A Course Material on

EE8602 PROTECTION AND SWITCHGEAR

BY,

Mrs.P.MATHUMATHI

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

ST.MICHAEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

EE8602 PROTECTION AND SWITCHGEAR LTPC
3003
OBJECTIVES:
To impart knowledge on the following Topics
 Causes of abnormal operating conditions (faults, lightning and switching surges) of the
apparatus and system.
 Characteristics and functions of relays and protection schemes.
 Apparatus protection, static and numerical relays
 Functioning of circuit breaker
UNIT I PROTECTION SCHEMES 9
Principles and need for protective schemes – nature and causes of faults – types of faults – Methods of
Grounding - Zones of protection and essential qualities of protection – Protection scheme
UNIT II ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAYS 9
Operating principles of relays - the Universal relay – Torque equation – R-X diagram –
Electromagnetic Relays – Over current, Directional, Distance, Differential, Negative sequence and
Under frequency relays.
UNIT III APPARATUS PROTECTION 9
Current transformers and Potential transformers and their applications in protection schemes -
Protection of transformer, generator, motor, bus bars and transmission line.
UNIT IV STATIC RELAYS AND NUMERICAL PROTECTION 9
Static relays – Phase, Amplitude Comparators – Synthesis of various relays using Static comparators –
Block diagram of Numerical relays – Over current protection, transformer differential protection,
distant protection of transmission lines.
UNIT V CIRCUIT BREAKERS 9
Physics of arcing phenomenon and arc interruption - DC and AC circuit breaking – re-striking voltage
and recovery voltage - rate of rise of recovery voltage - resistance switching – current chopping -
interruption of capacitive current - Types of circuit breakers – air blast, air break, oil, SF6, MCBs,
MCCBs and vacuum circuit breakers – comparison of different circuit breakers – Rating and selection
of Circuit breakers.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
Ability to understand and analyze Electromagnetic and Static Relays.
Ability to suggest suitability circuit breaker.
Ability to find the causes of abnormal operating conditions of the apparatus and system.
Ability to analyze the characteristics and functions of relays and protection schemes.
Ability to study about the apparatus protection, static and numerical relays.
Ability to acquire knowledge on functioning of circuit breaker.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Sunil S.Rao, ‘Switchgear and Protection’, Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, 2008.
2. B.Rabindranath and N.Chander, ‘Power System Protection and Switchgear’, New Age International
(P) Ltd., First Edition 2011.
3. Arun Ingole, ‘Switch Gear and Protection’ Pearson Education, 2017.
REFERENCES
1. BadriRam ,B.H. Vishwakarma, ‘Power System Protection and Switchgear’, New Age International
Pvt Ltd Publishers, Second Edition 2011.
2. Y.G.Paithankar and S.R.Bhide, ‘Fundamentals of power system protection’, Second
Edition,Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2010.
3. C.L.Wadhwa, ‘Electrical Power Systems’, 6th Edition, New Age International (P) Ltd., 2010
4. RavindraP.Singh, ‘Switchgear and Power System Protection’, PHI Learning Private Ltd.,
NewDelhi, 2009.
5. VK Metha,” Principles of Power Systems” S. Chand, 2005.
6. Bhavesh Bhalja, R.P. Maheshwari, Nilesh G. Chotani,’Protection and Switchgear’ Oxford
University Press, 2011.
 UNIT III

APPARATUS PROTECTION

3.1 INTRODUCTION:
Rotating machines include synchronous generators, synchronous motors, synchronous
condensers and induction motors. The protection of rotating machines involves the consideration
of more possible failures or abnormal operating conditions than any other system equipment. The
protection scheme for any machine is influenced by the size of the machine and its importance in
the system.
The failures involving short circuits are usually detected by some type of overcurrent
or differential relay. Electromechanical, static or microprocessor-based relays can be used stand-
alone or in combination with one another to achieve the desired degree of security and
dependability. The failures of mechanical nature use mechanical devices or depend upon the
control circuits for removing the problem.
3.2 CURRENT TRANSFORMER:
A current transformer (CT) is a type of transformer that is used to measure AC current.
It produces an alternating current (AC) in its secondary which is proportional to the AC current in
its primary. Current transformers, along with voltage or potential transformers are Instrument
transformer.
Current transformers are designed to provide a scaled-down replica of the current in the
HV line and isolate the measuring instruments, meters, relays, etc., from the high voltage power
circuit.
The large alternating currents which cannot be sensed or passed through the normal
ammeter, and current coils of wattmeter’s, energy meters can easily be measured by use of
current transformers along with normal low range instruments.
Circuit Diagram:

A current transformer (CT) basically has a primary coil of one or more turns of heavy
cross-sectional area. In some, the bar carrying high current may act as a primary. This is
connected in series with the line carrying high current. The secondary of the current
transformer is made up of a large number of turns of fine wire having a small cross-sectional
area. This is usually rated for 5A. This is connected to the coil of normal range ammeter.
Working Principle of Current Transformer
These transformers are basically step-up transformers i.e. stepping up a voltage from
primary to secondary. Thus the current reduces from primary to secondary. So from the current
point of view, these step down transformer, stepping down the current value considerably from
primary to secondary.
Let,
N1 = Number of Primary Turns
N2 = Number of Secondary Turns
I1 = Primary Current
I2 = Secondary Current
For a transformer,
I1 N 2

I 2 N1
As N 2 is very high compared to N1 , the ratio I1 to I2 is also very high for current transformers.
Such a current ratio is indicated for representing the range of the current transformer.
For example, consider a 500:5 range then it indicates that C.T. steps down the current from
primary to secondary by a ratio 500 to 5.
I1 500

I2 5
Knowing this current ratio and the meter reading on the secondary, the actual high line current
flowing through the primary can be obtained.
Types of Current Transformer:
On the basis of their applications in the field, current transformers can be broadly
classified into two types,
1. Indoor current transformers
2. Outdoor current transformers
Indoor Current Transformers
Current transformers designed for mounting inside metal cubicles are known as Indoor
Current Transformers.
Depending upon the method of insulation, these can further be classified as:
 Tape insulated
 Cast resin (epoxy, polyurethane or polycrete)
In terms of constructional aspects, Indoor Current Transformers can be further
classified into the following types:
1. Bar Type CT: The CTs having a bar of suitable size and material used as primary winding
are known as bar-type CT s’. The bar may be of rectangular or circular cross-section.
2. Slot/ Window/ Ring Type CT: CTs having an opening in the center to accommodate a
primary conductor through it is known as ‘ring-type’ (or ’slot/ window type’) CT.
3. Wound Type CT: A CT having a primary winding of more than one full turn wound on the
core is known as wound type CT. The connecting primary terminals may be similar to those of
a bar type CT or rectangular pads can be provided for this purpose.
Outdoor Current Transformer:
These current transformers are designed for outdoor application. They use transformer
oil or any other suitable liquid for insulation and cooling. A liquid-immersed CT which is
sealed and does not communicate with the atmosphere is known as a hermetically sealed CT.
Outdoor oil-filled CTs are further classified as
1. Live tank type CT
2. Dead tank type CT
Most of the outdoor current transformers are high voltage current transformers. Based
on the application they are further classified into:
1. Measurement Current Transformer
2. Protection Current Transformer
Live Tank Current Transformer
In this design of instrument transformers, the tank housing the cores is kept at the
system voltage. A live tank CT is shown in the figure. It can be noted that the bushing of this
CT is prone to damages in transit as its center of gravity is at large height.

Dead Tank Current Transformer

In Dead Tank design of current transformers, the tank housing the cores is kept at earth
potential. The figure shows a dead tank (single bushing) design which is mounting wise similar
to a live tank design but here the center of gravity is low. Hence this type of CT is not damaged
in transit.

The figure depicts dead tank CT (two-bushing) which is very compact in size and can
be mounted on a steel structure near the outdoor circuit breakers. A CT having more than one
core and more than one secondary winding is known as a multi-core CT (for example, a CT
having metering and protection cores).
A CT in which more than one ratio is obtainable by reconnection or tapings in primary
or secondary windings is known as a multi-ratio instrument transformer (e.g. a CT having a
ratio of 800-400-200/1 A). In such transformers, tapings in primary windings must be avoided
as far as permitted by the design.
An instrument transformer intended to serve the dual purpose of measuring and
protection is known as a dual-purpose instrument transformer.
A CT having a split metering core used for the measurement of current in a busbar is
known as a split-core CT. The spring action of a split-core CT allows the operator to use this
CT for enveloping a current-carrying low tension busbar, without stopping the current flow.
Measurement CT and Protection CT
A CT is similar to a power transformer to some extent since both depend on the same
fundamental mechanism of electromagnetic induction but there are considerable differences in
their design and operation. Current Transformer used for metering and indicating circuits are
popularly termed as Measuring CT. Current Transformer used in conjunction with protective
devices is termed as Protection CT.
A measurement grade CT has much lower VA capacity than a protection grade CT. A
measurement CT has to be accurate over its complete range e.g. from 5% to 125% of normal
current. In other words, its magnetizing impedance at low current levels (and hence low flux
levels) should be very high.
A metering core CT is designed to work more accurately within the rated current range
designated. When current flow exceeds that rating, the metering core will become saturated,
thereby limiting the amount of current level within the device. This protects connected
metering devices from overloading in the presence of fault level current flows. It buffers the
meter from experiencing excessive torques that might be created during those faults.
In contrast, for a protection grade CT, the linear response is expected up to 20 times the
rated current. Its performance has to be accurate in the range of normal currents and up to fault
currents. Specifically, for protection grade current transformers, magnetizing impedance
should be maintained to a large value in the range of the currents of the order of fault currents.
A protection core is designed to transform a distortion-free signal even well into the
overcurrent range. This enables the protective relays to measure the fault current value
accurately, even in very high current conditions.
For measuring CTs, the accuracy required is within the normal working range of up to
125 percent of the rated current. For over-current conditions beyond this, accuracy is not
desired, rather there must be saturation in the core to relieve the connected instruments of the
stresses due to over-current.
Accuracy is not required for currents below the rated Value for protection CTs. But
there must be accuracy at all higher values of current up to a maximum primary current equal
to the maximum system fault level.
The decision as to whether or not to use dual-purpose CT for measuring and protection
depends on various factors such as design, cost and space as also on the ability of the
instrument to withstand short time over-current.
Class T and Class C Current Transformers
ANSI/IEEE standards classify CTs into two types:
1. Class T Current Transformer
2. Class C Current Transformer
Typically, a class T CT is a wound type CT with one or more primary turns wound on a
core. It is associated with high leakage flux in the core. Because of this, the only way to
determine it’s performance is by test. In other words, standardized performance curves cannot
be used with these types of CTs.
For class C CT, letter designation ‘C’ indicates that the leakage flux is negligible. Class
C CTs are the more accurate bar type CTs. In such CTs, the leakage flux from the core is kept
very small. For such CTs, the performance can be evaluated from the standard exciting curves.
Also, the ratio error is maintained within ±10% for standard operating conditions.
Construction of Current Transformer
As we discussed above, there are three types of constructions used for the indoor
current transformers which are,
1. Wound Type CT
2. Toroidal (Window) Type CT
3. Bar Type CT
Wound Type Current Transformer – The transformers primary winding is physically
connected in series with the conductor that carries the measured current flowing in the circuit.
The magnitude of the secondary current is dependent on the turn’s ratio of the transformer.
Toroidal (Window) Type Current Transformer – These do not contain a primary winding.
Instead, the line that carries the current flowing in the network is threaded through a window or
hole in the toroidal transformer. Some current transformers have a “split core” which allows it
to be opened, installed, and closed, without disconnecting the circuit to which they are
attached.
Bar-type Current Transformer – This type of current transformer uses the actual cable or
bus-bar of the main circuit as the primary winding, which is equivalent to a single turn. They
are fully insulated from the high operating voltage of the system and are usually bolted to the
current-carrying device.
1. Wound Type Current Transformer
In wound type construction the primary is wound for more than one full turn on the
core.

The construction of Wound Type Current Transformer is shown above. In a low

voltage wound type current transformer, the secondary winding is wound on a bakelite former.
The heavy primary winding is directly wound on the top of the secondary winding with
suitable insulation in between the two.
Otherwise, the primary is wound completely separately and then taped with suitable
insulating material and assembled with the secondary on the core.
The current transformers can be ring type or window type. Some commonly used
shapes for the stampings of window type current transformers are shown in the figure below.
 The core material for wound type is nickel-iron alloy or oriented electrical steel. Before
installing the secondary winding on the core it is insulated with the help of end collars and
circumferential wraps of pressboards. Such pressboards provide additional insulation and
protection to the winding from damage due to the sharp corners.
2.Bar Type Current Transformer
In this type of current transformer, the primary winding is nothing but a bar of suitable
size. The construction is shown in Figure.

The insulation on the bar type primary is bakelized paper tube or resin directly molded
on the bar. Such bar type primary is an integral part of the current transformer. The core and
the secondary winding are the same in bar type transformer.
The stampings used for the laminations in current transformers must have high cross-
sectional area than the ordinary transformers. Due to this, the reluctance of the interleaved
comers remains as low as possible. Hence the corresponding magnetizing current is also small.
The windings are placed very close to each other so as to reduce the leakage reactance. To
avoid the corona effect, in bar type transformer, the external diameter of the tube is kept large.
The windings are so designed that without damage, they can withstand short circuit
forces which may be caused due to a short circuit in the circuit in which the current transformer
is inserted.
For small line voltages, the tape and varnish are used for insulation. For line voltages
above 7 kV, the oil-immersed or compound filled current transformers are used.
Uses / Advantages of Current Transformer
Current transformers are used extensively for measuring current and monitoring the
operation of the power grid.
 Along with voltage leads, revenue-grade current transformers drive the electrical
utility’s watt-hour meter on virtually every building with three-phase service and single-phase
services greater than 200 amperes.
High-voltage current transformers are mounted on porcelain or polymer insulators to
isolate them from the ground. Current transformers can be mounted on the low voltage or high
voltage leads of a power transformer.
Often, multiple CTs are installed as a “stack” for various uses. For example, protection
devices and revenue metering may use separate CTs to provide isolation between metering and
protection circuits and allows current transformers with different characteristics (accuracy,
overload performance) to be used for the devices.
Application of High Voltage Current Transformers
Ideal for installation at metering points due to its very high accuracy. Excellent
frequency response; ideal for monitoring power quality and measuring harmonics. Suitable for
installation in AC and DC filters in converter substations for HVDC projects.
Examples of applications:
1. Protection for high voltage lines and substation.
2. Protection for capacitor banks.
3. Protection for power transformers.
4. Revenue metering.
3.3 POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER:
Transformers are the passive electromagnetic instruments that operate based on the
principle of electromagnetic induction rules, which transmit electrical power from one circuit
to another one magnetically. It includes two coils; one is the primary section, and the other is
the secondary coil. Both the coils (windings) are magnetically combined without any magnetic
part and electrically divided.
The transformer transmits the electricity (current/voltage) from one winding to another
coil (coil) using a mutual induction. There is no variation in frequency during the energy
transformation. Transformers are divided into two classes according to the core construction,
like core types and shell types.
They are also categorized into step- up and step-down transformers based on the
voltage rating conversion and winnings. There are different forms of transformers
applied in the AC networks, such as potential transformers, power transformers,
autotransformers, and three-phase transformers.
Definition
The potential transformer can be defined as an instrument employed to transmit the
voltage from a higher value to a lower output. This transformer step down the voltage to a safe
limit value which can be easily measured by the ordinary low voltage instrument like a
voltmeter, wattmeter and watt-hour meters, etc.
Circuit Diagram
The potential transformer contains primary winding with more twists and a secondary
section with fewer turns. The great input AC voltage is presented to the primary section (or
connected to the high voltage network to sense). The lower output voltage can be obtained
through the secondary side using a voltmeter. The two windings are combined magnetically to
each other without any attachment between them.

Potential transformers are produced with high quality to perform at low magnetic
current, low flux density, and minimized load. While compared to a conventional type, it
employs great conductors and an iron center. It can be constructed in the form of a shell type
and core type to achieve the highest precision. Typically, core-type potential transformers are
suitable to transmit the high voltage to the lower output.
It employs co-axial sections to decrease the leakage reactance. As the potential types
are performed at high voltages, the great voltage primary section is divided into small parts
coils/turns to decrease the insulation cost and problems. The phase shift between the output
voltage and the input voltage should be controlled accurately to keep the lower voltage by
changing the load. Windings layered with vanish cambric and cotton tape to decrease the
insulation price.
Hard fiber separators are applied to cover the coils. Oil-filled bushings are also
employed to send the high voltage outputs (above 7kV) to the basic lines. The primary section
of a potential transformer has a great number of turns, while the secondary side has fewer
turns. The voltmeter or multimeter is used to detect the lower output voltage.
Construction
The potential transformer is constructed with a high-quality core working at a low flux
value so that the magnetizing current is low. The transformer’s terminals have to be
constructed so that the change in the voltage rating with load is minimum and the phase shift
between the output and input voltage is also minimum.
The primary section has a great number of turns, and the secondary side has a much
small number of them. The co-axial arrangement is applied in the potential transformer for
reducing the leakage reactance. The insulation price is also decreased by dividing the primary
section into particular parts, which minimized the insulation between the layers.
Connection
The potential transformer is arranged in parallel configuration with the circuit. The
primary section of the device is directly attached to the power network, whose voltage should
be monitored. The secondary terminals of the system are connected to the sensing instrument
like the wattmeter, voltmeter, etc. The secondary section of the potential transformer is
magnetically combined through the magnetic network of the primary windings.

The main terminal of the device is rated for 400V to several thousand volts, and the
secondary one is often rated for 400V. The rating of the primary voltage to the secondary one
is known as the “transformation ratio or turn ratio”.
Types of Potential Transformer
The potential transformer is mainly categorized into two types, i.e., the conventional
wound forms (electromagnetic form) and the capacitor voltage potential types.
Conventional Wound Potential Transformer
Conventional wound form is very expensive due to the demand of the insulations.
Capacitor Potential Transformer
Capacitor potential type is a junction of a capacitor potential divider and a magnetic
part of a relatively small ratio. The circuit diagram of the capacitor types is presented in the
figure below. The stack of great voltage capacitors from the potential divider, the capacitors of
two sides become C1 and C2, and the Z is the burden.

The voltage presented to the primary section of the intermediate transformer is usually
of the order of 10kV. Both the intermediate transformer and the potential divider have the
rating and insulation demand which are appropriate for economical construction.
The intermediate transformer should be of very low ratio error, and the phase angle
provides the satisfactory performance of the complete set. The secondary terminal value is
given by the formula presented below.
C1
V2  V1 
C1  C2
Potential Transformer Working Principle
The potential transformer attached to the power network whose voltage should be
sensed is connected between the ground and the phase. That means the primary section of a
potential transformer is attached to the high voltage network, and the secondary section of a
transformer is connected to a multimeter. Because of the mutual induction, the two sides are
magnetically joined together and operate on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
The reduced voltage is detected through the secondary side with respect to the voltage
within the primary section using a voltmeter. Because of the large impedance in the system, the
small current moves across the secondary side and performs similarly to the usual transformer
with no or low power. Hence these kinds of transformers work at a voltage level of 50 to
200VA.
Based on the convention transformer, the transformation ratio is
N2
V2  V1 
N1
Where ‘V1’is the voltage of the primary winding, ‘V2 ’ is the voltage of the secondary side,
‘N1’is the number of turns in the primary section, and ‘N 2’is the number of turns in the
secondary side. The high voltage of a network can be identified using the above formula.
Potential Transformers Classification
Potential transformers can be classified into the following forms based on their
function.
 Metering voltage transformers
 Protection voltage transformers
 Electromagnetic Potential Transformers
 Capacitive Potential Transformers
Protection Voltage Transformers
These exist in single or three-phase types and work with the highest accuracy. They are
utilized to perform and monitor measuring instruments, relays, and other devices.
Electromagnetic Potential Transformers
These are the same as the primary transformer, where primary and secondary sections
are wounded on a magnetic center. It operates based on a value of above or below 130KV. The
primary section is determined based on the phase, and the secondary section is connected to the
ground. They are employed in the relay, metering, and high voltage networks.
Capacitive Potential Transformers
These are also introduced as bushing type or coupling type capacitive potential
transformers or capacitive potential dividers. The series arrangement of capacitors is attached to
the primary or secondary sides. The output value through the secondary winding is detected. It
is used for power cable carrier communication aims and is also more costly.

Errors in Potential Transformers

In the primary instruments, the output value on the secondary side is exactly related to
the value of the secondary transformer. The voltage drops due to the resistance and reactance
in primary and secondary in the potential transformers, and also the power coefficient on
secondary results in the phase shift errors and voltage errors.
Ratio and Phase Angle Errors of Potential Transformer
The primary and the secondary value is accurately related to the primary voltage in an
ideal potential transformer and precisely in phase opposition. But this cannot be obtained
actually because of the primary and secondary voltage reduction. Therefore, both the primary
and secondary value is introduced in the system.
Voltage Ratio Error
The voltage ratio error can be evaluated regarding the sensed voltage, and it is obtained
by the formula as presented below:
Kt I S  I P
Ratio Error 
IP
where Kt is the nominal ratio, i.e., the ratio of the rated primary value and the rated secondary
value. If there is a difference between the complete voltage and practical voltage, then the
voltage error happens. Percentage of voltage error can also be obtained by the equation below:
V  K tVS
VoltageError  P  100
VP
Phase Angle Error
The phase angle error is a problem between the secondary section voltage, which is
accurately in phase opposition with the voltage of the primary section. The increases in the
number of devices in the relay attached to the secondary side of the potential transformer will
rise the errors in the potential transformers.
If there is a basic difference between the phase angle of the primary value ‘V p’ and the
reverse secondary value, the phase angle error happens.
The burden of a Potential Transformer
The burden is the overall external volt-amp power on the secondary section at the rated
voltage. The rated burden of a potential transformer is a VA burden which should not be
increased if the device tends to perform with its rated precision. The rated burden is determined
on the nameplate.
The maximum or limiting burden is the highest VA power at which the practical
transformer will constantly perform without overheating its parts beyond the permissible range.
This burden is several times higher than the rated burden.
If the standard ratio of the potential transformer is varied from the practical ratio of the
device due to the resistance and reactance drops, then this error will occur.
Causes of Errors
Because of the internal impedance, the voltage reduces in the primary section, and it is
transmitted proportionally to its twists ratio and the secondary section. Similarly, the same
thing occurs on the secondary side.
Reduction of Errors
The errors of potential transformers can be decreased or prevented by increasing the
precision in the designing, magnitudes of resistance and reactance of primary and secondary
sides, and minimum magnetization of the core.
Phasor Diagram of a Potential Transformer
The phasor diagram of a potential transformer is presented in the figure below.

Where,
 Es – Secondary induced emf
 Is – Secondary current
 Xs – Secondary winding reactance
 Rs – Secondary winding resistance
 Vs – Secondary terminal voltage
  Vp – Primary terminal voltage
 Ip – Primary current
 Ep – Primarily induced emf
 Xp – Primary winding reactance
 Rp – Primary winding resistance
 Kt – Turn ratio
 Im – Magnetizing component of Io
 Io – Excitation current
 Iw – Core loss component of Io
 Β – Phase angle error
 Φm – Main flux
The main flux is considered as the reference. The primary value is the vector
sum of the excitation current Io, and the current identical to the reversal secondary value I s
improved by the ratio of 1 in the instrument transformer. The V p is the voltage provided to
Kt
the primary side of the potential transformer.
I0  IS
IP 
Kt
The voltage reduces based on the resistance and reactance of the primary section due to
the primary current, which can be obtained by IpRp and IpXp. When the voltage reduction
subtracts from the primary value of the potential transformer, the primarily produced EMF
(Electromotive Force) will appear through the terminals.
This basic EMF of the device will change into the secondary side by the mutual
induction effect and transformed into the secondary produced EMF (Es). This EMF will reduce
by the secondary side reactance and resistance, and the resultant output will appear through the
secondary terminal voltage, and it is expressed by Vs.
The produced primary voltage EMF is the subtraction of reactance and resistance drops
(IpXp, IpRp) from the primary voltage (Vp). The voltage reduces because of the resistance and
reactance of the primary winding.
The EMF produced in the primary is transmitted into the secondary side by the mutual
induction and creates the EMF in the secondary side (Es). The output voltage through the
secondary side because of the EMF reduction by the reactance and resistance is Vs. The output
value on the secondary side is gained by subtraction of the resistance and reactance drops
(IsRs, IsXs) from the produced EMF in the secondary winding (Es).
Applications of a Potential Transformer
The applications of a potential transformer are listed below:
 Used in metering and relay circuits
 Uses in power line carrier communication networks
 Used in protection devices electrically
 Used for the protection of impedance in different applications like the generators
 Used for protecting feeders
 Used as protection voltage transformers
 Used in synchronization of feeders and generators
 Advantages of a Potential Transformer
The advantages of a potential transformer are summarized below:
 Ammeter and voltmeter can be connected to control high current and voltage, respectively.
 Irrespective of the sensing of voltage or current, the level of the low range meter can be
configured with the help of a potential transformer.
 The operation of these instruments is utilized for working in many forms of protecting
devices such as the relays and pilot lights.
 A single potential transformer can be used to control several instruments.
Disadvantages of a Potential Transformer
Due to the efficiency of the device, there are not several drawbacks. The main
disadvantage of a potential transformer is that it holds this configuration limited to only AC
networks and cannot be used on the DC circuits.
3.4 PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMER:
The power transformer is one of the most important links in a power transmission
and distribution system. It is a highly reliable piece of equipment. This reliability depends on
• Adequate design
• Careful erection
• Proper maintenance
• Application of protection system
Protection Equipment Includes
1. Surge diverters
2. Gas relay: It gives early warning of a slowly developing fault, permitting shutdown
and repair before severe damage can occur.
3. Electrical relays.
Types of Faults Affecting Power Transformer:
 Through Faults
1. Overload conditions.
2. External short-circuit conditions.
The transformer must be disconnected when such faults occur only after allowing a
predetermined time during which other protective gears should have operated.
 Internal Faults
The primary protection of a power transformer is intended for conditions which arises
as a result of faults inside the protection zone.
1. Phase-to-earth fault or phase- to- phase fault on HV and LV external terminals.
2. Phase-to-earth fault or phase-to- phase fault on HV and LV windings.
3. Interturn faults of HV and LV windings.
4. Earth fault on tertiary winding, or short circuit between turns of a tertiary windings.
5. “Incipient” faults which are initially minor faults, causing gradually developing fault.
These types of faults are not easily detectable at the winding terminals by unbalance current or
voltage.
Differential Protection Scheme:
This scheme is employed for the protection of transformer against internal short
circuits. It provides the best overall protection for internal faults.
It compares the current entering the transformer with the current leaving the element. If
they are equal there is no fault inside the zones of protection. If they are not equal it means that
a fault occurs between the two ends.
Biased Differential Protection of Transformer:

Differential Protection by Circulating Current Principle:

Construction:
The secondary's of both CTs are connected together in such a manner that secondary
currents of both CTs will oppose each other. In other words, the secondary’s of both CTs
should be connected to same current coil of differential relay in such a opposite manner that
there will be no resultant current in that coil in normal working condition of the transformer.
Operation:
If any major faults occurs inside the transformer due to which the normal ratio of the
transformer disturbed then the secondary current of both transformer will not remain the same
and one resultant current will flow through the current coil of the differential relay, which will
actuate the relay and trip both the primary and secondary circuit breakers.
To correct phase shift of current because of star-delta connection of transformer
winding in case of three phase transformer, the current transformer secondary’s should be
connected in delta and star.
Limitations of differential protection of transformer:
1. Due to magnetization characteristics of CTs used, the ratio errors change with
respect to the circulation currents.
2. The pilot wires used may vary in length due to which the unbalance in secondary
circuit parameters.
3. During heavy short circuits conditions the high currents create saturation of flux
in the core of CTs that lead to abnormal relaying or unexpected behavior of the
relaying circuit.
4. Tap changing may lead to change in settings and improper operation.
5. Inrush of magnetizing current may lead to inadvertent operation and hence the
settings are done for higher values of fault current due to which accuracy of
sensing and operation is decreased.
Protection against Incipient faults:
Faults which are not serious at the beginning but which slowly develops into serious
faults are known as incipient faults.
Buchholz Relay:
It is gas actuated relay. When a fault develops slowly, it produces heat, thereby
decomposing solid or liquid insulating material in the transformer.
The decomposition of insulating materials produces inflammable gases. The Buchholz
relay gives an alarm when a specified amount of gas is formed. The analysis of the gas
collected in the relay chamber indicates the type of incipient fault.
There is a chamber to accommodate Buchholz relay in between the transformer tank
and the conservator. The Buchholz relay is a slow acting device, the minimum operating time
is 0.1s and the average time is 0.2s.
 The Buchholz relay has another set of contacts operated by a float. These contacts stay
open when the transformer tank is filled with oil. However in case of leakage of oil or
decomposition of oil, the float sinks causing the contacts to close.
Loss of oil will no doubt cause the transformer temperature to rise but does not warrant
immediate tripping. Hence normally these contacts are wired to an alarm which alerts the
operator.
Restricted Earth Fault Protection:
A percentage differential relay has a certain minimum value of pick up for internal
faults. Faults with current below this value are not detected by the relay. Winding-to-core-
faults, which are single phase to ground type, involving high resistance, fall in this category.
Therefore for such type of faults RESTRICTED EARTH FAULT PROTECTION is
used. The protection scheme is comparatively cheaper than the differential protection scheme.
This protection is provided in power transformer for sensing the internal earth fault of the
transformer. In this scheme CT secondary of each phase of power transformer are connected
together as shown.
Then common terminals are connected to the secondary of the Neutral Current
Transformer(NCT). The CT connected to the neutral of the transformer is called Neutral
Current Transformer.
An external fault in the star side will result in current flowing in the line CT of the
affected phase and at the same time a balancing current flows in the NCT, hence the resultant
current in the relay is therefore. So this REF relay will not be actuated for external earth fault.
But during internal fault the NCT only carries the unbalance fault current and operation
of Restricted Earth Fault relay takes place. This scheme of REF protection is very sensitive for
internal earth fault of electrical power transformer.
Overcurrent Protection:
In an overcurrent relay, there would be essentially a current coil. When normal current
flows through this coil, the magnetic effect generated by the coil is not sufficient to move the
moving element of the relay, as in this condition the restraining force is greater than deflecting
force.
But when the current through the coil is increased, the magnetic effect increases and
after certain level of current, the deflecting force generated by the magnetic effect of the coil,
crosses the restraining force, as a result the moving element starts moving to change the
contact position in the relay.
Fig. shows two number of phase fault over current relays and one ground fault over
current relay for providing over current protection to the star delta transformer.
The neutral current under load conditions is quite small. The neutral current is
essentially because of load unbalance.
Earth Fault Protection:

Combined Leakage and Combined Overload protection:

3.5 PROTECTION OF GENERATOR:

Types of faults:
• Stator winding faults.
• Field winding or Rotor circuit faults.
Methods of Protection:
• Stator protection.
• Overload or Overcurrent protection.
• Overvoltage protection.
• Over speed protection.
• Protection against motoring.
• Rotor fault protection.
 • Negative sequence protection.
• Protection against vibration.
• Bearing overheating protection.
• External fault back-up protection.
Types of stator faults:
• Phase-to-earth faults.
• Phase-to-phase faults.
• Inter-turn faults.
Protection schemes for stator protection:
• Differential protection.
• Modified differential protection.
• Biased circulating current protection.
• Self balance protection system.
• Balanced earth fault protection.
• Stator inter-turn protection.
• Stator overheating protection.
(i) Differential Protection:
Two sets of identical CT’s each set is mounted on either side of stator phase winding.
The secondaries of these CT sets are connected in star and their ends are connected through
pilot wires. At normal operating conditions, the currents at the two ends of protected section
are same I1  I 2 . So relay will not operate.
When the fault occurs the balance is disturbed and differential current I1  I 2  flows
through the operating coil of the relay causing relay operation and the trip circuit of the C.B is
closed. The relays are employed in this protection scheme are generally of electro-magnetic
type and are arranged for instantaneous operation as faults are expected to be cleared as quick
as possible.
(ii) Biased Differential Protection:

(iii) Modified differential protection:

Protection is made for 80 to 85% of the winding in differential protection scheme.
If any fault occurs near the neutral point then the fault current is very small and relay does not
operate. Two phase elements (PC and PA) and balancing resistor (BR) is connected in star and
the earth relay (ER) is connected between the star point and neutral wire.
(iv) Restricted or Balanced Earth fault protection:
In case of small size generators the neutral end of a 3 phase winding is not available
because it is made inside the generator and grounded through some low resistance, then
percentage differential relay is provided and is known as restricted earth fault protection.
This scheme is used only for ground faults but not for phase faults.

(v) Stator Inter-turn Protection:

Merz-price circulating-current system protects against phase-to-ground and phase-to-
phase faults. It does not protect against turn-to-turn fault on the same phase winding of the
stator. It is because the current flows in a local circuit between the turns involved and does not
create a difference between the currents entering and leaving the winding at its two ends where
current transformers are applied.
However, it is usually considered unnecessary to provide protection for inter-turn faults
because they invariably develop into earth-faults. In single turn generator (e.g. large steam-
turbine generators), there is no necessity of protection against inter-turn faults. However, inter-
turn protection is provided for multi-turn generators such as hydro-electric generators.
These generators have double-winding armatures (i.e. each phase winding is divided
into two halves) owing to the very heavy currents which they have to carry. The relays
RC provide protection against phase-to-ground and phase-to-phase faults whereas relays
R1 provide protection against inter-turn faults.
Rotor fault and its protection:
• Faults in rotor circuit may be either earth faults or between the turns of the field windings.
• Field circuits are normally operated un-earthed. So a single earth fault will not affect its
operations.
• But when a second fault arises then field winding is short circuited and produce unsymmetrical
field system which leads to unbalanced forces on rotor and results in excess pressure and
bearing & shaft distortion.
Protection Schemes:
• Rotor Earth fault protection.
• Loss of Excitation protection.
• Protection against Rotor overheating by Temperature Alarm.
• Automatic Field Suppression.
• Alternative arrangement of field suppression.
(i) Rotor Earth Fault Protection:
A high resistance is connected across the rotor circuit and its mid point is grounded
through a sensitive relay. Another method for rotor earth fault protection
a. DC injection method
b. AC injection method
The DC or AC voltage is impressed between the field circuit and ground through a sensitive
overvoltage relay and current limiting resistor or capacitor. A single earth fault in rotor circuit
will complete the path and the fault is sensed by the relay. DC injection method is simple and
has no problems of leakage current.
(ii) Loss of Excitation protection:
It is caused by accidental tripping of field breaker, short-circuit in the field circuits,
poor brush contact or operating errors. In absence of field current, alternators runs as induction
generator & currents are induced in the rotor teeth and also draws reactive power from the
system. Under- current moving coil relay is connected in series with field winding for loss of
excitation protection. Relay used for this type of protection is mostly directional distance type
relay.
(iii) Rotor Overheating Protection by Temperature Alarm:
This type of scheme is installed generally in large generators. It indicates the level of
temperature but not the actual hot spot temperature. The relay measures the temperature by
measuring the resistance. The relay measure the ratio of voltage and current.
(iv) Automatic Field Suppression and use of Neutral Circuit Breaker:
In case of fault in the generator and though the circuit breaker is tripped, the fault
continues to fed as long as excitation will exist because emf is induced in the generator itself.
Hence all the protection system not only trip the generator circuit breaker but also trip the
automatic field discharge switch.

(v) Negative Phase Sequence Protection:

Unbalance may cause due to single phase fault or unbalanced loading and it
gives rise to negative sequence current. This current in rotor causes rotor
overheating and damage to the rotor. This can be protected by negative sequence
current filter with over current relays.
3.6 PROTECTION OF MOTORS:
Based on control action (i.e., starting, stopping or reversal) various controlling elements
known in electrical terms as switchgear are employed for the protection of induction motor.
Generally two basic protections called short circuit protections and overload protection are
provided for each motor. The switchgear used for protection includes contactors with H.R.C fuse
and thermal overload relays along with circuit breakers.
Abnormal Conditions:
The three phase induction motors are used in numerous industrial applications. If the
motor is heavily loaded beyond its capacity then it will be overload condition of motor in which
the motor draws heavy current from the supply and there will be simultaneous rise in temperature
of winding and deterioration of the insulation resulting in damage of winding.
Hence the motor must be protected against this mechanical overloading with overload
protection circuits. Normally thermal overload relays, overcurrent relays or miniature circuit
breaker with built in trip coils may be used. If the supply conditions are abnormal such as loss of
supply voltage, unbalanced supply voltage, phase sequence reversal of supply voltage, over
voltage, under voltage or under frequency then also the performance of the motor is affected.
With unbalanced supply voltage there will be excessive heating while with under
voltage the motor draws more current for the same load. For under voltage protection, under
voltage relays are used.

Abnormal Conditions Choice of Protection Circuit

Mechanical overload Overload release, thermal overload relay,
overcurrent relays, miniature circuit breaker
(MCB) with built in trip coil.
Stalling or prolonged starting of motor relay Thermal relays, Instantaneous overcurrent relays.
Under voltage Under voltage release, under voltage
Unbalanced voltage Negative phase sequence relays
Reverse phase sequence Phase reversal relay
Phase to phase fault or phase to earth fault HRC fuse, Instantaneous overcurrent relays. For
large motors, differential protection may be
employed for economy.
Single phasing Thermal overload relays, single phase preventer.
(i) Protection Circuit for Induction motor:

The three phase supply is given to the motor through various elements such as fuse,
switch, contactor and thermal overload relay. The control circuit of contactor consists of
energizing coil, start and stop buttons. The start (ON) push button is normally open green
switch while the stop (OFF) push button is normally closed red switch.
When the start button is pressed then the contactor coil is energized as it gets supply
voltage. The coil attracts the plunger when excited and the main contacts are closed along with
the auxiliary contact. Even if the ON push button is released, the contactor coil remains
energized as it gets supply through auxiliary contacts. Thus the motor starts running.
The OFF push button which is normally closed when pressed cuts the supply of the
contactor coil and hence the main as well as auxiliary contacts are open so motor eventually
stops. If supply voltage fails, control coil is de-energized which opens the contactor and motor
stops.
(ii) Single Phase Preventer:
If one of the supply line is disconnected due to open circuit or improper contact in
switch then still the motor continues to run. The power is then supplied to the remaining
windings. The current in the other phases increases to about 3 times its normal value. This is
called single phasing which results in unbalanced current called negative currents.
The component which is present in this unbalanced current called negative sequence
 component causes magnetic flux rotating in opposite direction to the main flux. This results in
double frequency currents to induce in the rotor to cause its heating. Thus major damage to
motor may take place due to single phasing if proper precaution is not taken.
For small motors, separate protection against single phasing is normally not provided as
thermal relays sense the increased current in remaining phases due to single phasing and
provides sufficient protection.
A separate single phasing protection circuit is required in case of large induction motors
as even a small unbalance can cause damage to motor winding and rotor.

As shown in fig. it consists of C.Ts connected in each phase. The output of control
circuit is fed to the level detector which sense the magnitude of unbalance. Depending on this
output from the control circuit the tripping command to the starter or the circuit breaker is
given when negative sequence current exceeds its preset limit.
(iii) Ground fault protection:
The ground fault protection is achieved using earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB).
When the fault current or leakage current flows through earth return path then it forms the
earth fault. These faults are relatively frequent and hence protection is required against these
which is provided with the help of Earth leakage circuit breaker.
Consider an example of a person whose finger sticks into the socket. Even though the
metal enclosure is securely earthened, the person will receive a severe shock. Under such case
there must be certain device that will cut the supply. This can be done with the help of ELCB
which will typically trip in around 25 ms if current exceeds its preset value.

ELCB consists of a small current transformer surrounding line and neutral wire. The
secondary winding of current transformer is connected to relay circuit which can trip the circuit
breaker which is connected in the circuit.
Under normal conditions, the current in line and neutral conductor is same so the net
current I L  I N  flowing through the core is zero. Eventually there will not be any production
of flux in the core and no induced emf. So the breaker does not trip.
If there is a fault due to leakage from live wire to earth or a person by mistake touching
to the live terminal then the net current through the core will no longer remain as zero but
equal to I L  I N  or I f which will set up flux and emf in C.T. As per the preset value the
unbalance in current is detected by C.T and relay coil is energized which will give tripping
signal for the circuit breaker. As C.T operates with low value of current, the core must be very
permeable at low flux densities.
In case of three phase circuits, single ring shaped core of magnetic material, encircles
the conductor of all three phases. A secondary is connected to relay circuit. Under normal
condition, the component of fluxes due to fields of three conductors are balanced and
secondary carries negligible current.
 During faulty condition, the balance is disturbed and current is induced in the
secondary to trip the circuit breaker through relay. This method to provide earth fault
protection is called core balance type protection or zero sequence current transformer (ZSCT)
protection. In case of earth faults, to avoid burning of coils and stampings the motor must be
disconnected as quickly as possible from the supply.
(iv) Phase Fault Protection:
This protection is also called short circuit protection. At the time of such a fault, the
current increases by 8 to 10 times the full load current of the motor. Attracted armature type
relay unit is connected in each phase with a current setting of 4-5 times the full load current.
This is because starting current can be 4-5 times full load current.
 Hence to operate the relay only under fault condition such a setting is necessary.

The phase faults can cause burn out of coils and stampings and hence motor should be
disconnected as quickly as possible when fault occurs. Fast over current relays also are used to
provide phase fault protection.
(v) Phase Reversal Protection:
The direction of induction motor depends on the direction of rotating magnetic field
produced by the stator windings. For a particular phase sequence RYB the motor rotates in a
particular direction due to corresponding direction of rotating magnetic field. But if any two
lines are interchanged after repairs the phase sequence reverses such as YRB.
Then the direction of rotating magnetic field also reverses and induction motor starts
rotating in opposite direction. Such a change of direction is dangerous if the induction motor is
used for cranes, hoists, lifts or in threading mills etc.
Thus to disconnect induction motor from supply if there is phase reversal, phase
reversal protection is provided. This protection is provided using motor driven disc working on
electromagnetic principle. The secondaries of two CTs connected in two lines drive the motor
to operate the disc.
The arrangement is such that for a normal direction of motor, disc rotates in a particular
direction which keeps the auxiliary contacts closed. But if there is phase reversal then the
torque produced reverses to rotate the disc in opposite direction. Due to this auxiliary contacts
get opened. This inturn either operates the CB or de-energizes starter coil to disconnect the
motor from the supply. Thus phase reversal protection for the induction motor is achieved.
Now a days solid state reversal relay sensing the phase reversal is used.
3.7 PROTECTION OF BUS BAR:
The bus bar plays an important role in the supply systems. The bus bar faults are rare
but if occurs there can be interruption of supply, considerable damage and loss. Hence bus bar
protection is must and it must be fast, stable and reliable.
bus bar protection needs to protect not only the bus bar but the apparatus associated
with it such as circuit breakers, isolating switches, instrument transformers, etc.
Bus bar faults:
1. Failure of insulation, due to material deterioration.
2. Failure of circuit breaker.
3. Earth fault due to failure of support insulator.
4. Flashover due to sustained excessive over voltages.
5. Errors in the operation and maintenance of switchgear.
6. Earthquake and mechanical damage.
7. Accidents due to foreign bodies falling across the bus bars.
8. Flashover due to heavily polluted insulator.
Frame Leakage protection of bus bar:
All bus bar protection schemes are mostly designed for earth faults. Each
conductor is surrounded by the earthed metal barrier. All the metal frameworks are bonded
together and insulated from earth. The switchgear framework is also insulated from lead
cable sheaths.
The arrangement of frame leakage protection to a single bus bar substation with
a switchgear unit is shown in fig. Metal supporting frame work known as fault bus is
earthed through a CT. When the fault is there, a contact between conductor and earth
results. This drives current through this CT. This energizes the frame leakage relay.
The CT energizing the check relay is mounted in neutral earth of the
transformer. The contacts of the check relay and frame leakage relay are in series. Thus
before tripping circuit gets energized both the relays must operate. Once both the relays
operate due to earth fault, all the breakers will trip connecting the equipment to the bus
bar. Due to check relay, accidental operation of single relay to trip the circuit gets avoided.
Circulating Current Protection of Bus Bar:
This is nothing but the differential scheme of the protection of bus bar. The circulating
current principle states that under normal working conditions or external fault conditions, sum
of the currents entering the bus equals sum of the current leaving the bus. Under any abnormal
conditions in the protected zone i.e short circuit or phase to phase faults, the current conditions
gets disturbed and sensing this the relay can be operated.
I1 , I 2 ..........I 6 are the currents in the circuits connected to the bus bars.
Under normal conditions, I  0
i.e., I1  I 2  I 3  I 4  I 5  I 6  0 (vector sum)
No current flows through the relay and hence remains inoperative.
Under fault conditions,
I1  I 2  I 3  I 4  I 5  I 6  I f
Where I f = fault current = unbalanced fault.

The unbalanced current flows through the relay and the relay operates. Under normal
conditions, currents in the secondary's of CT balance each other and no current flows through
the relay. Thus relay is inoperative. Under any fault additions, the fault current flows through
relay coil to activate it.
 To obtain exact balance of currents, all current transformers must have same ratio. But
in practice there exists a difference in the magnetic conditions of iron cored current
transformers and false operation of the relay is possible, at the time of external faults.
For large fault currents there is a possibility of saturation of the cores of current
transformers. To overcome such difficulties, a special type of C.T. having no iron core is used.
It is called linear coupler.

The linear coupler has a property that its secondary voltage is proportional to the
primary current and the secondary windings of all the linear couplers are connected in series to
the relay. This is shown in the Fig. 2.
The sum of the voltage outputs of linear couplers is equal to the vector sum of the
voltages in the circuits connected to the busbars. Hence under normal conditions overall
voltage in the secondary circuit is zero and relay is inoperative. Under fault conditions, there is
resultant voltage in the secondary and the relay operates.
A high impedance relay can differentiate properly the internal and external faults
compared to normal low impedance relay. Hence in circulating current protection, high
impedance relay are used. A high resistance is connected in series with relay operating coil to
get high impedance relay. This resistance is called stabilizing resistance.
High Impedance Differential Protection:
Another method for differential protection to bus bar is based on sensing a voltage drop
across a high impedance, under fault conditions. The basic principle remain same as
differential scheme. Under normal conditions, vector sum of the currents in the lines are zero.
Hence, I f i.e current flowing through high impedance Z H is zero, and the relay is inoperative.
During fault conditions, unbalanced current exists. Such an out of balance current I,
flows through Z H causing a high voltage drop V1 across it. It is given to a transformer. A
measuring unit is connected to the secondary of this transformer which measures this drop and
trips the relay accordingly.
 Main advantage is that as voltage drop is sensed, saturation of core of one of the current
transformer has no effect on the protection scheme.

3.8 PROTECTION OF TRANSMISSION LINE:

Pilot relaying schemes are used for the protection of transmission line sections. They
fall into the category of unit protection. In these schemes, some electrical quantities at the two
ends of the transmission line are compared and hence they require some sort of interconnecting
channel over which information can be transmitted from one end to the other. Such an
interconnecting channel is called a pilot. Three different types of such channels are presently in
use, namely wire pilot, carrier-current pilot and microwave pilot.
A wire pilot may be buried private cables or alternatively, rented Post Office or private
telephone lines. A carrier-current pilot is one in which a low-voltage, high frequency signal (50
kHz–700 kHz) is used to transmit information from one end of the line to the other. A
microwave pilot is a radio channel of very high frequency, 450 to 10,000 MHz.
Wire pilot schemes are usually economical for distances up to 30 km. Carrier-current
schemes are more economical for longer distances. When the number of services requiring
pilot channels exceeds the technical or economical capabilities of carrier-current pilot, the
microwave pilot is employed.
A) Wire Pilot Protection:
In a wire pilot relaying scheme, two wires are used to carry information signals from
one end of the protected line to the other. A wire pilot may be buried cable or a pair of
overhead auxiliary wires other than the power line conductors. The scheme is a unit protection
and operates on the principle of differential protection. The comparison is made between the
CT secondary currents at the two ends of the line.
 As the pilot channels are very expensive, a single phase current is derived from three-
phase currents at each end of the line, thereby using only a pair of pilot wires to carry
information signal. For short lines, wire-pilot schemes are less expensive than carrier- current
schemes because terminal equipment is simpler and cheaper.
It is more reliable because of its simplicity. From cost considerations, the break-even
point is about 15-30 km, but the distance is usually limited due to the attenuation of the signal
caused by distributed capacitance and series resistance, rather than the cost. For short important
lines, wire-pilot relaying is recommended. For unimportant lines, slow-speed overcurrent
relays are employed. For long lines, carrier-current schemes are cheaper and more reliable than
wire-pilot schemes.
The two alternative operating principles which are used for most of the practical
schemes are circulating current principle and balanced voltage principle. Most wire pilot
schemes use amplitude comparison in circulating current scheme since they are easier to apply
to multi-ended lines and are less affected by pilot capacitance.
(i) Circulating Current Scheme:
Figure 1 shows the schematic arrangement for the circulating current principle. Figure 2
shows the schematic diagram of a practical scheme employing circulating current principle.
The scheme is suitable for pilot loop resistance up to 1000 W and inter-core capacitances up to
2.5 microfarad. Polarities of the secondary voltage of CT have been marked in Fig. 7.1 for
normal or external fault condition. Currents flowing in pilot wires and relay coils caused by CT
secondary voltages are also shown in the figure. In a circulating current scheme, the current

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of circulating current principle

circulates normally through the terminal CT and pilot wires. Under normal conditions and in
case of external faults, current does not flow thorough the operating coil. In case of internal
faults, the polarity of the remote end CT is reversed and hence current flows through the
operating coil of the relay.
 Fig. 2 Practical scheme based on circulating current principle

(ii) Balanced Voltage Scheme:

Figure 3 shows a schematic diagram of the balanced voltage principle. Polarities
of CTs and direction of currents shown in the figure are for normal condition or external fault.
In this scheme, current does not normally circulate through pilot wires. The operating coil of
the relay is placed in series with the pilot wire and hence current does not flow through the
pilot wires under normal conditions and in case of external faults.
In case of internal faults, the polarity of the remote end CT is reversed, and hence
current flows through the pilot wires and operating coils of the relays. Figure 4 shows a
practical scheme based on the balanced voltage principle. It is called the Solkar system
(Reyrolle). The capacitor shown in the figure is used to tune the operating circuit to the
fundamental frequency component. The scheme is suitable for 7/0.029 pilot loops up to 400 W.

Fig. 3 Schematic diagram of balanced voltage principle

 Fig.4 Practical scheme employing balanced voltage principle
(iii) Transley Scheme (AEI):
This scheme is a balanced voltage scheme with the addition of a directional feature.
Figure 5 shows the schematic arrangement of the scheme. An induction disc type relay is used
at each end of the protected line section. The secondary windings of the relays are
interconnected in opposition as a balanced voltage system by pilot wires. The upper magnet of
the relay carries a summation winding to receive the output of current transformers. Under
normal conditions and in case of external faults, no current circulates through the pilot wires
and hence through the lower magnets of the relays.
In these conditions, no operating torque is produced. In case of internal faults, current
flows through the pilot wires and the lower electromagnets of the relay. In this condition, the
relay torque is produced from the interaction of the two fluxes, one of which is produced
directly from the local CT secondary current flowing through the upper magnet of the relay.
The second flux is produced by the current flowing through the lower magnet. The current
flowing through the lower magnet may be relatively small.
Therefore, this scheme is suitable for fairly long pilots having loop resistance up to
1000 W. It is worth noting that the scheme is a phase comparison voltage balanced scheme.
 Fig. 5 Transley scheme

B) Carrier Current Protection:

This is the most widely used scheme for the protection of EHV and UHV power lines.
In this scheme a carrier channel at high frequency is employed. The carrier signal is directly
coupled to the same high voltage line that is to be protected. The frequency range of the carrier
signal is 50 kHz to 700 kHz. Below this range, the size and the cost of coupling equipment
becomes high whereas above this range, signal attenuation and transmission loss is
considerable.
The power level is about 10-20 W. In this scheme, the conductor of the power line to be
protected are used for the transmission of carrier signals. So the pilot is termed as a power line
carrier. With the rapid development of power systems and the large amount of interconnection
involved, it has become very essential to have high speed protective schemes. Carrier current
schemes are quite suitable for EHV and UHV power lines. They are faster and superior to
distance schemes.
Distance protective schemes are non-unit type schemes. They are fast, simple and
economical and provide both primary and back-up protection. The main disadvantage of
conventional time-stepped distance protection is that the circuit breakers at both ends of the
line do not trip simultaneously when a fault occurs at one of the end zones of the protected line
section. This may cause instability in the system.
In a carrier current scheme, the carrier signal can be used either to prevent or initiate
the tripping of a protective relay. When the carrier signal is used to prevent the operation of the
relay, the scheme is known as carrier-blocking scheme. When the carrier signal is employed to
initiate tripping, the scheme is called a carrier inter tripping or transfer tripping or permissive
tripping scheme.
Carrier current schemes are cheaper and more reliable for long lines compared
to wire pilot schemes, even though the terminal equipment is more expensive and more
complicated. In some cases, the carrier signal may be jointly utilised for telephone
communication, supervisory control, telemetering as well as relaying. Thus, the cost of carrier
equipment chargeable to relaying work can be reduced. The coupling capacitors required for
carrier signal can be used also as potential dividers to supply reduced voltage to instruments,
relays etc. This eliminates the use of separate potential transformers.
There are two important operating techniques employed for carrier current protection
namely the phase comparison technique and directional comparison technique. In the phase
comparison technique, the phase angle of the current entering one end is compared with the
phase angle of the current leaving the other end of the protected line section. If the currents at
both the ends of the line are in phase, there is no fault on the protected line section. This will be
true during normal conditions or in case of external faults. In case of faults on the protected
line section, the two currents will be 180° out of phase. In this scheme, the carrier signal is
employed as a blocking pilot.
In the directional comparison technique, the direction of power flow at the two
ends of the protected line section is compared. During normal conditions and in the case of
external faults, the power must flow into the protected line section at one end and out of it at
the other end. In case of an internal fault, the power flows inwards from both ends.
(i) Phase Comparison Carrier Current Protection:
In this scheme, the phase angle of the current entering one end of the protected
line section is compared with the current leaving the other end. Figure 7 shows the schematic
diagram of the phase comparison scheme. The line trap is a parallel resonant circuit tuned to
the carrier frequency connected in series with the line conductor at each end of the protected
line section. This keeps carrier signal confined to the protected line section and does not allow
the carrier signal to flow into the neighbouring sections.
It offers very high impedance to the carrier signal but negligible impedance to the
power frequency current. There are carrier transmitter and receivers at both the end of the
protected line. The transmitter and receiver are connected to the power line through a coupling
capacitor to withstand high voltage and grounded through an inductance.
 Fig.7 Schematic diagram of phase comparison carrier current protection

The coupling capacitor consists of porcelain-clad, oil-filled stack of capacitors

connected in series. It offers very high impedance to power frequency current but low
impedance to carrier frequency current. On the other hand, the inductance offers a
low impedance to power frequency current and high impedance to carrier frequency
current.
Thus the transmitter and receiver are insulated from the power line and effectively
grounded at power frequency current. But at carrier frequency they are connected
to the power line and effectively insulated from the ground. For the transmission of carrier
signal either one phase conductor with earth return or two phase conductors can be employed.
The former is called phase to earth coupling and the latter is called phase to phase
coupling. The phase to earth coupling is less expensive as the number of coupling capacitors
and line traps required is half of that needed for phase to phase coupling. However the
performance of phase to phase coupling is better compared to phase to earth coupling because
of lower attenuation and lower interference levels.
The half-cycle blocks of carrier signals are injected into the transmission line through
the coupling capacitor. Fault detectors control the carrier signal so that it is started only during
faults. The voltage outputs of the summation network at stations A and B are 180° out of phase
during normal conditions. This is because the CT connections at the two ends are reversed. The
carrier signal is transmitted only during positive half cycle of the network output.
Figure 8 shows the transmission of carrier signal during external fault and internal fault
conditions. Wave (a) shows the output of the summation network at A. Wave (b) shows the
carrier signal transmitted by the transmitter at A. Wave (c) shows the output of the summation
network at B for external fault at C. Wave (d) shows the carrier signal transmitted by the
transmitter at B.
Thus for an external fault, carrier signals are always present in such a way that during
one half cycle, signals are transmitted by the transmitter at A and during the next half-cycle by
the transmitter at B. As the carrier signal is a blocking signal and it is always present the relay
does not trip. In case of internal faults, carrier signals are transmitted only during one half-
cycle and there is no signal during the other half-cycle. As the carrier signal is not present
during the other half-cycle, the relay operates and the circuit breaker trips.
The comparator receives carrier signal from the receiver. So long as the carrier is
present, it does not give an output to the auxiliary tripping relay. When the comparator does
not receive the carrier signal, it gives an output to the auxiliary tripping relay.
The ideal phase difference between carrier blocks is 180° for internal faults and zero
degree for external faults. In practice, it is kept 180° ± 30° for internal faults because of
(i) the phase displacement between emfs at the ends of the protected line section.
(ii) through current being added to the fault current at one end and subtracted at the
other.
(iii) errors produced by CTs.
The phase comparison scheme provides only primary protection. The back-up
protection is provided by supplementary three step distance relays for phase and ground faults.
In a phase comparison scheme, the relay does not trip during swings or out of step conditions
or because of zero sequence current induced from a parallel line, if there is no fault on the
protected line section. It is used as a primary protection for all long distance overhead EHV
and SHV transmission lines.
The length of transmission line which can be protected by phase comparison
scheme is limited by phase shifts produced by the following factors.
(i) The propagation time, i.e. the time taken by the carrier signal to travel from one end to other
end of the protected line section (up to 0.06° per km).
(ii) The time of response of the band pass filter (about 5°).
(iii) The phase shift caused by the transmission line capacitance (up to 10°).
Fig. 8 Transmission of carrier signals during internal and external fault conditions

(ii) Carrier Aided Distance Protection:

The main disadvantage of unit protection scheme is that they do not provide back-up
protection to the adjacent line section. A distance scheme is capable of providing back-up
protection but it does not provide high-speed protection for the whole length of the line. The
circuit breakers do not trip simultaneously at both ends for end-zone faults. The most desirable
scheme will be one which includes the best features of both, unit protection and distance
protection.
This can be achieved by interconnecting the distance relays at both ends of the
protected section by carrier signals. Such schemes provide instantaneous tripping for the whole
length of the line as well as back-up protection. The following are the three types of such
schemes.
(1) Carrier transfer or intertripping scheme
(2) Carrier acceleration scheme
(3) Carrier blocking scheme
(1) Carrier Transfer or Carrier Intertripping Scheme
The following are important types of transfer tripping schemes.
(a) Direct transfer tripping (Under-reaching scheme)
(b) Permissive under-reach transfer tripping scheme
(c) Permissive over-reach transfer tripping scheme
(a) Direct transfer tripping (under-reaching scheme)
In this scheme, three stepped distance relays are placed at each of the protected line.
Consider the protective scheme for line AB. The time-distance characteristics of the relays
placed at A and B are shown in Fig. 9. When a fault occurs at F3, the I zone high-speed relay
operates at B and trips the circuit breaker. But the circuit breaker at A does not trip
instantaneously. Therefore, for instantaneous tripping of the circuit breaker at A, a carrier
signal is transmitted from B to A. A receive relay RR is included in the trip circuit as shown in
Fig. 10(a).
Thus, the circuit breaker at A also trips instantaneously for any fault at F3 , i.e. an end-
zone fault. The disadvantage of this scheme however is that there may be undesirable tripping
due to mal-operation or accidental operation of the signalling channel. The operation of the I
zone relay at end B initiates tripping at that end as well as a carrier transmission. The scheme
in which the I zone relay is used to send carrier signal to the remote end of the protected line
section is called “transfer trip under-reaching scheme”.

Fig. 9 Stepped time-distance characteristics of relays for direct transfer tripping

If the fault occurs at F1, the zone 1 relay operates and trips the circuit breaker at end A.
It also sends a carrier signal to B. The receipt of the carrier signal at end B initiates tripping of
the circuit breaker immediately. When a fault occurs at F2 , circuit breakers at both ends trip
simultaneously. Distance relays provide back-up protection for adjacent lines which is obvious
from Fig. 10(a) as the contacts T 2 and T3 operate after a certain time delay. Figure 10(b) shows
a signal sending arrangement. Figure 10(c) shows a solid state logic for the trip circuit. In this
scheme, the carrier signal is transmitted over the faulty line. Therefore, there is an additional
attenuation of the carrier signal.
 Fig. (a) Trip circuit (electromagnetic)

Fig. (b) Arrangement to send carrier signal

Fig. (c) Solid State logic

Fig. 10 Direct transfer tripping (under-reach scheme)

(b) Permissive under-reach transfer tripping scheme

To overcome the possibility of undesired tripping by accidental operation or mal-
operation of the signaling channel, the receive relay is supervised by the zone 2 relay. The zone
2 relay contact is placed in series with the receive relay RR as shown in Fig. 11(a). For an
internal end-zone fault, contact Z2 is closed. RR is also closed after receipt of the carrier signal
from the other end and it trips the circuit.
When there is no fault in the end zone, Z2 will not operate. As the contact Z2, placed in
series with RR is open, the circuit breaker will not trip even if there is a mal-operation of the
carrier signal. Thus, it prevents false tripping. Figure 11(b) shows the schematic diagram of the
signal sending arrangement. Zone 1 unit is arranged to send a carrier signal. Figure 11(c)
shows the solid state logic for the trip circuit. In this scheme also the carrier signal is
transmitted over the faulty line section which causes an additional attenuation of the carrier
signal.

Fig. (a) Trip Circuit (electromagnetic)

Fig. (b) Arrangement to send carrier signal

Fig. (c) Solid State logic

Fig. 11 Permissive under-reach transfer tripping scheme

(c) Permissive over-reach transfer tripping scheme:

In this scheme, the zone 2 unit is arranged to send a carrier signal to the remote end of
the protected section of the line. In this case, it is essential that the receive relay contact is
supervised by a directional relay. Figure 12(a) shows its trip circuit. Zone 2 relay is used to
monitor the receive relay contact RR. The unit at zone 2 must be a directional unit (it may
be a MHO unit) to ensure that tripping does not take place unless the fault is within the
protected section. This scheme is also known as a directional comparison scheme.
In this scheme, direct transfer tripping cannot be employed because a carrier signal
is transmitted even for an external fault which lies within the protective zone of the zone 2
relay. Figure 12(b) shows a signal sending arrangement. Figure 12(c) shows its solid state
logic. The scheme in which the second zone relay is used to transmit carrier signal to the
remote end of the protected line section is called “Overreach Transfer Scheme”. The second
zone relay is set to reach beyond the far end of the line.
Its use as a signal transmitter does not make any undesired tripping when fault occurs in
the overlapped section of the adjacent line. It is due to the fact that the second zone relay used
in this scheme is a directional unit and it also monitors the receive relay. In this scheme also,
the carrier signal is transmitted over the faulty line section which causes additional attenuation
of the carrier signal.

Fig. (a) Trip circuit

Fig. (b) Arrangement to send carrier signal

 Fig. (c) Solid State Logic

Fig. 12 Permissive over-reach transfer tripping scheme

(2) Carrier Acceleration Scheme:

In this scheme, the carrier signal is used to extend the reach of the zone 1 unit to zone
2, thereby enabling the measuring unit to see the end-zone faults. When an end-zone fault
occurs, the relay trips at that end and sends a carrier signal to the remote end. This scheme
employs a single measuring unit for zone 1 and zone 2 unit (MHO unit). The zone 1 unit is
arranged to send the carrier signal to the other end. The receive relay contact is arranged to
operate a range change relay as shown in Fig. 13(a). On receipt of the carrier signal from the
other end, the range change relay extends the reach of the mho unit from zone 1 to zone 2
immediately. Thus, the clearance of fault at the remote end is accelerated.

Fig. (a) Trip Circuit

Fig. (b) Arrangement to send carrier signal

 Fig. (c) Solid State Logic
Fig. 13 Carrier acceleration scheme
If the carrier fails, the fault will be cleared in zone 2 operating time. This scheme is not
as fast as permissive transfer tripping schemes as some time is required for the operation of the
mho unit after its range has been changed from zone 1 to zone 2. But it is more reliable
because the zone 2 relay operates only when it sees a fault in its operating zone. It does not
operate due to accidental or mal-operation of the carrier channel. In this scheme, the carrier
signal is transmitted over the faulty line. So its effectiveness depends upon the transmission of
the carrier signal during such conditions. In carrier acceleration and intertripping schemes, if
the carrier fails, end-zone faults will take a longer time to be cleared.
(3) Carrier Blocking Scheme:
In this scheme, the carrier signal is used to block the operation of the relay in case of
external faults. When a fault occurs on the protected line section, there is no transmission
of the carrier signal. The blocking schemes are particularly suited to the protection of multi-
ended lines. In this scheme the zone 3 unit looks in the reverse direction and it sends
a blocking signal to prevent the operation of zone 2 unit at the other end for an external fault.
When a fault occurs at F1 (see Fig.14), it is seen by zone 1 relays at both ends A and B.
Consequently, the fault is cleared instantaneously at both ends of the protected line. The carrier
signal is not transmitted by the reverse looking zone 3 unit because it does not see the fault at
F1.
 Fig. 14 Stepped time-distance characteristics of relays for carrier blocking scheme
When a fault occurs on F2, which is an end-zone fault, it is seen by zone 2 units at
both ends A and B and also by zone 1 unit at B. The fault is cleared by zone 1 unit at B
and instantaneously by the zone 2 unit at A. The zone 2 unit has two operating times,

Fig. (a) Trip Circuit

Fig. (b) Signal Send Arrangement

Fig. (c) Solid State Logic

Fig. 15 Carrier Blocking Scheme

one instantaneous and other delayed. The instantaneous operation is through Z 2 and
RR, see Fig. 15(a). The delayed operation is through T 2. As the fault is an internal
one, there is no transmission of the carrier signal. When a fault occurs at F3 , it is seen by the
forward looking zone 2 unit A and the reverse looking zone 3 unit at B.
It is an external fault. Normally, it has to be cleared by the zone 1 unit associated with
line BC. So to prevent the operation of zone 2 unit at A, a carrier signal is transmitted by the
reverse looking zone 3 unit at B. If this fault is not cleared instantaneously by the relays of line
BC, the zone 2 relay at A will trip after the zone 2 time lapse, as back-up protection.