of the air circulates in the stall for a long time, the local MAA value will
 Energies 2021, 14, 8379 16 of 25

Energies 2021, 14, 8379 17 of 27

increase significantly, so these values depend largely on the effectiveness of the ventilation
system [66].

Figure 9. Hydrogen sulfide concentration distribution for different cases (Z = 1.5 m, ACH = 15): (a–l) MV-1–IJV-7.

Figure 9. Hydrogen sulfide concentration distribution

The error between CFDfor different results
simulation cases (Zand
= 1.5 m, ACH = 15):
experimental (a–l) is
results MV-1–IJV-7.
very small; the
predicted value on the coarse grid is higher than the predicted value on the fine grid. The
3.3. Air Age
relative in the
error Occupied
of the averageZone
localunder MV,age
average PV,in and IJV grid room is 4% [67].
the coarse
The concept of MAA can be applied to pollutants ortimes
The MAA of each program under different ventilation is shown
any tracer gasinthat
Figure 10.
simulates
When the ACH is the same, the MAA of different schemes is very different. When the ACH
pollutants [64]. Assuming that pollutants are "born" when they enter the plenum, the local
MAA at any point is the average time it takes for all pollutant particles to reach that point
from the entrance area. This means that the "youngest" air is still at the air supply port,
while the "oldest" air may be located in the stagnant zone or trapped in the air outlet [65].
If part of the air circulates in the stall for a long time, the local MAA value will increase
 The error between CFD simulation results and experimental results is very small; the
predicted value on the coarse grid is higher than the predicted value on the fine grid. The
Energies 2021, 14, 8379 relative error of the average local average age in the coarse grid room is 4%[67]. 17 of 25
The MAA of each program under different ventilation times is shown in Figure 10.
When the ACH is the same, the MAA of different schemes is very different. When the
ACH is 5, the maximum and minimum MAA are 304 (IJV-5) and 73 (IJV-1), respectively,
iswhich
5, theismaximum and minimum
a big difference. MAA
The MAAs are 304PV-1,
of MV-1, (IJV-5) andand
IJV-2, 73 (IJV-1), respectively,
IJV-3 are which
170, 165, 138, and
is a big difference. The MAAs of MV-1, PV-1, IJV-2, and IJV-3 are 170,
113, respectively, and the MAAs of the other programs are greater than 200. 165, 138, and 113,
respectively, and the MAAs of the other programs are greater than 200.

Figure 10. Air

Figure10. Air age
age in
indifferent
differentscenarios
scenarios(a–f):
(a–f):ACH
ACH== 5–30.
5–30.

When the jet ventilation air supply outlet is higher than the monitoring surface (IJV-5),
When the jet ventilation air supply outlet is higher than the monitoring surface (IJV-
the MAA on the monitoring surface is long. The MAA in the area far away from the air
5), the MAA on the monitoring surface is long. The MAA in the area far away from the air
supply is long (Figure 11j); when the air is supplied near the urinal (IJV-1), the air in the
toilet stall is relatively fresh, and the MAA is short (Figure 11f); when the air is exhausted
near the urinal (IJV-2), the air supply is reduced. The internal air circulation becomes
slower, and the MAA becomes longer (Figure 11g). In the two schemes, the MAA at the
corner of the wall becomes longer because these areas are prone to vortex flow, and the air
circulation slows down. When the jet ventilation air outlet is low (IJV-3), the wind blows
 Energies 2021, 14, 8379 18 of 25

to the floor and then spreads upward. The MAA in the toilet stalls is very short, and the
MAA in the area away from the toilet stalls becomes longer, but the average MAA is still
very low (Figure 11h). The exhaust vents are evenly distributed on the top, and the middle
Energies 2021, 14, 8379 20 of 27
area of the toilet is far away from the air intake and exhaust vents, so the MAA is longer
(Figure 11a).

Figure 11. Air age cloud diagrams of different scenarios (ACH = 5), (a–l) MV-1 – IJV-7.
Figure 11. Air age cloud diagrams of different scenarios (ACH = 5), (a–l) MV-1 – IJV-7.
Energies 2021, 14, 8379 19 of 25

When air is supplied near the urinal, and near the toilet (PV-1), the MAA in the door
area is long, and the other areas are short (Figure 11c); when the fan is on the sidewall
(MV-2), the distance of the MAA is shorter in the area near the exhaust outlet, and the gas
is more easily discharged (Figure 11b); when the air is supplied near the urinal and the air
is exhausted near the toilet (PV-2, PV-3), the MAA in the area near the doorway is long
and fresh air enters near the urinal. Hence, the MAA is short (Figure 11d,e). When the jet
ventilation outlet is Z = 1.0 m (IJV-4), the MAA is long (Figure 11i). When using a jet air
supply above the floor (IJV-6, IJV-7), the MAA near the air outlet is short, and the fresh air
in the area far from the air outlet does not easily spread to this area, so the MAA is long
(Figure 11k,l).
When the ACH is 10, the maximum and minimum MAAs are 474 (MV-2) and 94
(IJV-3), respectively. The MAAs of IJV-1, IJV-2, and IJV-7 are 143, 112, and 116, respectively.
The MAAs of the other programs are all greater than 200 (Figure 10b). When the ACH
increases from 5 to 10, the MAAs of IJV-2, IJV-3, IJV-5, IJV-6, and IJV-7 become smaller,
while the MAAs of other programs become larger.
When the ACH is 15, the maximum and minimum MAAs are 307 (PV-1) and 83 (IJV-7),
respectively. The MAAs of IJV-2 and IJV-6 are 120 and 123, respectively, with an age greater
than 190. For PV-1 and IJV-1, the MAA at the doorway is long (Figure 12c,f), and for PV-2,
PV-3, and IJV-7, the MAA above the toilet stall is long (Figure 12d,e,l). When ACH is 20,
the maximum and minimum MAA are 289 (PV-3) and 60 (IJV-7), respectively. The MAA of
IJV-1 is 93, and the MAA of the other programs is greater than 100. When ACH is 25, the
maximum and minimum MAA are 211 (PV-2) and 45 (IJV-7). The MAA of IJV-6 is 86, and
the other is not less than 100. When ACH is 30, the maximum and minimum MAA are 217
(IJV-4) and 37 (IJV-7), respectively. The MAA of IJV-6 is 69, and the other is greater than 100.
Increasing the number of air changes may lead to a longer MAA. Therefore, it is crucial
to choose the right ACH for different schemes. In short, the IJV-7 program has the shortest
MAA and the freshest air.

3.4. Air Exchange Efficiency in MV, PV, and IJV

The AEE of each scheme under different ventilation times is shown in Figure 9. When
the ACH is 5, the maximum and minimum values of AEE are 30.35 (IJV-5) and 7.27 (IJV-1),
respectively. The AEE values of MV-1, PV-1, IJV-2, and IJV-3 are 17.01, 16.49, 13.78, and
11.26, respectively, and the other schemes are greater than 20 (Figure 13a). The larger
the AEE value, the higher the ventilation efficiency. The AEE value of IJV-5 is the largest
because the location of the jet air outlet of this scheme is high, and the average MAA of the
toilet is short; the airflow velocity at the corners is small, the MAA is longer, the average
MAA of the toilet becomes longer, and the AEE value is minimal.
When the ACH is 10, the maximum and minimum values of the AEE are 23.675 (MV-2)
and 4.685 (IJV-3), respectively. The AEEs of IJV-1, IJV-2, and IJV-7 are 7.145, 5.545, and 5.775,
respectively. The AEEs of the other schemes are greater than 10 (Figure 13b). When the air
outlet is located on the wall directly opposite the door hole (MV-2), the fresh air entering
from the door hole is exhausted to the outside through the exhaust fan, and the gas flow
path is short and inside the toilet stall. The average MAA is short, so the AEE value is large;
when the jet vent position is low (IJV-3), the airflow velocity below the air outlet is large,
the airflow velocity above the air outlet is small, and the MAA in the toilet is long, so the
AEE value is small.
When the ACH is 15, the maximum and minimum values of the AEE are 10.23 (PV-1)
and 2.75 (IJV-7), respectively, and the AEE of the other schemes is less than 9 (Figure 13c).
When the whole air supply scheme is adopted (PV-1), the average MAA in the toilet is
the shortest, and the AEE value is the largest. When air is supplied near the ground, the
wind speed around the air outlet is high, and the flow velocity in the upper space of the
toilet is small. Therefore, the average MAA in the toilet is the longest, and the AEE value is
the smallest.
 Energies
Energies 2021,2021, 14, 8379
14, 8379 20 of21
25 of 27

Figure 12. Air age cloud diagrams of different scenarios (ACH = 15), (a–l) MV-1 – IJV-7.
Figure 12. Air age cloud diagrams of different scenarios (ACH = 15), (a–l) MV-1 – IJV-7.
When the ACH is 20, the maximum and minimum values of AEE are 7.2165 (PV-3)
and 1.4995 (IJV-7), respectively, and the AEE of the other schemes is less than 7 (Figure 13d).
3.4. Air Exchange Efficiency in MV, PV, and IJV
When the ACH is 25, the maximum and minimum values of AEE are 4.224 (PV-2) and 0.89
The respectively,
(IJV-7), AEE of eachandscheme under
the AEE different
of the ventilation
other schemes times
is less than is shown 13e).
4 (Figure in Figure
When9.the
When
theACH
ACH is 30, the maximum and minimum values of the AEE are 3.62 (IJV-4) and 0.61 (IJV-7),(IJV-
is 5, the maximum and minimum values of AEE are 30.35 (IJV-5) and 7.27
1),respectively
respectively. The AEE
(Figure 13f). values of MV-1, PV-1, IJV-2, and IJV-3 are 17.01, 16.49, 13.78, and
11.26, respectively, and the other schemes are greater than 20 (Figure 13a). The larger the
AEE value, the higher the ventilation efficiency. The AEE value of IJV-5 is the largest be-
cause the location of the jet air outlet of this scheme is high, and the average MAA of the
toilet is short; the airflow velocity at the corners is small, the MAA is longer, the average
MAA of the toilet becomes longer, and the AEE value is minimal.
Energies 2021, 14, 8379 23 of 27
Energies 2021, 14, 8379 21 of 25

Figure
Figure13.
13.Air
Airexchange
exchangeefficiency
efficiencyinindifferent
differentscenarios,
scenarios,(a–f):
(a–f):ACH
ACH==5–30.
5–30.

Asthe
As thenumber
numberofof ACH ACH increases,
increases, thethe value
value of AEE
of AEE gradually
gradually decreases,
decreases, andven-
and the the
ventilation
tilation efficiency
efficiency gradually
gradually decreases.
decreases. When
When thethe ACH
ACH is 15,
is 15, 20,20,
25,25,oror30,
30,the
theAEE
AEEvalue
value
ofofIJV-7
IJV-7isisthe
thesmallest.
smallest.ItItisisessential
essentialto
tochoose
chooseaasuitable
suitableACH
ACHto toimprove
improvethe theventilation
ventilation
efficiencyand
efficiency andreduce
reducethe
theconcentration
concentrationof ofpollutants.
pollutants.

4.4.Conclusions
Conclusions
CFDmethods
CFD methodswere
wereused
usedtotoinvestigate
investigatethe
thenormalized
normalizedconcentration
concentrationininMV,
MV,PV,
PV,and
and
IJV. The conclusions of this study are as follows:
IJV. The conclusions of this study are as follows:
Energies 2021, 14, 8379 22 of 25

1. This study investigated the normalized concentrations of ammonia and hydrogen

sulfide gas at the monitoring face under six ACHs (5h−1 , 10 h−1 , 15 h−1 , 20 h−1 , 25 h−1 ,
and 30 h−1 ). The results show that the ventilation method, position of the air outlet
and the supply air, and the ACH affect the concentration of pollutants. Increasing the
ACH can reduce the normalized concentration of pollutants and improve the IAQ in
public toilets.
2. The mixed ventilation scheme is ineffective in removing pollutants, and IJV has
advantages in reducing pollutants over PV and MV. IJV-7 performs best in reducing
the normalized concentration of ammonia, and IJV-5 has an advantage in reducing
the normalized concentration of hydrogen sulfide.
3. Increasing the number of air changes may lead to a longer MAA. The IJV-7 program
has the shortest MAA and the freshest air but the smallest AEE value. Therefore, it is
vital to choose the correct number of air changes for different ventilation schemes.
4. The research results of this paper supply a theoretical basis for improving ventilation
efficiency. From the perspective of improving public health and the prevention of
infectious diseases, this research is of great significance.

Supplementary Materials: The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/article/

10.3390/en14248379/s1, Figure S1. Diagram of the experiment chamber and the location of sampling
point; Figure S2. SF6 concentration at different locations; Figure S3. Grid condition of CFD model;
Figure S4. The concentration of pollutants and velocity for different grids; Figure S5. Monitoring
surface position; Figure S6. The normalized concentration of ammonia at Z = 0.9 m section; Figure S7.
The normalized concentration of hydrogen sulfide at Z =0.9 m section.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Z.Z. and X.Z.; methodology, Z.Z. and L.Z.; software, Z.Z.
and H.L.; validation, Z.Z., H.S. (Huixian Shi) and L.Y.; formal analysis, Z.Z. and W.Y.; investigation,
Z.Z. and H.S. (Haowen Shen); resources, J.G., L.W. and Y.Z.; data curation, Z.Z. and W.Y.; writing—
original draft preparation, Z.Z.; writing—review and editing, Z.Z.; visualization, Z.Z.; supervision,
X.Z.; project administration, X.Z.; funding acquisition, X.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This study was supported by the National Key R&D Program Project Development and
application of key technologies for rural toilets (grant number 2018YFD1100500).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to express their gratitude to Shanghai Huajie Ecological
Environment Engineering Co., Ltd. for their assistance with this research.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations

C Average concentration of contaminants in the immediate environment (mg·m−3 )

Ce Concentration of contaminants at the exhaust outlet (mg·m−3 )
Cin Concentration of contaminants at the air supply outlet (mg·m−3 )
IAQ Indoor air quality
CFD Computational fluid dynamics
MV Mixing ventilation
PV Personalized ventilation
IJV Impinging jet ventilation
MAA Mean age of air
AEE Air exchange efficiency
ACH Air change rate per hour (h−1 )
Energies 2021, 14, 8379 23 of 25

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