Introduction to Social

Psychology
A Short Handout

Sagar Sunuwar 7/29/22

Social Psychology:

Social psychology is the scientific study of how the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of individuals are
influenced by the actual, imagined, and implied presence of others. In this definition, scientific refers
to empirical investigation using the scientific method, while the terms thoughts, feelings, and behaviors refer to
the psychological variables that can be measured in humans. Imagined and implied presences refer to the
internalized social norms that humans are influenced by even when alone

Baron, Byrne & Suls (1989) define social psychology as ....'the scientific field that seeks to understand the
nature and causes of individual behavior in social situations' (p. 6).

Social psychology is;

 the study of the manner in which the personality, attitudes, motivations, and behavior of the individual
influence and are influenced by social groups.
 Branch of psychology concerned with the personality, attitudes, motivations, and behaviour of the
individual or group in the context of social interaction.
 In psychology, social psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others the study of the manner
in which the personality, attitudes, motivations, and behavior of the individual influence and are
influenced by social groups

Social psychologists therefore deal with the factors that lead us to behave in a given way in the presence of
others, and look at the conditions under which certain behavior/actions and feelings occur. Social psychology is
to do with the way these feelings, thoughts, beliefs, intentions and goals are constructed and how such
psychological factors, in turn, influence our interactions with others.

Assumptions of Social Psychology:

• We construct our social reality

• Our social intuitions are often powerful but sometimes hazardous
• Personal attitudes and characters also shape behavior
• Social behavior is biologically rooted.
• Social psychology’s principles are applicable to everyday life and other disciplines
• Social influences shape our behavior
• All behavior occurs in a social context, even when nobody else is physically present
• A major influence on people's behavior, thought processes and emotions are other people and the society
they have created
• Social Psychology Focuses on the Behaviour of Individuals:
• Social Psychology is Study of the Causes of Social Behaviour and Thought

Social psychology is about understanding individual behavior in a social context.

History of the Social Psychology:

Social Psychology emerged as a new discipline in the 19th century. The theory of Social Psychology is a
product of the scholastic contributions of the Psychologists and Sociologists. This is the reason that Social
SAGAR SUNUWAR 1
Psychology is viewed as a sub-discipline of both Psychology and Sociology. The Psychologists have always
been focused on understanding the underlying psychological factors of human behavior such as memories,
learning, unique experiences, emotions, cognitions, attitudes and feelings. The Sociologists have always been
focused on understanding social factors of human behavior such as social experience, norms, values, customs,
social dynamics, social interactions, social influence of others and environment. Hence, the growing focus of
social scientists to understand the sociopsychological dimensions under the umbrella of a single discipline led to
the emergence of Social Psychology.
The history of Social Psychology can be explained in terms of following periods:

1. Dawn of Social Psychology (1964 – 1934)

2. Early stage of Social Psychology (1935 - 1945)
3. Expansion stage of Social Psychology (1946 – 1984)
4. Modern stage of Social Psychology (1985 – onwards)
DAWN OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (1962 – 1934)

The German Psychologist, Wilhelm Wundt (1832 – 1921) is viewed as the founder of Psychology. He was the
first Psychologist to propose in 1862 that one of the branches of Psychology should be Social Psychology. He
published many articles under the title of ‘Social Psychology’ to explain that apart from mental processes and
psychological factors, there are also social factors which shape human behavior. In spite of his widely accepted
efforts for establishing the discipline of Social Psychology, his ideas had a little influence on American Social
thinker because his literary works were not translated into English.
1898: Norman Triplet conducted the first laboratory experiment to understand the mutual impact of actions
individuals and published the results which were later on known as social facilitation.

1900: Wilhelm Wundt published the first volume to explain social behavior which later on became a
significant theory of Social Psychology (Volkerpsychologie).

1908: The textbooks of Social Psychology were published by William McDougal, a Psychologist and Edward
Ross, a Sociologist.

1920: The first Institute of Social Psychology was founded by Willy Hellpach in Germany which later on
closed in 1933 in the realm of Hitler’s power.

1924: The third volume of Social Psychology was published by Floyd Allport which covers the important
areas of modern Social Psychology.

1925: The Social-Distance Scale was developed by Edward Bogardus to measure individual’s or group’s
attitude toward another ethnic group. This scale was further advanced by Louis Thurstone in 1928 and Rensis
Likert in 1932.

1934: The known book ‘Mind, Self & Society’ was published by G.H Mead which focused on the interaction

of self and others.

EARLY STAGE OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (1935 – 1945)

SAGAR SUNUWAR 2
This early stage of Social Psychology is explained as follows:

1936: The Psychology of Social Norms was published by Muzaffar Sherif.

1938: The frustration-aggression hypothesis was introduced by John Dollard to understand the nature of
frustration leading to aggression in social interactions.

1941 to 1945: U.S government recruited many Social Psychologist to help the victims of world war and to
understand the sociopsychological factors leading to and controlling wars.
EXPANSION STAGE OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (1946 – 1984)

This expansion stage of Social Psychology is explained as follows:

1949: An experiment on attitude change and persuasion, the important areas of Social Psychology, was
conducted and findings were published by Car Hovland.

1954: Prejudice is an important topic of Social Psychology which was explored and published by Gordon
Allport.

1957: The theory of Cognitive Dissonance was published by Leon Festinger. The theory of Cognitive
Dissonance is an important area of the subject-matter of Social Psychology.

1958: ‘The Psychology of Interpersonal Relationships’ as a base for attribution theory was published by Fritz
Heider.

1963: The research findings to explore ‘the phenomena of obedience towards authoritative individuals’ were
published by Stanley Milgram.

1965: ‘The Society of Experimental Social Psychology’ was founded.

1966: ‘The European Association of Experimental Social Psychology’ was founded.

1968: Bibb Latane & John Darley presented the ‘Bystander Intervention Model’ to explain why an individual
may not help in an emergency.

1968: ‘The Society for Personality & Social Psychology’ (SPSP) was founded.

1981: A study with the title ‘The meta-analysis of gender disparities in behavior’ was conducted by Alice
Eagly along with her collaborators.

1985: Shelly Taylor & Susan Fiske published ‘Social Cognition Theory’ to elaborate cognitive perspectives

of Social Psychology.

MODERN STAGE OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (1985 – onwards)

This modern stage of Social Psychology is explained as follows:

SAGAR SUNUWAR 3
 1986: The theory of ‘Communication & Persuasion – Central & Peripheral Routes’ was published by John
Cacioppo and Richard Petty.
It explains the two dimensions of Persuasion for attitude change in Social Psychology.
1989: An article with the title of ‘Social Stigma & Self Esteem’ was published by Brenda and Jennifer
Crocker. It focuses on how an individual responds to being a target of stigmatization and discrimination.

1991: An article on the important area of Social Psychology ‘How culture shapes the self’ was published by
Shinobu Kitayama and Hazel Markus.

1995: An article with the title of ‘Stereotype Threat & Intellectual-Test Performance’ was published by
Joshua Aronson & Claude Steele. It explains how a negative stereotype shapes intellectual performance and
identity.

Nature and Scope of Social Psychology:

a. Social Psychology Applies Scientific Methods of Study

Social psychology is scientific in nature. It applies the scientific method of systematic observation, description
and measurement to the study ofthe human behaviour in social context. Social psychological studies refer to the
data being collected through direct observation or experiment. Such experiments and observation are carried out
carefully and reported in detail so that other investigators can repeat and verify the work.
The scientific socialpsychology carries out three major activities: description, explanation and prediction
ofsocial behaviours. Social psychology provides a scientific account of social behaviour based on direct
observation rather than on common beliefs. Social psychology also attempts to explain why people behave in a
particular way in a particular social situation. Such interconnected explanations ofsocial behaviours lead to
formation oftheories which help in predicting social behaviours and managing them in a desirable direction.
b. Social Psychology Studies Individuals' Thought, Feeling and Behaviour
The varied issues of the field of social psychology include- individuals' thought, feeling and behaviour.
Cognition is referred as the manner in which people process information. Social psychology studies cognition
that relates to social activities and that helps us in understanding and predicting our social behaviours. Social
psychology also studies the feelings we experience as an individual in our social lives. What we think or feel in
the social context is finally expressed through our behaviours in social interactions. Social psychology studies
these behaviours in the forms of cooperation, helping behaviour, conflict, aggression, etc.
c. Social Psychology Studies Individuals' Behaviour in Social Contexts
Social psychology studies individuals' thoughts, feelings and behaviours in the social contexts. This component
ofsocial psychology refers that our behaviour is influenced by the presence ofother people and we also influence
other people's behaviour. The social context referred to in the definition ofsocial psychology does not have to be
real or present. Even the implied or imagined presence ofothers can have important effects on individuals
(GordonAllport, 1985). However, in order to establish general principles ofhuman social behaviour, social
psychologists sometimes examine non-social factors also.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 4
In Kurt Lewin’s (1951) famous heuristic formula, behaviour can be viewed as a function of the person and the
environment, B = f (P, E), i.e. behaviour is a function of person and environment.
Consider the following questions: Why do people help others? What is jealousy? What are its main causes and
effects?
The first question is about the overt behaviour i.e. the behaviour that can be directly observed. The second is
about an emotional state. Social psychology studies both the observable behaviours; and emotions and thoughts
which cannot be observed directly. For these behaviours the stimulus situation can be Individuals: two person
situation (dyadic)
d. Causes of Social Behaviour and Thought

Social psychology studies the behaviour of individual as well as theorises about the causes and factors that might
lie behind a particular behaviour and phenomena. The following five factors that affect social interaction have
been most studied (Baron and Byron 1995)

l The action and characteristics of others.

l Basic cognitive processes: memory, reasoning, belief, ideas, judgements about others.
l Ecological Variables: direct and indirect influences of the physical environment
l The cultural context: cultural norms, membership in various groups.
l Biological aspects of human behaviour and genetic inheritance relevant to social behaviour.

Social psychology focuses on understanding the causes of social behaviour and on identifying factors that shape
our feelings, behaviour and thought in social situations. The basic assumption behind is: “Accurate and useful
information about even the most complex aspects of social behavior and social thought can be acquired through
the use of basic methods of science” (Baron & Byron 1995; 13).

Social Psychology and Other Social Science:

Social Psychology and Anthropology
Anthropology is the study of human culture. The field of anthropology and social psychology are inter related.
Human culture consists of the shared values, beliefs, and practices of a group of people. These values, beliefs,
and practices are passed down from one generation to another. Human beings are not only social
animals, they are also cultural animals. In order to understand human behaviour, social psychology requires to
understand the cultural context in which that behaviour occurs.
Social Psychology and Economics
Economics deals with the trends of production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services of a
particular society. This equally diverts the interest of social psychologists. In fact, some social psychological
theories are based on economic principles. For example, social exchange theory predicts commitment to
relationships by considering factors such as the costs, rewards, investments, and the number of alternatives
available. Economics also calls our attention to large social systems (such as the labour market or money
system) and to how these systems shape behaviour. Again, a full understanding of human behaviour requires
appreciating not just what goes on inside one person 's head and what is happening in his or her immediate
environment at the time, but also how the person's behaviour fits into the larger social system.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 5
Social Psychology and Political Science
Political science is the study of political organisations and institutions, especially governments. Social
psychologists conduct research on political behaviour. They study political issues such as voting, party
identification, liberal versus conservative views, and political advertising. They are also interested in what
makes some people better leaders than others.
Social Psychology and Sociology
Sociology is the study of human societies and the groups that form those societies. Although both sociologists
and social psychologists are interested in how people behave in societies and groups, they differ in what they
focus on. Sociologists focus on the group as a single unit, whereas social psychologists focus on the individual
members that make up the group. Some sociologists call themselves social psychologists and the exchange of
ideas and findings between the two fields that have sometimes been quite fruitful because they bring different
perspectives to the same problems.
Social Psychology and Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics includes the areas of study which connects language with society. The discipline uses theories and
methods from diverse field like psychology, sociology and anthropology to understand language in societies.
Sociolinguistics is centrally concerned with methodology. It is firmly based on the observation of actual, preferably
spontaneous speech behaviour. The studies within this field have contributed in terms of understanding language uses
and behaviours of peoples in society. The study of language contributes not only in terms of language behaviours but
the rich data helps in building theories. The field of sociolinguistics equally borrows theories from social
psychology to draw inferences about behaviours from the linguistic data.

Social Psychology and Other Branches in Psychology

Psychology is the study of human behaviour. Psychology is like a big tree that contains many branches. Social
psychology is just one of those branches, but it is closely related with some of the other branches.
Social Psychology and Biological Psychology
Every Thing that people think, do or feel involves some bodily processes such as brain activity or hormones.
Biological or physiological psychology and more recently neuroscience have focused on learning about what
happens in the brain, nervous system and other aspects of the body. Until recently, this work had little contact
with social psychology, but during the 1990s many social psychologists began looking into the biological
aspects of social behaviour and that interest has continued into the 21st century. Social neuroscience and social
psychophysiology are now the thriving fields.
Social Psychology and Clinical Psychology
Clinical psychology focuses on abnormal behaviour, whereas social psychology focuses on normal behaviour.
Social psychological theory can shed a great deal of light on so called normal behaviour. Both the branches,
social and clinical psychology, have had a long tradition of exchanging ideas and stimulating insights into each
other's fields. In particular, clinical psychologists have made good use of social psychological theories.
Social Psychology and Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive psychology is the basic study of thought processes, such as how memory works and what events
people notice. In recent decades, social psychology has borrowed heavily from cognitive psychology, especially

SAGAR SUNUWAR 6
by using their methods for measuring cognitive processes. Social psychologists study that how people think
about their social lives, how they think about other people or solve the problems in their social world.

Social Psychology and Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology is the study of how people change across their lives, from conception and birth to old age
and death. In practice, most developmental psychologists study children. Developmental psychology has been studying
that at what age children begin to show various patterns of social behaviour. Social psychologists interested in self-
regulation, emotion, gender differences, helping behaviour and antisocial behaviour sometimes look to the research on
child development to see how these patterns get started.

Social Psychology and Personality Psychology

Personality psychology focuses on important differences between individuals, as well as inner processes. For
example, some people are introverted and avoid social contact, whereas other people are extraverted and look
for social contact. Social and personality psychology have had a long and close relationship. This relationship
has been sometimes complementary (personality psychologists look inside the person, whereas social
psychologists look outside at the situation) and sometimes competitive (is it more important to understand the
person or the situation?). In recent years, the line between these two fields has become overlapping, as social
psychologists have come to recognize the importance of inner processes and personality psychologists have
come to recognize the importance of circumstances and situations.

Psychology:

Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior, according to the American Psychological
Association. Psychology is a multifaceted discipline and includes many sub-fields of study such areas as human
development, sports, health, clinical, social behavior and cognitive processes.

The word "psychology" comes from the Greek word psyche meaning "breath, spirit, soul", and the Greek word
logia meaning the study of something.

Relationship of Psychology with Other Discipline:

(i) Psychology and Physical Sciences:

Psychology is a science of experience of an individual. But experience presupposes the duality of subject and
object, both of which are real. Psychology deals with mental processes such as knowing, feeling and willing,
and in order to account for them adequately it must study the nature of physical stimuli in relation to knowing
and willing.

But there is a difference between psychology and physical sciences in the treatment of physical objects.
Physical sciences investigate the nature of physical stimuli apart from their relation to an individual. But
psychology studies the nature of the interaction between an individual with physical stimuli.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 7
Psychological science is not concerned with the nature of physical stimuli in themselves apart from their
relation to an individual. It is primarily concerned with behaviour of an individual, and indirectly concerned
with external stimuli.

Physical sciences investigate the nature of physical phenomena, and so they help psychology to explain the
experience and behaviour of the individual, which are reactions to the physical and social stimuli.

(ii) Psychology and Biology:

Psychology is a science of the experience and behaviour. However experience cannot be adequately explained
without the concomitant physiological processes. The environment acts on the mind through the sense-organs;
and the mind reacts to the environment through the muscles. The sense-organs and muscles are organs of the
body. So mental processes are closely related to bodily processes.

In fact, mental processes are regarded by many psychologists as functions of life. They are devices for better
adaptation of the psycho-physical organism to the environment. Many modern psychologists treat psychology
from the biological point of view.They hold that consciousness emerges when the innate reactions fail to adapt
the organism to the environment, and that higher mental processes are evolved in order to adjust the organism
more and more effectively to the complex environment.

The relation between psychological science and biological science is very close. Experience and behaviour of
an individual can be explained in terms of some of the basic concepts of biological science. E. R. Hess has
shown that there are close correlations between psychic and neuronal processes in human personality.

In his view, it is quite probable that there are connections between “psychic performances and the organization
of the brain.”
The subjective experience of an individual is closely related to the cerebral structure and the properties of its
structural elements. There is a close correlation between the organization of the brain and arrangements of the
contents of consciousness. It is obvious, then, that the relation between psychological and biological sciences is
very great.

(iii) Psychology and Physiology:

Psychology is a science of experience. Experiences of an individual are intimately connected with physiological
processes, especially of the nervous system. Hence, psychology studies these physiological processes in order to
adequately account for mental processes.

It does not study those physiological processes which are not related to mental processes, because it is primarily
concerned with mental processes and behaviour.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 8
Psychology is not to be confounded with physiology. Psychology deals with experiences, viz., knowing, feeling
and willing. These are connected with physiological processes which are, therefore, studied by psychology.
Psychology also deals with behaviour which is an expression of experience.

Behaviour is bodily reaction of an individual to the physical and social environment. Hence, psychology studies
the nature of the different kinds of behaviour. It does not study the nature of all kinds of physiological
processes. Physiology, on the other hand, studies the nature of all kinds of physiological processes—the
functions of all organs of the body.

The Behaviourists seek to reduce psychology to physiology which is a biological science. They do away with
the concept of mind or consciousness. Psychology deals with behaviour which is a reaction of the whole
organism to the stimulus, and not of a part of it. But physiology studies the reactions of the different parts or
organs of the body.

The relation between psychological science and physiology is so intonate that a very important discipline has
developed during the last quarter of a century known as ‘physiological psychology’.

Physiological psychology has developed with great strides by adopting the concepts and techniques from other
allied disciplines like neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, endocrinology, pharmacology, cellular physiology, and
biochemistry. Researches in the field of physiological psychology have thrown valuable light on the nature of
human personality and telic behaviour.

(iv) Psychology and Logic:

Psychology is wider in scope than Logic, because it deals with all kinds of mental processes, viz., knowing,
feeling and willing. But Logic deals with thinking only, which is a kind of knowing. It does not deal with
feeling and willing.

But Logic is not identical with the psychology of thinking, because psychology is a positive science, while
Logic is a normative science. Psychology tells us how we actually think while Logic- tells us how we ought to
think in order to arrive at truth.

There are some differences between Psychology and Logic. Psychology is concerned with the study of mental
processes, e.g., conception, judgement, and reasoning, while Logic is concerned with mental products, e.g.,
concepts, judgements and inferences.

Psychology deals with the process of reasoning or mental exploration of data whereas Logic deals with the
result of mental exploration or finding a new relationship among the data.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 9
Psychology deals with concrete mental processes, viz., conception, judgement and reasoning as attended with
feeling and willing, while Logic deals with the abstract mental products, viz., concepts, judgements and
inferences divorced from feeling and willing.

Logic, as a normative science, is based on Psychology which is a positive science. In order to know how we
ought to reason, we should know how we do reason. We should know the nature of reasoning before we can
investigate the conditions of its validity.

Psychology deals with the actual process of reasoning. Logic deals with the validity of reasoning and the
conditions of its validity. Nevertheless, the laws of logic are conditioned by the laws according to which the
human personality thinks. All types of logical thinking are limited by the limitations of the human mind.

During recent years the relation between psychological science and logic is very close. Many contemporary
psychologists make extensive use of some of the concepts of symbolic logic or mathematical logic. During the
empirical phase of the development of psychological science it has been more concerned with experiments.

However, recently it has been making use of the concepts and techniques of symbolic logic for theoretical
systematization of psychological science. It is further expected with the systematization of the theory of
psychological science it would make more extensive use of symbolic logic.

(v) Psychology and Philosophy:

Philosophy has two parts epistemology and ontology. Psychology is related to epistemology. Psychology
enquires into the nature of knowing, feeling, and willing. It deals with knowing as a fact, and the nature and
development of knowledge of an individual mind.

It is concerned with the validity of knowledge. Psychology assumes the possibility of knowledge and merely
traces its growth and development in an individual mind.

But Epistemology enquires into the conditions under which knowledge is possible, and deals with the validity
of knowledge.

It seeks to answer the following questions:

(1) Is knowledge of reality possible?

(2) Does knowledge represent reality?

(3) What is the source of true knowledge? Is it experience or reason or both?

(4) What are the conditions of valid knowledge?

SAGAR SUNUWAR 10
(5) What is the range, extent, or limit of knowledge?

Thus Psychology is the basis of Epistemology. It enquires into the nature of knowing as a fact. Epistemology,
on the other hand, enquires into the validity of knowledge. In order to enquire into the validity of knowledge,
we should know how we actually know.

Locke tried to solve the problems of epistemology by the psychological analysis of the process of knowing. But
Kant tried to solve them by the critical method, and tried to find out the a priori conditions of knowledge, which
are its presuppositions.

Psychology is related to Ontology or Metaphysics. Psychology deals with knowing as a fact. Epistemology
enquires into the conditions of the validity of knowledge. Metaphysics or Ontology enquires into the ultimate
nature of the reality that is known.

Metaphysics or Ontology deals with the ultimate nature of the self, the external world, and God. Psychology is
not concerned with God at all. It assumes the reality of the mind and the external world, and the mind’s capacity
to know the world. Metaphysics proves the reality of the self, the world, and the knowledge of the world by the
self. Metaphysics tests the validity of the fundamental assumptions of psychology.

Psychology originated from philosophy like every other science. However, as psychology developed as an
autonomous science, it got itself separated from philosophy. Recently it has discovered that there are certain
theoretical problems in psychological science which are of speculative nature.

These speculative problems of psychological science fall within the range of philosophy. Philosophical
psychology deals with those problems in psychological science which have philosophical overtones.

(vi) Psychology and Sociology:

Psychology deals with the behaviour pattern of an individual in relation to the environment which is physical as
well as social. The external world or light, sound, taste, smell, heat, cold, etc., constitute the physical
environment. Parents, relatives, friends, enemies, playmates, companions and all the people with whom an
individual comes into contact and interacts constitute his social environment.

The individual mind grows and develops through interaction with the society. He develops his personality
through social intercourse. There is constant interaction between the individual and the society.

Sociology deals with the nature, origin, and development of society. It investigates into manners, customs and
institutions of a society in all its stages of development from the savage to the civilized state. Hence,
psychology is intimately related to sociology.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 11
Sociology is primarily concerned with the study of the interrelationships between human personalities in social
groups. It is concerned with the study of the bonds which inter-relate individuals in society. The nature of inter-
personal relationships has become quite intelligible through investigations in the field of psychology.

It is obvious, then, that there is considerable overlapping between the provinces of psychology and sociology.
However, in spite of the fact that there is close relation between psychology and sociology there are certain
points of difference between the two.

Psychology is primarily concerned with the experience and behaviour of an individual. Sociology, on the other
hand, is concerned with the role that an individual plays in society.

Social psychology deals with the collective behaviour. It investigates the peculiar characteristics of the
individuals which they acquire as members of groups. It studies the behaviour of the crowd and the mob. It
studies the psychological principles of social organisation. It is the meeting ground of psychology and
sociology.

Psychology, sociology and social psychology are the various branches of social science. Psychology and
sociology are concerned with the study of behaviour of individuals in social setting. They study behaviour from
different points of view.

(vii) Psychology and Education:

Psychology is the science of the behaviour of the individual in relation to the environment. Education is the
science of unfolding the powers, of the pupil and moulding his character and behaviour in such a manner that he
becomes a useful and well-adjusted member of the community.

Education is the process of developing the powers of the individual harmoniously, and adjusting him to the
social environment by modifying his behaviour. Therefore, educational psychology applies the general
principles of psychology to the practical needs of education. It gives a psychological foundation to education
and makes it sound.

Education implies two agents—viz., the teacher and the pupil. The teacher should know the mind of the pupil.
Otherwise, he cannot impart appropriate education to him. There are special characteristics of the child mind
which differ according to different stages of its development.

A teacher should utilize the principles of psychology to develop the child’s powers of observation, attention,
memory, imagination, thinking, emotion, volition, and character.

Psychology helps an educationist by telling him of the innate legacy of the child, of the laws of his mental
development, of the effect of the environment on his mind. It helps an educationist by telling him how one

SAGAR SUNUWAR 12
person acts on another, how the group life influences the individual, and how the corporate life of a school
moulds the personality of a child.

It helps an educationist by telling him how knowledge systems are built up, and how new knowledge is received
and assimilated into the system of knowledge already formed.

During recent years psychological techniques are employed for evoking creative behaviour. Jackson and
Messick maintain that human invention results from the interaction between the creative person, his product of
creativity, and the responses of the environment to it.

Psychological principles have been very successfully applied to educational designs. “Man has himself created
the human civilization through his educational designs.” It is evident, then, that the relation between psychology
and education is very close.
Education is a normative science. It lays down the end of education. Psychology cannot help the science of
education in defining its end. But it can point out the means of realizing the end of education. It studies mental
processes, e.g., motives, emotions, and sentiments of the child, the adolescent and the adult.

Therefore, it can help the education of the child, the adolescent and the adult. It studies the behaviour of the
individual and the group. Therefore, it can help the science of education which seeks to stimulate the
intellectual growth of a learner.

Unit II. The self and Social Perception

Self:
The self is a unique individual who exists as the object of its own reflective consciousness. Because the self is a
reference made by a subject to another subject, it is necessarily subjective.
It refers to how someone thins about, evaluates or perceives themselves. It is the ideas we have about who we
are- physically, emotionally, socially and spiritually.
In psychology, the notion of the self refers to a person’s experience as a single, unitary, autonomous being that is
separate from others, experienced with continuity through time and place. The experience of the self includes
consciousness of one’s physicality as well as one’s inner character and emotional life.

When someone says, 'Tell me about yourself,' how do you respond? When you look at a photo of you and your
friends, can you pick out which one is you? What makes you different from the other people around you?
All of these questions deal with the self. In psychology, the self is the idea that you are separate and different
from other people. At the most basic level, recognizing that you have a self involves realizing that you inhabit a
different body than other people. But of course, there's much more involved in constructing your sense of self.
All of our emotions, behaviors, and thoughts go into determining who we are.
Experiences, values, and beliefs are an important part of constructing a concept of who you are as well. Even
things like what you do for a living, what music you listen to, and how you like to relax help determine what
makes you, you.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 13
People have two ways of experiencing themselves. The first is as an active agent who influences and is
influenced by the world. This type of self is commonly referred to as the I and is concerned with how people
perceive themselves as doers. The second function is as a source of reflection and evaluation. People in this type
of self focus on their physical and psychological characteristics to evaluate the combination of skills, traits,
attitudes, opinions, and feelings that they may have. This type of self is known as the me, and it focuses on how
people observe themselves from the outside looking in, similar to how people monitor and consider the
competence and character of others.
Factors Affecting Self-Concept
 Altered Health Status
 Experience
 Developmental considerations
 Culture
 Internal and external resources
 History of success and failure
 Crisis or life stressors
 Aging, illness, or trauma
Components of Self
a. Self-Image (Who am I)
It is the way we see ourselves.
Types of Self Image:
1) Physical Description: I’m tall, have blue eyes...etc.
2) Social Roles: We are all social beings whose behavior is shaped to some extent by the roles we play. Such
roles as student, housewife, or member of the football team not only help others to recognize us but also help us
to know what is expected of us in various situations.
3) Personal Traits: These are a third dimension of our self-descriptions. “I’m impulsive...I’m generous...I tend to
worry a lot”...etc.
4) Existential Statements (abstract ones): These can range from "I’m a child of the universe" to "I’m a human
being" to "I’m a spiritual being"...etc.
b. Self-Esteem (How well do I like myself)
It refers to the extent to which we like or approve ourselves or how much we value ourselves.
Types of Self-Esteem:
a. High Self Esteem i.e. we have a positive view of ourselves. This tends to lead to
◦ Confidence in our own abilities

SAGAR SUNUWAR 14
 ◦ Self acceptance
◦ Not worrying about what others think
◦ Optimism
b. Low Self Esteem i.e. we have a negative view of ourselves. This tends to lead to
◦ Lack of confidence
◦ Want to be/look like someone else
◦ Always worrying what others might think
◦ Pessimism
Argyle (2008) believes there are 4 major factors that influence self esteem.
1) The Reaction of Others. If people admire us, flatter us, seek out our company, listen attentively and
agree with us we tend to develop a positive self-image. If they avoid us, neglect us, tell us things about
ourselves that we don’t want to hear we develop a negative self-image.
2) Comparison with Others. If the people we compare ourselves with (our reference group) appear to
be more successful, happier, richer, better looking than ourselves we tend to develop a negative self
image BUT if they are less successful than us our image will be positive.
3) Social Roles. Some social roles carry prestige e.g. doctor, airline pilot, TV. presenter, premiership
footballer and this promotes self-esteem. Other roles carry stigma. E.g. prisoner, mental hospital patient,
refuse collector or unemployed person.
4) Identification. Roles aren’t just “out there.” They also become part of our personality i.e. we identity
with the positions we occupy, the roles we play and the groups we belong to.
c. Ideal Self:
It is the self we would like to be. According to Carl Rogers, self image and one’s ideal self can be congruent
and incongruent: Congruence between the self-image and ideal self means that there is overlap between the
two. This condition is not impossible but difficult to achieve. Incongruence between the self-image and ideal
self means there is a discrepancy between two.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 15
Functions of Self:
The Executive Function
The executive function of the self refers to the way that our concept of self helps us regulate our behavior. In
other words, the executive function of the self is to keep us on track.
Think about it like this: Jane loves her friend Carrie's necklace and really wants it for herself. But, the necklace
belongs to Carrie.
There are two aspects of Jane's idea of herself that keep Jane from taking the necklace:
1. Jane realizes that she is a different person from Carrie. Without understanding this most basic element of the
self, Jane might not even realize that Carrie owns the necklace and Jane doesn't. In other words, if Jane doesn't
realize that she and Carrie are separate people, she also won't recognize that they own separate things, like the
necklace.
2. Jane has a set of values and goals for herself, and stealing her friend's necklace is against those values and
goals.
Both of these things are part of the executive function of Jane's self. That is, they help guide her behavior and
decisions.
The Organizational Function
Besides the executive function, there's also the organizational function of the self, which is basically just the
way we organize information. Our knowledge of ourselves helps us interpret and find patterns in the world
around us.
For example, if Ram has a lot of success with women, then he might begin to notice a pattern that women like
him. As a result, he might view himself as a stud. He has taken knowledge of the world around him, noticed a
pattern, and integrated it into his view of himself. The organizational function of his self is now working.
Say that Mitchell is Irish. Since this is likely also part of his self-image, he might begin to notice things in his
life that he has in common with other people from Ireland. He begins to form an opinion about what it means to
be Irish. Again, this is the organizational function of Mitchell's self.
Social Perception:

SAGAR SUNUWAR 16
Social perception refers to the ability to make accurate interpretations and inferences about other people from
their general physical appearance, verbal, and nonverbal patterns of communication. Things like facial
expressions, tone of voice, hand gestures, and body position or movement are all ques people with higher levels
of social perception pick up on to work out what other people are thinking, feeling or are likely to do next.
(Aronson et al, 2010) It is the ability of people to create an impression about others or form a judgment about other
individuals or groups. Drawing conclusions about a person from certain observations can also come under social
perception. perception refers to identifying and utilizing social cues to make judgments about social roles, rules,
relationships, context, or the characteristics (e.g., trustworthiness) of others. This domain also includes social
knowledge, which refers to one's knowledge of social roles, norms, and schemas surrounding social situations and
interactions. People learn about others' feelings and emotions by picking up information they gather from physical
appearance, verbal, and nonverbal communication. Facial expressions, tone of voice, hand gestures, and body
position or movement are a few examples of ways people communicate without words. A real-world example of
social perception is understanding that others disagree with what one said when one sees them roll their eyes.
There are four main components of social perception: observation, attribution, integration, and confirmation.

Factors that influence Social Perception:

Perception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory perceives in order to give
meaning to their environment. However, what one perceives can be substantially different from objective
reality. People look at the same thing but perceive differently. A number of factors operate to shape and
sometimes distort perceptions. The factors that influence perceptions of a person are as follows:

1.Factors in the Perceiver

Several characteristics of the perceiver can affect perception. When an individual looks at a target and attempts
to interpret what he or she, that interpretation is heavily influenced by the personal characteristics of the
individual perceiver. These factors are inside a person. Among the internal factors, the most important are:
a. Attitudes: Suppose, an OB teacher who has negative attitudes towards Nepali(language) speaking and
students sitting on the last bench would neglect even the genuine questions raised by them.
b. Motives: It plays an important role in determining what a person perceives. A person’s most urgent needs and
desires at any given time can influence perception.
c. Interests: We perceive those things quickly for which we have a deep interest. For example, an imperfect
faced person will be perceived quickly by a plastic surgeon as compared to a dentist.
d. Experience: Successful experiences enhance and boost up the perceptive ability and lead to accuracy in

SAGAR SUNUWAR 17
perception and vice versa.
e. Expectations: People see what they expect to see. People who accept themselves are more likely to be able to
see favorable aspects of other people. The teacher would notice the rough behavior of a student on the last
bench as compared to the first benchers.
2. Factors in the Target
Characteristics in the target that is being observed can affect what is perceived. Physical appearance plays a big
role in our perception of others. Extremely attractive or unattractive individuals are more likely to be noticed in
a group than ordinary liking individuals. Motion, sound, size, and other attributes of a target shape the way we
see it. They are factors that are within the things to be perceived. Important ones are:
(i) Novelty (ii Motion (iii) sounds (iv) Size (v) Background (vi) Proximity (vii) Similarity.
Out of those seven factors, size, motion, and novelty are already explained in the topic principles of perceptual
selection. So, here we discuss the rest of the factors only.
a. Sounds: Louder and frequent is the sound easier and quicker will be the perception and vice versa.
b.Background.
c.Proximity (nearness): The things that are proximate to time or physical settings are perceived easily and
quickly
d.Similarity: If things are similar to us, we perceive it easily and quickly.For example, an army person perceives
an army staff easily.

3. Factors in the Situation:

The situation in which the interaction between the perceiver and the target takes place has an influence on the
perceiver’s impression of the target. The strength of the situational cues also affects social perception. Some
situations provide strong cues as to appropriate behavior. In these situations, we assume that the individual’s
behavior can be accounted for by the situation and that it may not reflect the individual’s disposition. This is the
discounting principle in social perception.
a. Time: It also affects perception. Students who read OB book early in the morning understand perceive) easily
and quickly. They perceive the OB book quickly in a book store at the time of examination.
b. Work setting: Suppose, if the OB class is small and peaceful, the students perceive the subject easily and
quickly and vice versa.
c. Social setting: It also affects perception. For example, a lady student wearing a miniskirt in a disco will not be
perceived but the same lady with a miniskirt in OB class at Kirtipur will be perceived quickly.

Non-Verbal Communication:

Nonverbal communication is the process of communication through sending and receiving wordless (mostly
visual) signals between people. Nonverbal communication encompasses of voice (paralanguage), touch,
distance (proxemics), and physical environments/appearance.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 18
 When the other person or group is absorbing the message, they are focused on the entire environment around
them, meaning the other person uses all five senses in the interaction: 83% sight, 11% hearing, 3% smell, 2%
touch and 1% taste.
Types of Non-Verbal Communication:
a. First Impression
It is the way a person portrays themselves on the first encounter to the observer. It takes just one-tenth of a
second for someone to judge and make their first impression. First impressions are lasting impressions. There
can be positive and negative impressions.
b. Posture
It refers to the position of the body by itself and in relation to others. There are many different types of
body positioning to portray certain postures, including slouching, towering, legs spread, jaw thrust,
shoulders forward, and arm crossing. Posture can be used to determine a participant's degree of attention or
involvement, the difference in status between communicators, and the level of fondness a person has for the
other communicator, depending on body "openness".
c. Clothing
It is the items worn on the body. The types of clothing that an individual wears conveys nonverbal cues
about his or her personality, background and financial status, and how others will respond to them. An
individual's clothing style can demonstrate their culture, mood, level of confidence, interests, age, authority,
values/beliefs, and their sexual identity.
d. Gesture
It is the movement of the head, limbs, eyes, face. Gestures can also be categorized as either speech independent
or speech related.
1. Speech-independent gestures are dependent upon culturally accepted interpretation and have a direct
verbal translation. Eg: A wave or a peace sign
2. Speech-related gestures are used in parallel with verbal speech; this form of nonverbal communication is
used to emphasize the message that is being communicated. Speech-related gestures are intended to
provide supplemental information to a verbal message such as pointing to an object of discussion.
e. Distance:
It refers to the amount of space we maintain between ourselves and the persons with whom we are
communicating. It expresses the degree of intimacy and individual’s acceptance.
f. Eye Contact
It is the direction and focus of the person’s eyes. It is the primary nonverbal way of indicating engagement,
interest, attention and involvement. Studies have found that people use their eyes to indicate interest.

Unit III. Social Cognition and Information Process

Social Cognition

SAGAR SUNUWAR 19
Social cognition is a sub-topic of social psychology that focuses on how people process, store, and apply
information about other people and social situations. It focuses on the role that cognitive processes play in our
social interactions.

Social cognition involves:

 The processes involved in perceiving other people and how we come to know about the people in the
world around us.
 The study of the mental processes that are involved in perceiving, remembering, thinking about, and
attending to the other people in our social world.
 The reasons we attend to certain information about the social world, how this information is stored in
memory, and how it is then used to interact with other people.

Using a social-cognitive perspective, researchers can study a wide range of topics including attitudes, person-
perception, prejudice, stereotypes, self-concept, discrimination, persuasion, decision-making, and other areas.
Examples

Imagine that you are getting ready to go on a blind date. Not only do you worry about the impression and
signals that you are sending to the other person, but you are also concerned with interpreting the signals given
by your date. How do you form an impression of this person? What meaning do you read into the other person's
behavior?

Development
Social cognition develops in childhood and adolescence. As children grow, they become more aware not only of
their own feelings, thoughts, and motives but also of the emotions and mental states of others. Children become
more expert at understanding how others feel, learning how to respond in social situations, engaging
in prosocial behaviors, and taking the perspective of others.

While there are many different theories that look at how social cognition develops, one of the most popular
focuses on the work of the psychologist Jean Piaget. According to Piaget, a child's cognitive development goes
through a series of stages.

 During the earliest stages of development, children are very egocentric. They see the world from their
own perspective and struggle to think about how other people may view the world.
 As children grow older, children become increasingly expert at perspective-taking and have an increased
ability to think about how and why people act the way they do in social situations.

More recently, research has provided evidence that children develop the ability to think about the perspectives
of other people at an earlier age than Piaget previously believed. Even young preschoolers exhibit some ability
to think about how other people might view a situation.

One of the most important developments in the early emergence of social cognition is the growth of a theory of
mind. A theory of mind refers to a person's ability to understand and think about the mental states of other
people.

It is the emergence of a theory of mind that is critical to being able to consider the thoughts, motives, desires,
needs, feelings, and experiences that other people may have. Being able to think about how these mental states
can influence how people act is critical to forming social impressions and explaining how and why people do
the things that they do.
SAGAR SUNUWAR 20
Cultural Differences

Social psychologists have also found that there are often important cultural differences in social cognition.
When looking at a social situation, any two people may have wildly different interpretations. Each person
brings a unique background of experiences, knowledge, social influences, feelings, and cultural variations.

Some researchers have found that there are also collective, cultural influences that can affect how people
interpret social situations. The same social behavior in one cultural setting may have a very different meaning
and interpretation if it was to take place or be observed in another culture.

As people interpret behavior, extract meaning from the interaction, and then act based upon their beliefs about
the situation, they are then further reinforcing and reproducing the cultural norms that influence their social
cognitions.

Social Cognitive Theory

Social cognitive theory is a learning theory developed by Albert Bandura. This theory emphasizes that the
environment and cognitive factors influence behavior. The social cognitive theory explains how people acquire
and maintain certain behavioral patterns, while also providing the basis for intervention strategies

Reciprocal Determinism

Bandura (1990) proposed the concept of reciprocal determinism, in which cognitive processes, behavior, and
context all interact each other. Each factor influence and are influenced by the others simultaneously. Cognitive
processes refer to all characteristics previously learned, including beliefs, expectations, and personality
characteristics. Behavior refers to anything that we do that may be rewarded or punished. Finally, the context in
which the behavior occurs refers to the environment or situation, which includes rewarding/punishing stimuli.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 21
 Figure 4.4.1. Bandura proposed the idea of reciprocal determinism: Our behavior, cognitive processes, and
situational context all influence each other.

Consider, for example, that you’re at a festival and one of the attractions is bungee jumping from a bridge. Do
you do it? In this example, the behavior is bungee jumping. Cognitive factors that might influence this behavior
include your beliefs and values, and your past experiences with similar behaviors. Finally, context refers to the
reward structure for the behavior. According to reciprocal determinism, all of these factors are in play.

Observational Learning

A major component of social cognitive theory is observational learning. Bandura’s key contribution to social
cognitive theory was the idea that much learning is vicarious. We learn by observing someone else’s behavior
and its consequences, which Bandura called observational learning. Just as we learn individual behaviors, we
learn new behavior patterns when we see them performed by other people or models. Bandura suggested that
whether we choose to imitate a model’s behavior depends on whether we see the model reinforced or punished.
Through observational learning, we come to learn what behaviors are acceptable and rewarded in our culture,
and we also learn to inhibit deviant or socially unacceptable behaviors by seeing what behaviors are punished.

We can see the principles of reciprocal determinism at work in observational learning. For example, personal
factors determine which behaviors in the environment a person chooses to imitate, and those environmental
events in turn are processed cognitively according to other personal factors.

Observational learning occurs through a sequence of four processes:

1. Attentional processes account for the information that is selected for observation in the environment.
People might select to observe real-life models or models they encounter via media.
2. Retention processes involve remembering the observed information so it can be successfully recalled
and reconstructed later.
3. Production processes reconstruct the memories of the observations so what was learned can be applied
in appropriate situations. In many cases, this doesn’t mean the observer will replicate the observed
action exactly, but that they will modify the behavior to produce a variation that fits the context.
4. Motivational processes determine whether or not an observed behavior is performed based on whether
that behavior was observed to result in desired or adverse outcomes for the model. If an observed
behavior was rewarded, the observer will be more motivated to reproduce it later. However, if a
behavior was punished in some way, the observer would be less motivated to reproduce it. Thus, social
cognitive theory cautions that people don’t perform every behavior they learn through modeling.

Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy is our level of confidence in our own abilities, developed through our social experiences. Self-
efficacy affects how we approach challenges and reach goals. In observational learning, self-efficacy is a
cognitive factor that affects which behaviors we choose to imitate as well as our success in performing those
behaviors.

People who have high self-efficacy believe that their goals are within reach, have a positive view of challenges
seeing them as tasks to be mastered, develop a deep interest in and a strong commitment to the activities in
which they are involved, and quickly recover from setbacks. Conversely, people with low self-efficacy avoid
challenging tasks because they doubt their ability to be successful, tend to focus on failure and negative
SAGAR SUNUWAR 22
outcomes, and lose confidence in their abilities if they experience setbacks. Feelings of self-efficacy can be
specific to certain situations. For instance, a student might feel confident in her ability in English class but much
less so in math class.

Locus of Control

Julian Rotter (1966) proposed the concept of locus of control, another cognitive factor that affects learning and
personality development. Distinct from self-efficacy, which involves our belief in our own abilities, locus of
control refers to our beliefs about the power we have over our lives. In Rotter’s view, people possess either an
internal or an external locus of control. Those of us with an internal locus of control (“internals”) tend to believe
that most of our outcomes are the direct result of our efforts. Those of us with an external locus of control
(“externals”) tend to believe that our outcomes are outside of our control. Externals see their lives as being
controlled by other people, luck, or chance. For example, say you didn’t spend much time studying for your
psychology test and went out to dinner with friends instead. When you receive your test score, you see that you
earned a D. If you possess an internal locus of control, you would most likely admit that you failed because you
didn’t spend enough time studying and decide to study more for the next test. On the other hand, if you possess
an external locus of control, you might conclude that the test was too hard and not bother studying for the next
test, because you figure you will fail it anyway. Researchers have found that people with an internal locus of
control perform better academically, achieve more in their careers, are more independent, are healthier, are
better able to cope, and are less depressed than people who have an external locus of control (Benassi, Sweeney,
& Durfour, 1988; Lefcourt, 1982; Maltby, Day, & Macaskill, 2007; Whyte, 1977, 1978, 1980).

Figure 4.4.5. Locus of control occurs on a continuum from internal to external.

Self-Regulation

“Self-regulation is the process of identifying a goal or set of goals and, in pursuing these goals, using both
internal (e.g., thoughts and affect) and external (e.g., responses of anything or anyone in the environment)
feedback to maximize goal attainment.”. Self-regulation is also known as will power. When we talk about will
power, we tend to think of it as the ability to delay gratification. For example, Bettina’s teenage daughter made
strawberry cupcakes, and they looked delicious. However, Bettina forfeited the pleasure of eating one, because
she is training for a 5K race and wants to be fit and do well in the race. Would you be able to resist getting a
small reward now in order to get a larger reward later? This is the question investigated in his now-classic
marshmallow test.

Limitation of Social Cognition Theory:

 The theory assumes that changes in the environment will automatically lead to changes in the person,
when this may not always be true.
SAGAR SUNUWAR 23
  The theory is loosely organized, based solely on the dynamic interplay between person, behavior, and
environment. It is unclear the extent to which each of these factors into actual behavior and if one is
more influential than another.
 The theory heavily focuses on processes of learning and in doing so disregards biological and hormonal
predispositions that may influence behaviors, regardless of past experience and expectations.
 The theory does not focus on emotion or motivation, other than through reference to past
experience. There is minimal attention on these factors.
 The theory can be broad-reaching, so can be difficult to operationalize in entirety.

Heuristics
A heuristic is a mental shortcut that allows people to solve problems and make judgments quickly and
efficiently with little mental efforts.
Heuristics are created due to previous experiences, and people often give these mental reflexes names such as
common sense, intuition, or prejudice.
Types of Heuristics

Some common heuristics include the availability heuristic and the representativeness heuristic.

Availability Heuristics

It is defined as mental shortcut that occurs when people make judgments about the probability of events by the
ease with which examples come to mind.

The availability heuristic involves making decisions based upon how easy it is to bring something to mind.
When you are trying to make a decision, you might quickly remember a number of relevant examples. Since
these are more readily available in your memory, you will likely judge these outcomes as being more common
or frequently-occurring.

For example, if you are thinking of flying and suddenly think of a number of recent airline accidents, you might
feel like air travel is too dangerous and decide to travel by car instead. Because those examples of air disasters
came to mind so easily, the availability heuristic leads you to think that plane crashes are more common than
they really are.

Representative Heuristics

It is defined as the mental shortcut used when judging a situation based on how similar the scenarios are to the
prototypes the person holds in his or her mind.

The representativeness heuristic involves making a decision by comparing the present situation to the most
representative mental prototype. When you are trying to decide if someone is trustworthy, you might compare
aspects of the individual to other mental examples you hold. A sweet older woman might remind you of your
grandmother, so you might immediately assume that she is kind, gentle and trustworthy.

If you meet someone who is into yoga, spiritual healing and aromatherapy you might immediately assume that
she works as a holistic healer rather than something like a school teacher or nurse. Because her traits match up

SAGAR SUNUWAR 24
to your mental prototype of a holistic healer, the representativeness heuristic causes you to classify her as more
likely to work in that profession.

Affect Heuristics

It can be defined as the mental shortcut which uses emotion to influence the decision.

The affect heuristic involves making choices that are influenced by the emotions that an individual is
experiencing at that moment. For example, research has shown that people are more likely to see decisions as
having benefits and lower risks when they are in a positive mood. Negative emotions, on the other hand, lead
people to focus on the potential downsides of a decision rather than the possible benefits

How Heuristics can lead to bias??

While heuristics can speed up our problem and the decision-making process, they can introduce errors. As you
saw in the examples above, heuristics can lead to inaccurate judgments about how common things occur and
about how representative certain things may be.

Just because something has worked in the past does not mean that it will work again, and relying on an existing
heuristic can make it difficult to see alternative solutions or come up with new ideas.
Heuristics can also contribute to things such as stereotypes and prejudice.
Because people use mental shortcuts to classify and categorize people, they often overlook more relevant
information and create stereotyped categorizations that are not in tune with reality.
Common Uses
Heuristics play important roles in both problem-solving and decision-making. When we are trying to solve a
problem or make a decision, we often turn to these mental shortcuts when we need a quick solution.
Psychologists have suggested a few different theories for the reasons that we rely on heuristics.

 Attribute substitution: Theories suggest people substitute simpler but related questions in place of more
complex and difficult questions.
 Effort reduction: According to this theory, people utilize heuristics as a type of cognitive laziness.
Heuristics reduce the mental effort required to make choices and decisions.
 Fast and frugal: Still other theories argue that heuristics are actually more accurate than they are biased.
In other words, we use heuristics because they are fast and usually correct.

The world is full of information, yet our brains are only capable of processing a certain amount. If you tried to
analyze every single aspect of every situation or decision, you would never get anything done.

In order to cope with the tremendous amount of information we encounter and to speed up the decision-making
process, the brain relies on these mental strategies to simplify things so we don't have to spend endless amounts
of time analyzing every detail.

You probably make hundreds or even thousands of decisions every day. What should you have for breakfast?
What should you wear today? Should you drive or take the bus? Should you go out for drinks later with your
co-workers? The list of decisions you make each day is endless and varied. Fortunately, heuristics allow you to
make such decisions with relative ease without a great deal of agonizing.

For example, when trying to decide if you should drive or ride the bus to work, you might suddenly remember
that there is road construction along the bus route. You realize that this might slow the bus and cause you to be
SAGAR SUNUWAR 25
late for work. So you leave earlier and drive to work on an alternate route. Heuristics allow you to think through
the possible outcomes quickly and arrive at a solution.

Schemas:
It can be defined as:
a. A cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information.
b. A cognitive structure that serves as a framework for one’s knowledge about people, places, objects, and
events.
Examples of Schemas

For example, when a child is young, they may develop a schema for a dog. They know a dog walks on four
legs, is hairy, and has a tail. When the child goes to the zoo for the first time and sees a tiger, they may initially
think the tiger is a dog as well. From the child’s perspective, the tiger fits their schema for a dog.

The child’s parents may explain that this is a tiger, a wild animal. It is not a dog because it doesn’t bark, it
doesn’t live in people's houses, and it hunts for its food. After learning the differences between a tiger and a
dog, the child will modify their existing dog schema and create a new tiger schema.

As the child grows older and learns more about animals, they will develop more animal schemas. At the same
time, their existing schemas for animals like dogs, birds, and cats will be modified to accommodate any new
information they learn about animals. This is a process that continues into adulthood for all kinds of knowledge.

Types of Schemas

There are many kinds of schemas that assist us in understanding the world around us, the people we interact
with, and even ourselves. Types of schemas include:

 Object schemas: It can be defined as the type of schema which helps to understand and interpret non-
living objects, including what different objects are and how they work. For example, we have a schema
for what a door is and how to use it. Our door schema may also include subcategories like sliding doors,
screen doors, and revolving doors.
 Person schemas: It can be defined as the type of schema which helps us to understand specific people.
For example: one’s schema for their significant other will include the way the individual looks, the way
they act, what they like and don’t like, and their personality traits.
 Social schemas: It can be defined as the type of schema which helps us understand how to behave in
different social situations. For example, if an individual plans to see a movie, their movie schema
provides them with a general understanding of the type of social situation to expect when they go to the
movie theater.
 Event schemas: It can be defined as the type of schemas which encompasses the sequence of actions and
behaviors one expects during a given event. For example, when an individual goes to see a movie, they
anticipate going to the theater, buying their ticket, selecting a seat, silencing their mobile phone,
watching the movie, and then exiting the theater.
 Self-schemas: It can be defined as the type of schemas which helps us to understand ourselves. They
focus on what we know about who we are now, who we were in the past, and who we could be in the
future.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 26
  Role schemas: It can be defined as the type of schemas which encompass our expectations of how a
person in a specific social role will behave. For example, we expect a waiter to be warm and welcoming.
While not all waiters will act that way, our schema sets our expectations of each waiter we interact with.

Unit IV. Attitude

Attitude:

It can be defined as:

 Set of emotions, beliefs, and behaviors toward a particular object, person, thing, or event.

 Evaluations of ideas, events, objects, or people.

Definitions: The concept ‘attitude’ is defined as follows:

‘An attitude is a negative or positive evaluation of an object which influences human’s behavior towards
that object’. – Michael Hogg

‘An attitude is a learned predisposition to respond in a favorable or unfavorable manner towards people,
an object, an idea or a situation’. – Martin Fishbein

Explanation: We come across different people, ideas, things and situations. We may form a negative or a
positive view of them in our mind. For example, if I think that junk foods are unhealthy as it has high sugar
and fats, It means I have a negative attitude towards junk food consumption.

Attitude is an evaluation of a thing in terms of liking or disliking, favoring or disfavoring, positive or

negative and pro or anti.

Different people can have different attitudes towards a same thing or idea. For example, some people view
internet’s use for students as a positive thing as they think that it helps the students in their studies. But some
people also view internet’s use for students as a negative thing as they think it wastes a lot of their time in
useless activities on the internet. This negative or positive evaluation of an object is known as attitude.

Similarly, the idea of legalizing abortion is viewed as good by some people as they think it is way to get rid of
the unintended birth. But the same idea of legalizing abortion is viewed as bad by some people as they think
that the fetus baby has the right to life.

As attitude is a positive or negative evaluation of an object, it influences individual’s behavior towards that
object in a favorable or unfavorable manner. For example, if someone has a negative attitude towards junk
foods consumption, he will avoid eating junk foods and will advise others not to eat junk foods. Similarly, if a
student has a positive attitude towards the use of internet for studies, he will use internet to read and download
study material.

For example, you may hold a positive attitude toward recycling. This attitude should result in positive feelings
toward recycling (such as “It makes me feel good to recycle” or “I enjoy knowing that I make a small difference
in reducing the amount of waste that ends up in landfills”). Certainly, this attitude should be reflected in our

SAGAR SUNUWAR 27
behavior: You actually recycle as often as you can. Finally, this attitude will be reflected in favorable thoughts
(for example, “Recycling is good for the environment” or “Recycling is the responsible thing to do”).

Attitudes are often the result of experience or upbringing, and they can have a powerful influence over
behavior. Attitudes are generally positive or negative, but they can also be uncertain at times. It is a generalized
tendency to think or act in a certain way in respect of some object or situation, often accompanied by feelings. It
is a learned predisposition to respond in a consistent manner with respect to a given object.

Structure of Attitudes
Attitudes structure can be described in terms of three components.

o Affective component: this involves a person’s feelings / emotions about the attitude object. For example:
“I am scared of spiders”.
o Behavioral (or conative) component: the way the attitude we have influences on how we act or behave.
For example: “I will avoid spiders and scream if I see one”.

o Cognitive component: this involves a person’s belief / knowledge about an attitude object. For example:
“I believe spiders are dangerous”.

This model is known as the ABC model of attitudes.

Affective component The affective component of attitudes refers to your feelings or emotions linked to an
attitude object. It deals with feelings or emotions that are brought to the surface about something, such as fear or
hate. Affective responses influence attitudes in a number of ways. It is related to the statement which affects
another person.Using the above example, someone might have the attitude that they love all babies because they
are cute or that they hate smoking because it is harmful to health. For example, many people are afraid/scared of
spiders. So this negative affective response is likely to cause you to have a negative attitude towards spiders.

Behavioral component The behavioral component of attitudes refers to the way the attitude we have influences
how we act or behave. Behavior component of an attitude consists of a person’s tendencies to behave’ in a
particular way toward an object. It refers to that part of attitude which reflects the intention of a person in the
short-run or long run.

Using the above example, the behavioral attitude maybe- ‘I cannot wait to kiss the baby’, or ‘we better keep
those smokers out of the library, etc.

Cognitive component The cognitive component of attitudes refers to the beliefs, thoughts, and attributes that
we would associate with an object. Many times a person's attitude might be based on the negative and positive
attributes they associate with an object. It is the opinion or belief segment of an attitude. It refers to that part of
attitude which is related in general knowledge of a person. Typically these come to light in generalities or
stereotypes, such as ‘all babies are cute’, ‘smoking is harmful to health’ etc.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 28
Functions of Attitude:

Daniel Katz outlines 4 functions of attitudes;

2. Adjustment Function.

3. Ego-Defensive Function.

4. Value-Expressive Function.

5. Knowledge Function.

1. Adjustment Function

The adjustment function directs people toward pleasurable or rewarding objects and away from unpleasant,
undesirable ones. It serves the utilitarian concept of maximizing reward and minimizing punishment. We
develop attitudes towards things that aid or reward us. We are more likely to change our attitudes if doing so
allows us to fulfill our goals or avoid undesirable consequences. For eg: We favor political parties that advance
our economic a lot and if we are businessmen we favor that party which keeps taxes low.
2. Ego-Defensive Function

SAGAR SUNUWAR 29
The ego-defensive function refers to holding attitudes that protect our self-esteem or that justify actions that
make us feel guilty. This function involves psychoanalytic principles where people use defense mechanisms to
protect themselves from psychological harm. Mechanisms include denial, repression, projection, rationalization,
etc. For example, one way children might defend themselves against the feelings of humiliation they have
experienced in P.E. lessons is to adopt a strongly negative attitude to all sports.

People whose pride has suffered following a defeat in sport might similarly adopt a defensive attitude: “I’m not
bothered, I’m sick of rugby anyway…”. This function has psychiatric overtones. Positive attitudes towards
ourselves, for example, have a protective function (i.e. an ego-defensive role) in helping us reserve our self-
image.
The basic idea behind the functional approach is that attitudes help a person to mediate between their own inner
needs (expression, defense) and the outside world (adaptive and knowledge).
3. Value-Expressive Function

Whereas ego defensive attitudes are formed to protect a person’s self-image, value-expressive attitudes enable
the expression of the person’s centrally held values. Central values tend to establish our identity and gain us
social approval thereby showing us who we are, and what we stand for. Therefore consumers adopt certain
attitudes to translate their values into something more tangible and easily expressed. Our value-expressive
attitudes are closely related to our self-concept. One whose central value is freedom, the individual may express
very positive attitudes towards the decentralization of authority in the organization, flexible work schedules, and
relaxation of dress standards.

3. Knowledge Function

Attitudes provide meaning (knowledge) for life. The knowledge function refers to our need for a world which
is consistent and relatively stable. This allows us to predict what is likely to happen, and so gives us a sense of
control. Attitudes can help us organize and structure our experience. Knowing a person’s attitude helps us
predict their behavior. For example, knowing that a person is religious we can predict they will go to temple.
Some attitudes are useful because they help to make the world more understandable. They help people ascribe
causes to events and direct attention towards features of people or situations that are likely to be useful in
making sense of them. Consequently, they help to make the world more understandable, predictable, and
knowable. Knowing a person’s attitude helps us predict their behavior. For example- people who are not
familiar with nuclear energy may develop an attitude that is dangerous and should not be used as an energy
source.

Stereotyping is another example.

In the absence of knowledge about a person, we may use a stereotyped attitude for judging the person.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ATTITUDE

The characteristics of Attitude are as follows:

1. Attitude has an object: An attitude has an object, which is liked or disliked, favored or disfavored; or
evaluated as negative or positive. The object can be a thing, an idea, a person, or a situation.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 30
 2. Attitudes are learnt: Attitude is not an inborn phenomenon. Attitudes are learnt through social
interactions and experiences. We interact with others, experience many things and acquire information
about things which form our negative or positive attitude towards the thing.
3. Attitudes are predispositions: An attitude is a predisposition – a prior determined or learnt view of a
thing or tendency to act in a specific way towards a thing. An individual has view which is already
formed in his mind.
4. Attitudes are relatively stable phenomena: An attitude is not a momentary feeling but a long-held
view of something. Though attitudes can be changed from time to time but It is a relatively stable
phenomenon which persists for a period of time.
5. Attitude has an emotional component: It has emotional aspect of liking or disliking, favoring or
disfavoring; or positive or negative evaluation.
6. Attitudes influence human behavior: A positive attitude towards a thing will influence human
behavior towards the thing favorably. Similarly, a negative attitude influences human behavior towards
a thing unfavorably. For instance, a vegetarian person would avoid eating a beef due to his negative
attitude towards beef consumption.

Characteristics of Attitude:

1. Attitudes are the complex combination of things we call personality, beliefs, values, behaviors, and
motivations.

2. It can fall anywhere along a continuum from very favorable to very unfavorable.

3. All people, irrespective of their status or intelligence, hold attitudes.

4. An attitude exists in every person’s mind. It helps to define our identity, guide our actions, and influence
how we judge people.

5. Although the feeling and belief components of attitude are internal to a person, we can view a person’s
attitude from their resulting behavior.

6. Attitude helps us define how we see situations and define how we behave toward the situation or object.

7. It provides us with internal cognitions or beliefs and thoughts about people and objects.

8. It can also be explicit and implicit. Explicit attitude is those that we are consciously aware of an implicit
attitude is unconscious, but still, affect our behaviors.

9. Attitudes cause us to behave in a particular way toward an object or person.

10. An attitude is a summary of a person’s experience; thus, an attitude is grounded in direct experience
predicts future behavior more accurately.

11. It includes certain aspects of personality as interests, appreciation, and social conduct.

12. It indicates the total of a man’s inclinations and feelings.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 31
 13. An attitude is a point of view, substantiated or otherwise, true or false, which one holds towards an idea,
object, or person.

14. It has aspects such as direction, intensity, generality, or specificity.

15. It refers to one’s readiness for doing Work.

16. It may be positive or negative and may be affected by age, position, and education.

Factors influencing Attitude:

Factors influencing attitude are beliefs, feelings, and action tendencies of an individual or group of individuals
towards objects, ideas, and people.

Quite often persons and objects or ideas become associated in the minds of individuals and as a result, attitudes
become multidimensional and complex.

Attitudes involve some knowledge of a situation.

However, the essential aspect, of the attitude is found in the fact that some characteristic feeling or emotion is
experienced and, as we would accordingly expect, some definite tendency to action is associated.

Subjectively, then, the important factor is the feeling or emotion.

These are the factors influencing attitude;

 Social Factors.

 Direct Instruction.

 Family.

 Prejudices.

 Personal Experience.

 Media.

 Educational and Religious Institutions.

 Physical Factors.

 Economic Status and Occupations.

Social Factors

SAGAR SUNUWAR 32
Every society has the majority of people who prefer to lead a harmonious life. They try to avoid unnecessary
friction of conflicts with people. Naturally, they are inclined to develop positive attitudes towards most of the
people and issues. Our attitudes may facilitate and maintain our relationships with members of positively valued
groups. Social roles and social norms can have a strong influence on attitudes. Social roles relate to how people
are expected to behave in a particular role or context. Social norms involve society’s rules for what behaviors
are considered appropriate.

Direct Instruction

In general, the individual being conformist or the direction of the attitude of the people it deems important.
Sometimes direct instruction can influence attitude formation.

For example, somebody gives information about the usefulness of some fruit.

On the basis of this information, we can develop a positive or negative attitude about that fruit.

Family

The family is the most powerful source for the formation of attitudes. The parents, elder brother or sister
provide information about various things. Attitudes developed by an individual, whether positive or negative are
the result of family influence, which is very powerful and difficult to change.

Prejudices

An attitude may involve a prejudice, in which we prejudge an issue without giving unbiased consideration to all
the evidence. Prejudices are preconceived ideas or judgments where one develops some attitudes toward other
people, objects, etc. If we are prejudiced against a person, who is, accused of a crime, we may regard him as
guilty regardless of the evidence. We can also be prejudiced in favor of something.

Personal Experience

In order to be the basis of attitudes, personal experiences have left a strong impression. Therefore, the attitude
will be more easily formed when personal experience involves emotional factors. In situations involving
emotions, appreciation will be more in-depth experience and longer trace.

Media

As a means of communication, mass media such as television, radio, has a major influence in shaping people’s
opinions and beliefs. There is new information on something that provides the foundation for the emergence of
new cognitive attitudes towards it.

Educational and Religious Institutions

As a system, educational and religious institutions have a strong influence in shaping attitudes because they lay
the foundation of understanding and moral concepts within the individual.

Understanding the good and the bad, the dividing line between something that can and cannot do is obtained
from the center of the educational and religious institutions.
SAGAR SUNUWAR 33
Physical Factors

Clinical psychologists have generally recognized that physical, health and vitality are important factors in
determining adjustment, and frequently it has been found that malnutrition or disease or accidents have
interfered so seriously with normal development that serious behavioral disturbances have followed.

Economic Status and Occupations

Our economic and occupational positions also contribute to attitude formation.

They determine, in part, our attitudes towards unions and management and our belief that certain laws are
‘good’ or ‘bad’. Our socio-economic background influences our present and future attitudes. Attitudes reflect
more than just positive or negative evaluations: they include other characteristics, such as importance, certainty,
accessibility, and associated knowledge. Attitudes are important in the study of social psychology because they
influence the amount of attention and the type of judgment an individual may give to a specific subject.
Generally, we tend to assume that people behave in accordance with their attitudes.

However, social psychologists have found that attitudes and actual behavior are not always perfectly aligned.

Types of Attitude:

Positive Attitude

Individuals who have a positive attitude will pay attention to the good, rather than bad in people, situations,
events.

A simple example of a positive attitude; when you are having a very bad run of luck but you still say “Good
Morning” rather than “What’s so good about this morning”.

Well, Good news; you have a positive attitude.

Negative Attitude

People with a negative attitude ignore the good and pay attention to the bad in people, situations, events, etc.

For example; when a guy has so much power, wealth, and influences with great luck; but still complains and
goes on a rant; well that person has a negative attitude.

Does it remind you of someone?

Differences between Positive and Negative Attitudes

Let’s take a look in the real world; what differs a positive attitude from a negative attitude and how to identify
them.

Positive Attitude Negative Attitude

SAGAR SUNUWAR 34
Individuals who have a positive attitude will People with a negative attitude ignore the good and pay
pay attention to the good, rather than bad in attention to the bad in people, situations, events, etc.
people, situations, events, etc.

Positive attitudes are rewarded. It means the Negative attitudes are punished to discourage the same action
individual is encouraged to do die the same in the future.
thing in the future.

If we think positive thoughts we will surely If we think negative thoughts we will have negative feelings
experience such emotions as joy, love, such as anger, disappointment, irritation, envy, etc.
gratitude, peace, and hope.

Having a “positive attitude” means a person A person with a “negatives attitude” tends to believe their best
believes everything happens for the best in the days are in the past. There is nothing to “look forward to” and
end. considers it a waste of time and energy.

It is an optimistic approach for a person to It is a pessimistic mindset of a person who is not capable of
achieve good results. handling critical issues.

It can achieve long-term goals easily and in It can achieve some initial goals but not the long-term goals
time

It is a process of solving problems. It is a process of looking for problems.

A person with a positive attitude pays A person with a negative attitude pays attention to other
attention to the virtues of others. people’s shortcomings.

These persons always see opportunities. These persons see only limitations.

Attitude Formation:

An attitude is a negative or positive evaluation of an object. It has an aspect of liking or disliking, favoring or
not favoring an object. For example, a vegetarian person has a negative attitude towards beef consumption.
Attitude influences human behavior towards an object. For instance, a vegetarian would avoid eating beef.

Different people can have different attitudes towards a same thing. For example, some people view legalizing
abortion as a good thing because they think it is a way to get rid of the unintended birth. But many people also
view legalizing abortion as a bad thing, because they think that the fetus baby has a right to life.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 35
The process of attitude formation has following two explanations:

1. Determinants of Attitude Formation

2. Theoretical Perspectives

DETERMINANTS OF ATTITUDE FORMATION

The determinants of attitude formation are given below:

1. Socialization
Socialization is a life-long process of learning through which an individual learns from his parents, other family
members, friends, peer, teachers, mass-media and anything in the surrounding. This learning shapes individual’s
personality and overall perception of things. We learn about the choices, preferences, liking, disliking, attitudes
and opinions of other people regarding different things which also shape our attitudes towards these things. We
acquire certain information and facts which make us believe that a thing is good or bad. Hence, socialization is
a basic determinant of attitude formation.

2. Personal Experiences
Apart from learning to others, our personal interactions with others and experiences with things shape our
attitudes towards to certain things. We form a positive attitude towards a thing if we have a pleasant experience
with it. Similarly, our bad experiences lead to the formation of negative attitude towards things.

3. Needs Satisfaction and personal interest

If a thing or idea fulfills our needs satisfactorily, we form a positive attitude towards it. For instance, a student
has a positive attitude towards the use of internet for his studies because it serves his academic needs. Certain
things which do not fulfill our need, we form a negative attitude towards it.

An individual’s personal interest and gains may also influence his attitude towards a thing. For instance, some
shopkeepers may deliberately hoard (store secretly) consumables (e.g. sugar) to create its shortage in the market
in order to raise its prices. Those shopkeepers have a positive attitude towards hoarding consumables because it
increases their profit. At the same time, the people, who have to pay higher prices for buying those
consumables, have a negative attitude towards the same practice.

4. Community Attitudes
People around us have positive or negative attitudes towards things. We interact with these community
members and their attitudes also influence us to form an attitude towards those things accordingly.

5. Mass Communication – Electronic & Print Media:

Electronic and Print media has a significant role in attitude formation of people. Every day the sources of mass
communication bombard us with certain information which has an impact on our attitude formation towards the
thing. Media inform us about the good and bad aspects of things which influence our opinions regarding things.
Our positive or negative attitude towards a politician is mostly the outcome of media. Similarly, the
advertisements on media are made to influence our attitude positively towards the product to enhance its sale.

6. Personality traits
Every individual has different personality traits such aggressiveness or jovialness, introvertial or extrovertial
traits, intelligence level, perceptual traits and so on. These characteristics influence the way an individual
perceive a thing or an idea. An extrovert person will have a positive attitude towards social gatherings, parties
and ceremonies. On the other hand, an introvert person will have a negative attitude towards social gatherings.
SAGAR SUNUWAR 36
Similarly, different people may perceive a thing differently which is also a cause of the difference in attitude of
people towards a same thing.

7. Rational Analysis
Attitude formation is mostly the outcome of rational analysis of things. We analyse things and weigh its pros
and cons to make our choices. Observing things in our daily life in this way lead to form a negative or positive
attitude towards a thing.

8. Culture
Our cultural norms, values, traditions, beliefs and preferences also form our attitude towards a thing. People
form a positive attitude towards culturally approved practices. Similarly, people form negative attitude towards
culturally disapproved and discouraged practice. Our cultural norms and values are reflected in our attitudes.
For instance, the dress and food choices are good examples.

9. Accessible Information
Availability of information or accessibility to the available information is also a determinant of attitude
formation. Attitudes are formed on the basis what we know about an object. The accessible information reflects
the pros and cons of an object or a practice which shape our attitude towards it. For example, knowing policies
and strategies of a politician will lead to our positive or negative attitude towards the politician. Similarly,
which type of information is available also influence attitudes formation. If more information is available which
presents bad aspects of a practice, it will lead to a negative attitude formation towards the thing. Some
information may be deliberately shared to shape people attitude towards a thing.

10. Religious beliefs

Every religion has its teachings, beliefs prohibitions and injunctions which influence individual’s attitude
towards things and practices.

11. Stereotypes
A stereotype is a wide-spread belief about a thing or a practice. It may be a true or a false judgment which is
accepted by the majority of the people. There may be a negative or a positive stereotype towards an object,
practice, a gender or an ethnic group which shape the people’s attitude negatively towards it. For example, some
bad things may be associated with an ethnic group – this becomes to be a negative stereotype regarding that
ethnic group which also influences the attitudes of people negatively towards that ethnic group.

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES OF ATTITUDE FORMATION

The Learning Theory explains the process of attitude formation as follows:

Learning Theory

The Learning theory is a product of the works of many Psychologists including Albert Bandura, Hovland, Janis,
Doobs and others. This theory explains how an individual learns different things through social interactions
with others.

According to the Learning theory, attitudes are formed as a result of following three modes of learning.

1. Classical Conditioning
2. Instrumental Conditioning

SAGAR SUNUWAR 37
 3. Imitation or Observation

1. Classical Conditioning

It is also called learning by association. Attitudes are learnt by associating good or bad characteristics to an
object. Associating bad or good attributes to an object may be based on personal experience of the individual or
his knowledge about the pros and cons of the object.

An individual form a negative attitude towards a thing, to which he associates negative characteristics. For
example, an individual may associate bad characteristics to junk foods, such as that it contains a high amount
of sugar and fats, it causes obesity and health complications. This individual will have a negative attitude
towards the junk food consumption. On the other hand, another person, associate good characteristic to junk
foods, such as that it has a good taste, it has high energy and so on. Such an individual will form a negative
attitude towards the junk food consumption.

2. Instrumental Conditioning

It is called learning through reinforcement – punishments and rewards. Positive or negative attitude towards an
object is formed on the basis of consequences of coming across the object. Anything that gives you a positive
consequence, you would develop a positive attitude towards it. For example, a student studying devotedly gets
high marks, wins a prize and is appreciated by others for his high marks. He develops a positive attitude
towards hard work (study).

Similarly, any negative consequence of an action leads the formation of a negative attitude towards it.

3. Imitation or Observation

Attitudes are formed through imitating and observing others. We observe the preference, choices, and attitudes
of other people towards different things which also shape our own attitude towards those things. We imitate
others in developing a specific attitude towards a thing. Similarly, we come to know about certain information
and facts regarding thing which influences our attitude toward those things.

Attitude Change:

An attitude is a positive or negative evaluation towards an object. It expresses individual’s liking or disliking
towards an object, or favoring or disfavoring of an object. For example, some students have a positive attitude
towards the use of internet as they think that it offers the best study resources to them. But some students may a
negative attitude towards the use of internet as they think it wastes a lot of their precious time.

Attitude towards an object can be changed from time to time. We come across many new experiences and
information which shape or change our existing attitude towards an object. For example, if a student has a
negative attitude towards the use of internet but with the passage time, his attitude towards the use of internet
can become positive if he knows the benefits of using internet for academics. Similarly, a student having a
positive attitude towards internet’s use can develop a negative attitude towards the use of internet if his use of
internet gives him a bad experience for his studies.

“Attitude change is defined as the process of alteration or modification in the existing attitude towards an
object”.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 38
There are two types of Attitude Change

1. Incongruent Attitude Change

2. Congruent Attitude Change

Incongruent Attitude Change

It is a type of attitude change wherein the attitude changes in opposite direction to the existing attitude – e.g. a
positive attitude becomes a negative attitude, or a negative attitude becomes a positive attitude. For example, a
vegetarian person has a negative attitude towards beef consumption and avoids eating beef but if this vegetarian
person comes to know that beef is rich in vitamins essential to human health and he develops a positive attitude
towards beef consumption and starts eating beef – this type of attitude change is called incongruent attitude
change.

Similarly, if a heavy smoker, who has a positive attitude towards cigarette smoking, comes to know about the
health complications caused by smoking and develops a negative attitude towards smoking and quits smoking –
it is an incongruent attitude change.

Congruent Attitude Change

It is a type of attitude change wherein the existing attitude changes in the same direction. The existing attitude is
further strengthened towards the object – e.g. a positive attitude become more positive and a negative attitude
becomes more negative.

For example, a person has a positive attitude towards gym exercises. If he comes to know more about the
physical benefits of gym exercises and spare more time engage in exercises at the gym - this type of attitude
change is called congruent attitude change.

Similarly, a person has a negative attitude towards waking till late night. If he comes to know more about the
health complications of waking till late night, his negative attitude towards late night waking becomes more
negative – it is a congruent attitude change.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 39
Attitude and Behavior:
Difference between Attitude and Behaviour:
• Attitude and behaviour are closely related but they are two different concepts. Following differences can be
observed between both:
• Attitude is internal whereas behaviour is external. In other words, behaviour can very well be seen by others as
it is external whereas attitude is shelled within the mind of the individual and hence cannot be seen by others
immediately.
• Attitude is what you think whereas behavior is what you do. Attitude has to do with the mind whereas
behavior has a lot to do with actions.
• Attitude is thought-oriented whereas behavior is action-oriented. Attitude can shape the behavior of a person.
A person with the right attitude may be with right behavior too. But sometimes people act in accordance with
their attitudes, and other times they act in ways that are quite inconsistent with their attitudes.
• Attitude is all about the opinion somebody has about something in life. Behavior is about how one responds
to the impulsion and the pulls of the environment. This response can be shaped by the attitude of the person.
• It is possible to judge one's attitude through one's behavior though attitude is not visible externally. One can
say that someone has a good attitude towards poor. It is evident from the person's behavior. Hence attitude and
behavior are related in some sense though they are two different concepts.
Is there a relation between attitude and behaviour?
• During the early 1930s, La Piere conducted what has become probably the most widely cited study of the
attitude-behavior relation. While traveling across the western United States in the company of a Chinese couple,
La Piere stopped at more than 200 hotels and restaurants. The Chinese couple was refused service at only one
establishment. Some 6 months later, La Piere wrote to the proprietor of each of the hotels and restaurants and
asked whether the establishment served Chinese guests. Surprisingly, 92% of those who responded indicated
that they did not accommodate Chinese guests. Thus, there was a startling inconsistency between the attitude
responses to La Here's letter and the actual behavior toward the Chinese couple with whom La Piere had
travelled.
• A very similar study concerning an African American guest, instead of Chinese guests, also observed much
discrepancy between people's reports of their attitudes and their actual behavior.
• Although it cannot be denied that a large number of studies suggest that attitudes do not influence behavior,
sometimes attitudes do predict behavior. For example, studies of voting behavior consistently have indicated a

SAGAR SUNUWAR 40
substantial relation between pre-election attitudes and voting. Basically, people vote for the candidates they
like.
• Research has revealed everything from findings of no relation whatsoever to the nearly perfect relation
observed.
• Thus, the answer to the question "Is there a relation between attitudes and behavior?" is a resounding
"sometimes." Given the range of findings, it becomes apparent that the question of attitude-behavior
consistency has to be approached differently: Rather than asking whether attitudes relate to behavior, we have
to ask, tinder what conditions do what kinds of attitudes of what kinds of individuals predict what kinds of
behavior? We need to treat the strength of the attitude-behavior relation as we would treat any other dependent
variable and determine what factors affect it.
When do attitudes guide behaviour?
• Strength of the attitude-behavior relation can be studied through qualities of the behavior qualities of the
person, qualities of the situation in which the behavior is exhibited, and qualities of the attitude itself.
Qualities of the Behavior:
• The behaviors that a social psychologist might be interested in predicting from knowledge of a person's
attitudes can range from the very specific (e.g., will the person attend church services this week?) to the very
general (e.g., how many religious behaviors will the person perform over the next month?).
• A specific behavior is best predicted by a question that is equivalently specific to the action in question, the
target of the action, the context in which the action is performed, and the time of the action (e.g., "How do you
feel about attending church this Sunday?"). In a study conducted prior to the mandated use of lead-free gasoline,
the actual purchase of lead-free gas was better predicted by questions asking specifically about buying lead-free
gas than by questions assessing more general attitudes toward ecology.
• In contrast, a general pattern of behavior is best predicted by a general attitude measure. In one study,
participants' global attitude toward "being religious" was used to predict the likelihood that they performed each
of many specific religious behaviors (e.g., praying before or after meals, donating money to a religious
institution) and a general measure of performing religious behaviors that was a composite measure of the many
specific religious behaviors.
Qualities of the Person:
• Some kinds of people typically display greater attitude-behavior consistency than do others. In general, two
classes of individuals have been considered: those who are aware of and guided by their internal feelings and
those who tend to rely heavily on cues in the situation to decide how to behave. In general, people who are
aware of their feelings display greater attitude-behavior consistency than do people who rely on situational cues.
• Any given behavior of an individual can be guided both by the individual's internal feelings and by external
cues. Yet a number of personality dimensions have been developed and used successfully to assess whether a
given person tends to rely more heavily on one type of cue or the other. Following are two personality
dimensions:
a) Level of moral reasoning:
• Level of moral reasoning has been found to affect the relation between attitudes and behavior.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 41
• More advanced moral reasoning is characterized by principled, morally responsible thought based on people's
own general principles of moral action.
• Lower levels of reasoning focus on the general positive or negative consequences of a particular action or on a
feeling of being bound by social or legal rules.
• Individuals who depend on their own feelings and principles to make moral judgments act much more
consistently with their attitudes toward moral issues than do people who rely on external standards to determine
what is moral.
(to) Self-monitoring:
• Individuals who score low on the self-monitoring scale claim to be guided by dispositions (i.e., their inner
feelings). They agree with statements such as "My behavior is usually an expression of my true inner feelings,
attitudes, and beliefs."
• In contrast, individuals who score high on the self-monitoring scale view their behavior as stemming typically
from a pragmatic concern with what is appropriate in each situation. They agree with statements such as "In
different situations and with different people, I often act like very different persons." Thus, these individuals are
said to monitor the impression that they make on other people and adjust that impression to fit with others'
expectations.
• Low self-monitors behave more consistently with their attitudes than do high self-monitors.
Conclusion:
• People who focus on themselves tend to act more consistently with their attitudes (e.g., people with high moral
reasoning and/or low sell-monitoring).
• On the other hand, people who are guided more by the environment or other external factors often do not act
in a manner that is consistent with their attitudes (e.g., people with low moral reasoning and/or high self-
monitoring).
Qualities of the Situation:
• A number of situational variables also affect the strength of the attitude-behavior relation. These indude
normative factors and time pressure to reach a decision.
(a) The Effect of Norms:
• Norms, or beliefs about how one should or is expected to behave in a given situation, can exert a powerful
influence on behavior. People often behave as they believe others expect them to behave.
• A norm may be so strong and so universally held that virtually everyone in that situation behaves the same
regardless of his or her attitude. For example, you might wish that someone were dead, but you would very
rarely act on this attitude. Hence, attitude-behavior consistency is low.
(b) Time Pressure:
• Individuals are more likely to base their decisions on their attitudes when they are under time pressure because
their attitudes provide a heuristic for making quick decisions. Time pressure pushes people away from a careful
examination of the available information and toward a reliance on their pre-existing attitudes.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 42
 • For example, in one study, participants were asked to consider job applications from both male and female
job candidates. When there was no time pressure, and so participants could consider all of the details carefully,
their personnel decisions were unrelated to their attitudes toward working women. That is, participants whose
earlier reported attitudes indicated some prejudice against women were just as likely to recommend hiring a
female candidate as were those who did not hold such prejudiced attitudes. In striking contrast, when
participants were under time pressure to make a hiring recommendation, an attitude-behavior relation was
apparent. Participants who were prejudiced against women were less likely to recommend hiring a female
candidate.
• Above example also points out that, from a societal perspective, there are some instances when attitude—
behavior consistency is not desirable. In this instance, acting in accordance with an attitude leads to
discrimination against certain groups within our society.
Qualities of the Attitude:
• Some kinds of attitudes appear to be stronger than others. In this context, the word stronger is not used in the
sense of the attitude being more extreme. Instead, stronger refers to the apparent influence that the attitude has
on the individual's behavior. In fact, in all of the research that is explained earlier, groups of participants with
different degrees of attitude strength were compared, but the distributions of attitude scores (i.e., the extremity
of attitudes) in the various groups were equivalent to one another.
(a) The Role of Direct Experience
• One attitudinal quality is the manner of attitude formation. On the one hand is attitude formation through
direct behavioral experience with the attitude object, and on the other hand is attitude formation through indirect
nonbehavioral experience with the attitude object. For example, a child may form an attitude toward a toy by
playing with the toy (direct experience) or on the basis of a friend's or an advertisement's description of the toy
(indirect experience). • Attitudes based on direct experience have been found to be more predictive of later
behavior than attitudes based on indirect experience.
(b) Attitude Accessibility
• One thing that differentiates attitudes based on direct experience from those based on indirect experience is
how accessible the attitudes are from memory. Accessibility in this sense refers to how easily attitudes come to
mind. Some attitudes come to mind without any conscious effort on people's part. When people see a
cockroach, the "Yuck!" response probably comes to mind immediately. This attitude would be highly accessible
from memory. But sometimes people have to deliberate quite extensively about what their attitudes toward
some object are. If you are asked which of several restaurants is the best restaurant, you might have to think
extensively about which one you like the best. This attitude would not be at all accessible from memory.
• As these examples illustrate, one way in which to measure how accessible an attitude is from memory is by
how long it takes people to answer whether they like or dislike something. Attitudes based on direct experience
tend to be more accessible from memory.
• There is also a functional value of such attitudes. Accessible attitudes ease decision making. Imagine what it
would be like if every time you went into a ice-cream parlor, you had to decide which flavor of ice cream you
wanted by reviewing the entire list of offerings and considering the relative merits of each type of ice cream.
You would take a long time to make the decision, and the decision would probably be stressful. However, if the

SAGAR SUNUWAR 43
fact that you really like two flavors, readily comes to mind, the decision becomes much easier. Because
accessible attitudes come to mind readily, they make the decision-making process that much easier.
• Discussing the functional value of accessible attitudes implies that accessible attitudes perform a number of
useful functions for people, and indeed they do. However, there is a dark side to accessible attitudes as well.
Accessible attitudes may be extremely difficult to change, with the upshot that people may be rather close-
minded concerning topics toward which they have accessible attitudes.
How do attitude guide behavior?
• Two different mechanisms by which attitudes can influence behavior. The major distinction between the two
mechanisms centers on the extent to which the behavior is thoughtfully planned in advance of its actual
performance as opposed to being a spontaneous reaction to a person's perception of the immediate situation.
• In first mechanism, the individual may reflect and deliberate about a behavioral plan and may decide how he
or she intends to behave. In so doing, the person may consciously consider the implications of his or her
attitude. For example, when buying a car or deciding which college to attend, a person will extensively
deliberate about the decision and consider all of the advantages and disadvantages before making a behavioral
decision.
• Alternatively, in second mechanism, the individual might not actively reflect on his or her attitude, but that
attitude may influence how the person interprets the event that is occurring and, in that way, may affect the
behavior. When choosing between a vanilla ice cream and a chocolate one, a person will rarely analyze the
positive and negative features of each flavor. Instead, the individual's attitudes toward the different flavors
determine which flavor looks better at that moment in time.
• The former type of process is the essence of Theory of reasoned action. The latter is depicted in Model of the
attitude-to-behavior process.
(a) Theory of Reasoned Action:
• The theory of reasoned action assumes that people deliberate about the wisdom of a given course of action.
• According to this theory an individual's behavioral intention is the single best predictor of his or her eventual
behavior. There are factors that an individual considers in forming a behavioral intention. The person considers,
weighs, and combines (a) his or her attitude toward the behavior in question and (b) subjective norms regarding
the behavior.
• The second component, subjective norms, involves both the person's beliefs about what important others think
he or she should do and the person's motivation to comply with the wishes of these others. In deciding whether
to attend college, an individual may consider what his or her friends and parents think about attending college
as well as how important it is to comply with the wishes of his or her friends and parents. Displaying imgll.jpg
(b) Model of the attitude-to-behavior process:
• The theory of reasoned action assumes that attitudes guide behavior through conscious consideration of and
deliberation about a person's attitude and its implications for a given course of action. In contrast, the process
model suggests that attitudes can guide a person's behavior even when the person does not actively reflect and
deliberate about the attitude.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 44
• When someone sees a cockroach, he or she probably does not consider the beliefs about how unsanitary
cockroaches are, nor is the person likely to reason about what other people think of smashing the cockroach. If
people did engage in such extensive thinking, the cockroach would disappear before anyone had a chance to
decide how to react. Instead, the process model argues that the individual's attitude toward cockroaches would
define this situation as an unpleasant one and that the person would act on this feeling or impulse.

c. Theory of Planned Behavior:

The theory of planned behavior (TPB) is a psychological theory that links beliefs to behavior. According to
the Theory of Planned Behavior (the original insight of Theory of Reasoned Action), behavior is influenced by
three elements:

Attitude: That the behavior will be beneficial to the individual. (For example, Awa feels that using
contraception is a good way for her to prevent pregnancy.)
Subjective norms: The belief that other people think that the behavior is acceptable. (For example, Awa
believes her partner, friends and family would support her using contraception.)
Perceived ability: The belief that one has the skills and capability to change behavior. (For example, Awa
believes she is able to access and use contraception successfully to prevent unintended pregnancy.)

Unit V: Social Influence and Behavior

Social Influence:

SAGAR SUNUWAR 45
 Can be defined as:
Social influence is the process by which an individual’s attitudes, beliefs or behavior are modified by the
presence or action of others.
Social influence is the change in behavior that one person causes in another, intentionally or unintentionally,
as a result of the way the changed person perceives themselves in relationship to the influencer, other people
and society in general.
Social influence comprises the ways in which individuals change their behavior to meet the demands of a
social environment. It takes many forms and can be seen in conformity, socialization, peer
pressure, obedience, leadership, persuasion, sales, and marketing.

The theory of social influences hinges on a basic premise: Individuals are likely to change their behavior
according to the social environment in which they find themselves.

Social influences may have an effect on many different levels of an individual’s life. They can change the way a
person thinks or the attitudes a person holds based on a desire either to conform with the predominant social
group or to assert distinction from it. Because social influences can alter a person’s thinking and beliefs, they
can also impact the actions or patterns of behavior that the person adopts.

These changes can manifest themselves in many ways. Some examples include the following:

 A middle school boy starts wearing certain sneakers or clothing to fit in with the popular kids in his
class.
 A high school girl decides to go out for the soccer team because she knows that all of her friends will be
playing.
 A business owner decides to sponsor or support a local charity, believing that this will bring him the
goodwill of the community.
 A man decides to support a political candidate or party after realizing that some people he admires also
support this candidate or party.
An important note about social influences is that they can be positive, neutral or negative in effect. Again,
consider the example of middle school peer pressure. It may be morally neutral for a boy to buy a certain pair of
shoes because he wants to fit in with his peers; on the other hand, it would be negative if the boy started
bullying people or stealing due to the influence of a new friend group.

Social influence can also be positive. Consider an individual who feels peer-pressured into joining a regular
exercise group and ends up losing some excess weight, or an individual who’s influenced to support a local
homeless shelter or an animal rescue organization. These are generally considered socially and personally
positive behaviors, regardless of the extent to which they’re influenced by others.

Types or Nature of Social Influence:

a. Informational Social Influence:

Informational social influence is where a person conforms because they have a desire to be right, and look to
others who they believe may have more information. This type of conformity occurs when a person is unsure of
a situation or lacks knowledge and is associated with internalisation.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 46
Informational social influence describes a situation in which individuals make decisions based on information
or data someone else has provided. The individuals accept that the information provided is trustworthy and thus
change their thinking, belief or behavior accordingly.

A way to think about informational social influence is that it derives from the desire to be correct. Individuals
may base their views or their actions on the opinions of established experts or simply on the opinions of peers
whom they find credible and believable. They conform their views to the views of others in an attempt to arrive
at the correct conclusion.

Informational social influence can be observed when individuals don’t know what to think about a given topic
or how to answer a particular question, and thus they simply copy the viewpoint of a peer whom they perceive
to be right.

A person is most likely to use informational social influence in certain situations: when a situation is
ambiguous, people become uncertain about what to do and they are more likely to depend on others for the
answer; and during a crisis when immediate action is necessary, in spite of panic. Looking to other people can
help ease fears, but unfortunately they are not always right. The more knowledgeable a person is, the more
valuable they are as a resource. Thus people often turn to experts for help. But once again people must be
careful, as experts can make mistakes too. Informational social influence often results in internalization or
private acceptance, where a person genuinely believes that the information is right.

As an example, consider a man who’s visiting a fancy restaurant for the first time. He doesn’t know the
established custom for such an environment, but he’s with a friend who’s been in fancy restaurants many times
before. To behave correctly, the individual simply emulates the behavior of his friend, assuming it to be
acceptable.

b. Normative Influence:

Normative social influence is where a person conforms to fit in with the group because they don’t want to
appear foolish or be left out. Normative social influence is usually associated with compliance, where a person
changes their public behaviour but not their private beliefs. Normative social influence works differently from
informational social influence. In this case, individuals change their beliefs or behaviors not necessarily to be
correct, but rather to be liked, accepted or just fit in.

Normative influence stems from a desire to avoid punishments (such as going along with the rules in class even
though you don't agree with them) and gain rewards (such as behaving in a certain way in order to get people to
like you). This need of social approval and acceptance is part of our state of humans. In addition to this, we
know that when people do not conform with their group and therefore are deviants, they are less liked and even
punished by the group. Normative influence usually results in public compliance, doing or saying something
without believing in it.

Common examples of peer pressure are helpful in understanding how normative social influence works.
Anyone who engages in drinking, smoking, vandalism, truancy or other examples of misbehavior to earn the
respect of bullies or an “in crowd” is influenced by normative factors.

Types of Social Influence:

Confirmity:

SAGAR SUNUWAR 47
Conformity is a type of social influence involving a change in belief or behavior in order to fit in with a group.
This change is in response to real (involving the physical presence of others) or imagined (involving the
pressure of social norms / expectations) group pressure.
Conformity is a type of social influence involving a change in behavior, belief or thinking to align with those of
others or to align with normative standards. It is the most common and pervasive form of social influence.

the tendency to act or think like members of a group. In psychology,

conformity is defined as the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms.

Some examples of conformity include the following:

 Returning someone’s wave or verbal greeting, not wishing to be perceived as mannerless, unfriendly or
rude.
 Getting in line while waiting for a bus or for a movie ticket. This is a social norm that most people
comply with, simply because it’s come to be accepted practice.
 Becoming a vegan or a vegetarian after being influenced by social peers, not wishing to be seen as
someone who’d harm animals.
 Accepting and internalizing the beliefs of another person about climate change or other issues, believing
that person to be a credible source of knowledge.
 Being in any ambiguous or unfamiliar social situation and mimicking the behavior of others in the
group.

While conformity is often viewed as a negative characteristic in American culture, it is very common. While
high levels of conformity can be detrimental, a certain amount of conformity is necessary and normal, and even
essential for a community to function. It is generally distinguished from obedience (behavior influenced by
authority figures) and compliance (behavior influenced by peers).

Conformity can also be simply defined as “yielding to group pressures” (Crutchfield, 1955). Group pressure
may take different forms, for example bullying, persuasion, teasing, criticism, etc. Conformity is also known as
majority influence (or group pressure).
The term conformity is often used to indicate an agreement to the majority position, brought about either by a
desire to ‘fit in’ or be liked (normative) or because of a desire to be correct (informational), or simply to
conform to a social role (identification).
Jenness (1932) was the first psychologist to study conformity. His experiment was an ambiguous situation
involving a glass bottle filled with beans.
He asked participants individually to estimate how many beans the bottle contained. Jenness then put the group
in a room with the bottle, and asked them to provide a group estimate through discussion.
Participants were then asked to estimate the number on their own again to find whether their initial estimates
had altered based on the influence of the majority.
Jenness then interviewed the participants individually again, and asked if they would like to change their
original estimates, or stay with the group's estimate. Almost all changed their individual guesses to be closer to
the group estimate.
However, perhaps the most famous conformity experiment was by Solomon Asch (1951) and his line judgment
experiment.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 48
Motivations Underlying Conformity
Conformity may result from either subtle, unconscious influences or direct and overt social pressure. It does not
require the physical presence of others to occur—that is, knowledge of public opinion may cause an individual
to conform to societal norms even when alone. There are two major motivators to conformity: normative
influence and informational influence. Normative influence occurs when an individual conforms in order to gain
social acceptance and avoid social rejection. For instance, men’s and women’s views of what the ideal body
image is have changed over time. Both men and women will conform to current norms in order to be accepted
by society and avoid social rejection.

A number of factors are known to increase the likelihood of conformity within a group. Some of these are as
follows:

 Group size—larger groups are more likely to conform to similar behaviors and thoughts than
smaller ones. A meta-analysis suggests that conformity pressures in Asch's experiment peak once
the majority reaches about four or five in number. Moreover, a study suggests that the effects of
group size depend on the type of social influence operating. This means that in situations where
the group is clearly wrong, conformity will be motivated by normative influence; the participants
will conform in order to be accepted by the group. A participant may not feel much pressure to
conform when the first person gives an incorrect response. However, conformity pressure will
increase as each additional group member also gives the same incorrect response.
 Unanimity—individuals are more likely to conform to group decisions when the rest of the
group’s response is unanimous.
 Cohesion—groups that possess bonds linking them to one another and to the group as a whole
tend to display more conformity than groups that do not have those bonds.
 Status—individuals are more likely to conform with high-status groups.
 Culture—cultures that are collectivist exhibit a higher degree of conformity than individualistic
cultures. Stanley Milgram found that individuals in Norway (from a collectivistic culture)
exhibited a higher degree of conformity than individuals in France (from an individualistic
culture).
 Gender—women are more likely to conform than men in situations involving surveillance, but
less likely when there is no surveillance. Societal norms establish gender differences that affect
the ways in which men and women conform to social influence. For example, Alice Eagly and
Linda Carli performed a meta-analysis of 148 studies of influenceability. They found that women
are more persuadable and more conforming than men in group pressure situations that involve
surveillance. Eagly has proposed that this sex difference may be due to different sex roles in
society. Women are generally taught to be more agreeable whereas men are taught to be more
independent.
 Age—younger individuals are more likely to conform than older individuals, perhaps due to lack
of experience and status. For example, research with Australian children and adolescents ages 3 to
17 discovered that conformity decreases with age. Another study examined individuals that were
ranged from ages 18 to 91. The results revealed a similar trend – older participants displayed less
conformity when compared to younger participants.
 Importance of stimuli—individuals may conform less frequently when the task is considered
important. This was suggested by a study where participants were told that their responses would
be used in the design of aircraft safety signals, and conformity decreased. In 1961 Stanley
Milgram published a study in which he utilized Asch's conformity paradigm using audio tones
instead of lines; he conducted his study in Norway and France. He found substantially higher
levels of conformity than Asch, with participants conforming 50% of the time in France and 62%

SAGAR SUNUWAR 49
 of the time in Norway during critical trials. Milgram also conducted the same experiment once
more, but told participants that the results of the study would be applied to the design of aircraft
safety signals. His conformity estimates were 56% in Norway and 46% in France, suggesting that
individuals conformed slightly less when the task was linked to an important issue. Stanley
Milgram's study demonstrated that Asch's study could be replicated with other stimuli, and that in
the case of tones, there was a high degree of conformity.
 Minority influence—minority factions within larger groups tend to have influence on overall group
decisions. This influence is primarily informational and depends on consistent adherence to a
position, the degree of defection from the majority, and the status and self-confidence of the
minority members.
Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman identified three major types of conformity.

 Compliance is public conformity, while possibly keeping one's own original beliefs for yourself.
Compliance is motivated by the need for approval and the fear of being rejected.
 Identification is conforming to someone who is liked and respected, such as a celebrity or a favorite
uncle. This can be motivated by the attractiveness of the source, and this is a deeper type of
conformism than compliance.
 Internalization is accepting the belief or behavior and conforming both publicly and privately, if the
source is credible. It is the deepest influence on people and it will affect them for a long time.

Experiments on Confirmity:

Asch’s Line Study AO1

Asch wanted to investigate whether people would conform to the majority in situations where an answer was
obvious.
Procedure: In Asch’s study there were 5-7 participants per group. Each group was presented with a standard line
and three comparison lines. Participants had to say aloud which comparison line matched the standard line in
length. In each group there was only one real participant the remaining 6 were confederates. The confederates
were told to give the incorrect answer on 12 out of 18 trails.
Results: Real participants conformed on 32% of the critical trials where confederates gave the wrong answers.
Additionally, 75% of the sample conformed to the majority on at least one trial. In a control group with no
pressure to conform, participants had an error rate of less 1%.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 50
Factors Affecting Conformity according to the Asch Study:
In further trials, Asch (1952, 1956) changed the procedure (i.e., independent variables) to investigate
which situational factors influenced the level of conformity (dependent variable). His results and conclusions
are given below:
Group Size
Asch altered the number of confederates in his study to see how this effected conformity. The bigger the
majority group (number of confederates), the more people conformed, but only up to a certain point.
With one other person (i.e., confederate) in the group conformity was 3%, with two others it increased to 13%,
and with three or more it was 32% (or 1/3). However, conformity did not increase much after the group size was
about 4/5.
Because conformity does not seem to increase in groups larger than four, this is considered the optimal group
size.

Brown and Byrne (1997) suggest that people might suspect collusion if the majority rises beyond three or four.
According to Hogg & Vaughan (1995), the most robust finding is that conformity reaches its full extent with 3-
5 person majority, with additional members having little effect.
Group Unanimity
A person is more likely to conform when all members of the group agree and give the same answer.
When one other person in the group gave a different answer from the others, and the group answer was not
unanimous, conformity dropped. Asch (1951) found that even the presence of just one confederate that goes
against the majority choice can reduce conformity as much as 80%.
Difficulty of Task
When the (comparison) lines (e.g., A, B, C) were made more similar in length it was harder to judge the correct
answer and conformity increased. When we are uncertain, it seems we look to others for confirmation. The
more difficult the task, the greater the conformity.
Answer in Private
When participants were allowed to answer in private (so the rest of the group does not know their response)
conformity decreases. This is because there are fewer group pressures and normative influence is not as
powerful, as there is no fear of rejection from the group.

Sherif (1935) Autokinetic Effect Experiment

SAGAR SUNUWAR 51
Aim: Sherif (1935) conducted an experiment with the aim of demonstrating that people conform to group norms
when they are put in an ambiguous (i.e. unclear) situation.
Method: Sherif used a lab experiment to study conformity. He used the autokinetic effect – this is where a
small spot of light (projected onto a screen) in a dark room will appear to move, even though it is still (i.e. it is a
visual illusion).
It was discovered that when participants were individually tested their estimates on how far the light moved
varied considerably (e.g. from 20cm to 80cm).
The participants were then tested in groups of three. Sherif manipulated the composition of the group by
putting together two people whose estimate of the light movement when alone was very similar, and one person
whose estimate was very different. Each person in the group had to say aloud how far they thought the light
had moved.
Results: On the first day, each person perceived different amounts of movement, as they participated in the
experiment individually. From the second through the fourth day of the study, estimates were agreed upon by
the group. Sherif said that this showed that people would always tend to conform. Rather than make individual
judgments they tend to come to a group agreement.
Conclusion: The results show that when in an ambiguous situation (such as the autokinetic effect), a person will
look to others (who know more / better) for guidance (i.e. adopt the group norm). They want to do the right
thing, but may lack the appropriate information. Observing others can provide this information. This is known
as informational conformity.
Compliance:

Can be defined as:

Compliance refers to any situation in which individuals change their behavior because they’re requested to do
so.

“Compliance” refers to a response, specifically a submission, made in reaction to an implicit or explicit request.

Compliance is considered a social phenomenon, meaning that the words, actions, or mere presence of other
people often plays a role in someone’s decision whether or not to comply with a given request. The request may
be explicit (directly stated) or implicit (subtly implied); the target may or may not recognize that he or she is
being urged to act in a particular way.

Compliance affects everyday behavior, especially in social interactions. Social psychologists view compliance
as a means of social influence used to reach goals or attain social or personal gains. In studying compliance,
social psychologists aim to examine overt and subtle social influences and their relationship to compliance.
Individuals can be coaxed into compliance in a number of ways, which we will discuss next. Compliance isn’t
the same as obedience. In a situation involving compliance, the individual or group that makes the request isn’t
in a position of authority. Thus, compliance with the request isn’t mandatory.

Examples of Compliance
Compliance can be gained in different ways. Sometimes, it comes as the result of a direct, explicit request. In
other situations, compliance may be gained more insidiously. Here are some examples.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 52
  Imagine a friend asking, “Could you do me a favor?” This is an example of a social situation that
involves compliance. If an individual responds to this question in the affirmative and grants the friend’s
requested favor, that individual is exhibiting compliance.
 Compliance can also come into play in a sales pitch. Imagine a salesperson who arrives at the front door.
The salesperson demonstrates a product, makes an impassioned pitch and then directly asks the
homeowner to make a purchase. If the homeowner agrees to do so, this is an example of compliance.
 Compliance can occur in response to online sales tactics. If individuals see an online banner ad, click on
it and end up making a purchase, then they’re complying. They’re fulfilling the action the advertiser
wanted them to take, regardless of whether this action was requested implicitly or explicitly in the ad
copy.

Factors Influencing Compliance

Factors that influence compliance include the following:

 Group strength: The more important the group is to an individual, the more likely the individual is
to comply with social influence. For instance, an individual is more likely to comply with the
requests of her sorority than her biology classmates.
 Immediacy: The proximity of the group makes an individual more likely to comply with group
pressures. Pressure to comply is strongest when the group is closer to the individual and made of
up people the individual cares about. For example, compliance with parents’ wishes is more likely
if they live in the same city than it is if they live in another state or country.
 Number: Compliance increases as the number of people in a group increases. Importantly, the
influence of adding people starts to decrease as the group gets larger. For example, adding one
person to a large group (from 60 to 61) is less influential than adding one person to a small group
(from three to four).
 Similarity: Perceived shared characteristics cause an individual to be more likely to comply with a
request, particularly when the shared feature is perceived as unplanned and rare (such as a shared
birthday).
Obedience:
Can be defined as:
Obedience is a type of social influence where a person follows an order from another person who is usually an
authority figure.

Obedience is a form of social influence that occurs when a person yields to explicit instructions or orders from
an authority figure.

Obedience, in human behavior, is a form of social influence. It occurs when a person yields to explicit
instructions or orders from an authority figure. Obedience is generally distinguished from compliance (behavior
influenced by peers) and conformity (behavior intended to match that of the majority). Following the Second
World War—and in particular the Holocaust—psychologists set out to investigate the phenomenon of human
obedience. Early attempts to explain the Holocaust had focused on the idea that there was something distinctive
about German culture that had allowed the Holocaust to take place. They quickly found that the majority of
humans are surprisingly obedient to authority. The Holocaust resulted in the extermination of millions of Jews,
Gypsies, and communists; it has prompted us to take a closer look at the roots of obedience—in part, so that
tragedies such as this may never happen again.

Factors Influencing Obedience

SAGAR SUNUWAR 53
Obedience is compliance with commands given by an authority figure. In the 1960s, the social psychologist
Stanley Milgram conducted a famous research study called the obedience study. It showed that people have a
strong tendency to comply with authority figures.

Milgram began his study by telling his forty male participants that they were participating in a study about the
effects of punishment on learning. He assigned each of these subjects the role of teacher while the learners were
accomplices of Milgram (unknown to the actual subjects). Each subject was told that his task was to help
another subject such as himself learn a list of word pairs. Each time the learner made a mistake, the teacher was
to give the learner an electric shock by flipping a switch. The teacher was told to increase the shock level each
time the learner made a mistake, until a dangerous shock level was reached.

Milgram found that subjects were more likely obey in some circumstances than in others. Obedience was
highest when:

 Commands were given by an authority figure rather than another volunteer.

 The experiments were conducted at a recognised institution.
 The authority figure was present in the room with the subject.
 The learner was in another room.
 The subject did not see other subjects disobeying commands.
In everyday situations, such as in the family, school or workplace, people obey orders because:

 They want to get rewards.

 They want to avoid the negative consequences of disobeying.
 They believe an authority is legitimate (morally right and/or legally based).
In more extreme situations, people obey orders even when they are required to violate their own values (as seen
in Milgram’s experiment) or commit crimes. Researchers think several factors cause people to carry obedience
to extremes:

 People justify their behaviour by assigning responsibility to authority figures rather than
themselves.
 People define the behaviour that is expected of them as routine.
 People don’t want to be rude or offend the authority by disobeying them.
 People obey easy commands first and then feel compelled to obey more and more difficult
commands – this process is called entrapment, and it illustrates the foot-in-door phenomenon*.
*The foot-in-door phenomenon is the tendency for people to comply more readily with a large request if they
have already agreed to a smaller favour. E.g. you are more likely to convince someone to make and decorate
200 cupcakes if you first ask them to help you with a much smaller task like shopping for ingredients.

Situational Factors

 Milgram suggested that obedience would be higher if the personal responsibility is given to the
authority figure. Thus was shown when at one point, the participant asks the experimenter “He
might be dead in there, sir! Do you take responsibility?” to which the reply is “I am responsible”,
causing the teacher to sit down and continue administering shocks
 Generator switches only went up in small increments (15V), so participants found it easier to
obey as each wrong answer only merited a minor increase

SAGAR SUNUWAR 54
  Proximity – The closer the authority figure, the higher the level of obedience. Distance seemed
to act as a buffer to obedience, as found in the telephonic instruction condition.
 Status of the authority: Milgram stated that obedience could only be established when the
authority figure was perceived to be legitimate. This was found to be the case when the
experiments were conducted at Yale University, and obedience fell when the experiment was
moved to Bridgeport or conducted by an ordinary man.

Personality Factors

 Locus Of Control – This refers to the extent to which individuals believe they can control events
affecting them. Someone’s locus is either:
 Internal – They believe they have some control over events in their life
 External – They believe that life is determined by environmental factors which they
cannot influence
 Authoritarian Personality – Adorno et al (1950) proposed that individual differences in
obedience could be explained by the idea of an authoritarian personality. They devised the F-
Scale (F for Facist) to measure authoritarianism. High F-Scale scores would show obedience to
those in authority

Gender Factors

 These don’t appear to be any real difference between men & women in their ability to resist
obeying authority.
 Milgram found that men & women were equal in obedience in one of the variations.
Women did report higher levels of stress/tension, showing that they’re maybe more
empathetic than men

Culture Factors

 Individualistic Cultures – They stress the need of the individual over the needs of the group as a
whole. People are seen as autonomous, independent and tend to resist conformity or compliance
 Collectivistic Cultures – They emphasize the needs/goals of the group over the needs/goals of
each individual. Relationships with other members of the group and cooperation/compliance
between people play a central role in each person’s identity

How Does Society Shape and Influence Individuals?

Psychologists agree that all individuals are affected by social influences, and their actions can often be
understood in relation to social norms, trends, customs and rules.

The role of an individual in a social hierarchy can influence behavior. For example, someone who works as a
surgeon or holds a position of authority in the military will likely conduct themselves differently from circus
performers. This stems from a social assumption that a surgeon or military leader will be more serious, or go by
a different set of values, than a trapeze artist. Individuals will often behave in a way that fulfills the role they
play in society and the social assumptions that accompany it.

Social standing can determine whether a person complies with or obeys the wishes of another person. A student
may obey a direct order from a teacher in acknowledgment of the disparity between their social positions.
Meanwhile, a fellow teacher may comply with the friendly request of a peer, wishing to gain approval or
friendship.
SAGAR SUNUWAR 55
Societal norms are also significant. Most individuals in U.S. culture greet new acquaintances with a wave and a
friendly hello. No one is mandated to behave this way, but failure to do so may lead to social awkwardness.
Some additional examples of societal norms, typically followed without questioning, include the following:

 Nodding or saying hello to other people in an elevator

 Refraining from burping in “polite” company
 Not sitting directly next to a stranger in a movie theater, unless it’s crowded and seats are limited
The presence of majority groups can also shape the way people behave. People in a majority group may feel
compelled to uphold certain beliefs or behaviors to maintain their inclusion in that group. Those outside the
group may try to change their actions to gain inclusion. In both situations, the driving impulse is the fear of
being left out.

Finally, prevailing belief systems can influence behavior. For instance, individuals who are in a predominantly
Christian environment are more likely to comply with Christian ethical norms, regardless of whether they
privately accept these norms, simply as a way of fitting in.

Anti-Social Behavior

Anti-social behaviours are actions that harm or lack consideration for the well-being of others. It has also been
defined as any type of conduct that violates the basic rights of another person and any behaviour that is
considered to be disruptive to others in society.This can be carried out in various ways, which includes, but is
not limited to, intentional aggression, as well as covert and overt hostility. Anti-social behaviour also develops
through social interaction within the family and community. It continuously affects a child's temperament,
cognitive ability and their involvement with negative peers, dramatically affecting children's cooperative
problem-solving skills.

Anti-social behaviours are acts that create community concern. These range from misuses of public space, such
as fighting or drug use and dealing, to disregard for community safety, such as dangerous driving or drunk and
disorderly behaviour.

Other examples include acts that cause environmental damage, such as graffiti or litter. Anti-social behaviour
can range from what is socially unacceptable through to acts that break the law. It is most common in late
adolescence but can progress to entrenched criminal behaviour in adulthood.

Unit VI: Aggression and Anti-Social Behavior

Aggression:

The term aggression comes from the Latin word aggressio, meaning attack. A psychological sense of "hostile or
destructive behavior" dates back to a 1912 English translation of Sigmund Freud's writing.

Aggression is an action or response by an individual that delivers something unpleasant to another person.

Social psychologists define aggression as behavior that is intended to harm another individual who does not
wish to be harmed (Baron & Richardson, 1994). Because it involves the perception of intent, what looks like
aggression from one point of view may not look that way from another, and the same harmful behavior may or
may not be aggressive depending on its intent.

Social psychologists define aggression as behavior that is intended to harm another individual who does not
wish to be harmed (Baron & Richardson, 1994). Because it involves the perception of intent, what looks like
SAGAR SUNUWAR 56
aggression from one point of view may not look that way from another, and the same harmful behavior may or
may not be aggressive depending on its intent.

Purposes of Aggression

Aggression can serve a number of different purposes, including:

 To express anger or hostility

 To assert dominance
 To intimidate or threaten
 To achieve a goal
 To express possession
 A response to fear
 A reaction to pain
 To compete with others

Types of Aggression
Psychologists distinguish between two different types of aggression:

 Impulsive Aggression: Also known as affective aggression, impulsive aggression is characterized by

strong emotions, usually anger. This form of aggression is not planned and often takes place in the heat
of the moment. When another car cuts you off in traffic and you begin yelling and berating the other
driver, you're experiencing impulsive aggression. Research suggests that impulsive aggression,
especially when it's caused by anger, triggers the acute threat response system in the brain, involving the
amygdala, hypothalamus, and periaqueductal gray (PAG).
 Instrumental Aggression: Also known as predatory aggression, instrumental aggression is marked by
behaviors that are intended to achieve a larger goal. Instrumental aggression is often carefully planned
and usually exists as a means to an end. Hurting another person in a robbery or car-jacking is an
example of this type of aggression. The aggressor's goal is to obtain money or a vehicle, and harming
another individual is the means to achieve that aim.

 Social psychologists agree that aggression can be verbal as well as physical. Physical
aggression is aggression that involves harming others physically—for instance hitting, kicking,
stabbing, or shooting them. Nonphysical aggression is aggression that does not involve physical harm.
Nonphysical aggression includes verbal aggression (yelling, screaming, swearing, and name calling)
and relational or social aggression, which is defined as intentionally harming another person’s social
relationships, for instance by gossiping about another person, excluding others from our friendship, or
giving others the “silent treatment” (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995). Nonverbal aggression also occurs in the
form of sexual, racial, and homophobic jokes and epithets, which are designed to cause harm to
individuals.

Theories of Aggression:
1.Instinct Theory of Aggression:
The instinct theory of aggression was advanced by Sigmund Freud (1927). In his earlier writings, Freud viewed
that all human behaviour originates either directly or indirectly from ‘EROS’, the life instinct, which helps in
reproduction of life. In this back ground aggression was considered simply as a reaction to the blocking of

SAGAR SUNUWAR 57
libidinal impulses. Thus, it was neither an automatic nor an inevitable part of life. But in course of
psychoanalysis and particularly after the second world war Freud recognized the presence of two basic urges
such as Eros and Thantos or life instinct and death instinct instead of one instinct (Life instinct) held earlier.

Freud with experience and analysis gradually came to adopt the nature of human aggression, and proposed a
second major instinct named the Thantos, the force of death or destruction whose energy in directed towards the
destruction or termination of life, towards hatred, anger and violence and towards all sorts of aggressive
feelings, actions, dealings and behaviours.

He thus held that all human behaviour including aggressive behaviour stems from the complex interaction
between the instinct of Eros and Thantos and the constant tension between them.

Freud held that the death instinct is uncontrolled and results in self destruction. So he indicated that through
other mechanisms like displacement, the energy of Thantos i.e. aggression is redirected outward and serves as
the basis for aggression against others instead of destructing the self. Thus in Freud’s view aggression originates
primarily from the redirection of self destructive death instinct away from the person towards others. The
instinct theory of aggression was not much developed by Freud in the beginning. But later on, he and his
associates worked on it and attempted to explain it in detail.

The instinct theory of aggression originates from the instinct of death or destruction. Physiologically the death
instinct represents the force which tend to destroy the organic life and to lead organic matter back to the
inorganic state.

Psychologically the death instinct gives rise to hostile and aggressive behaviour, to aggressive sexual activity or
to self and race destruction. Thus love and hatred, pleasure and pain, life and death instincts go side by side. The
death instinct otherwise known as the instinct of aggression is also expressed in destructive and aggressive
intellectual activities such as criticism, satire and taunts.

According to the instinct theory of aggression, aggression is a global instinctive, steam boiler like force which
Freud and his associates argue is urgently required and basically inevitable for self preservation as well as
reproduction. McDougall has also denoted the phenomenon of aggression in the instinct of combat on the basis
of the instinct theory of aggression first postulated by Freud, Miller, Dollard and others.

According to Freud when we analyze the desire for love we also find some desire for aggression. Thus the best
loved friend becomes the bitterest enemy when both fall out. In our hence attitude towards every stimulus there
is the desire for love as well as aggression.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 58
The instinct theory of aggression holds that aggression is inherited and biological in nature and is expressed
overtly and covertly i.e., outwardly and internally. Subsequently Freud had decided there is no use in trying to
get rid of man’s aggressive inclinations.

His positive social proposals were to break up human societies in to small communities through which the
aggressive instinct can find an outlet in enmity towards those outside the group in a conveniently and relatively
harmless form.

Freud holds that life and death instincts are primary instincts and all other instincts are derived from these. But
recently Freud’s concept of aggressive instinct or death instinct, which he said is the basis for conflict between
human groups, has been discarded.

The instinct theory of Freud (1927) is said to be the starting point but not the corner stone of psychoanalysis.
Psychologists working in the area of frustration and aggression have in fact found that aggression in not
instinctive, but it develops as a reaction to frustration of basic urges experienced during early childhood period.

According to Alexander “Fear of the consequences of losing love because of jealousy gives rise to aggression.
No matter whether love or hate are instinctual or early acquired, they are always with us. The facts of love and
hate are psychological data independent of the theory.”
The two instincts advanced by Freud are not mutually opposed to each other. Behaviour originated by life
instinct may have strong components of death instinct and behaviour mainly motivated by death instinct may
have strong components of life instinct. Same psychologists object to the death instinct advanced by Freud.

They say death instinct is a part of life instinct and hence it not justified to introduce it as a separate instinct.
Some biologists also go against the aggressive instinct advanced by Freud. They argue that life instinct
motivates an organism to live and to do whatever is possible for the sake of living. It is due to this that we are
organisms. If we wish death, how could we be called organisms?

Social learning and imitation also induce aggression. Aggression may occur due to some hormonal and
biological factors, but it is not instinctive as Freud held.

According to Berkowitz (1962) Research findings offer little support for Freud’s reasoning. He held that the
view of an innate drive for destruction can be attacked both factually and logically.

The group for advancement of psychiatry (1964) formally rejected the instinct theory of aggression advanced by
Freud and held “war is a social institution; it is not inevitably rooted in the nature of man.” These conclusions
are supported by studies during Second World War.
The great majority of soldiers reported that their reason for fighting was to get the job done or the desire not to
let their outfits down. Only 2 percent said that they fought out of anger, revenge or fighting spirit. Another

SAGAR SUNUWAR 59
3percent gave replies that might be interpreted as aggressive such as crushing or cutting the aggressor piece by
piece.

Lornez’s View:
Observations of animals in their natural habitats led some psychologists to view that aggressive drive has an
innate, biological or instinctive basis. In the opinion of Konrad Lorenz, aggression which causes physical harm
to others starts from a fighting instinct that human beings share with other organisms. The energy associated
with this instinct is spontaneously produced in individuals at a more or less constant rate.

The probability of aggression increases as a function of the amount of stored energy and the presence and
strength of aggression releasing stimuli. According to him aggression is inevitable and at times spontaneous
outbursts of powerful feelings occur like volcanic irruption.

Lorenz considers aggression as a “true, primarily species preserving instinct”, in humans as well as in animals.
Though observation of animal behaviour suggests that the innate instinct of aggression drives animals to
aggressive behaviour, the same should not be generalized in case of human beings, and such generalization if
made by anybody is highly questionable.
There are in fact major differences between human aggression and animal aggression. While animal aggression
can be controlled and regulated by immediate changes in the stimulus, human aggression can be maintained by
mediating cognitive structures and to a much smaller degree stimulus bound. (Feshbach)

Thus the issue of biological basis of aggression is a controversial one and needs further debate. But according to
Mussen, Conger & Kagan there is strong possibility that constitutional factors play a significant role in human
aggression. They further view that sex differences in aggressive behaviour most likely have a biological basis.

It is found that experimental administration of hormone of male monkeys, pigs to female rat’s pigs and monkey
makes them much more aggressive in their approaches to others. Further it is seen that activity level of a person
is connected with his constitution. An active child is more found to be involved in aggressive encounters.

2. Frustration Aggression Hypothesis:

Miller and Dollard defined frustration as “that condition which exists when a goal response suffers
interference.” Frustrating events are those which block the individual’s goal oriented behaviour, threaten his
sell’ esteem or deprive him of the opportunity to gratify his important motives and immediate goals.
When an event or situation disturbs or upsets the child or the adult, it is considered frustrating. But a situation
which is considered frustrating for one person may not be frustrating for another person. Here parental training,
social class, economic status and early childhood training for frustration tolerance play their role.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 60
Freud probably for the first time gave the term frustration a scientific basis. Frustration in simple terms may be
defined as that state in the organism which exists as a consequence of interference in the goal oriented
behaviour and gives rise to a number of maladaptive or substituted reactions.

A person who fails to marry his sweet heart because of parental rejection and social restrictions is said to be
suffering from severe frustration.

Frustration during childhood may arise from several sources because of his helplessness at birth. The famous
German psycholosist Ottorank held that birth cry indicates the greatest frustration in human life. The pangs of
separation from the mother acts as a tremendous source of frustration.

Minor interferences however may bring mild and brief reactions of aggression. The view of Freud and his
followers that aggression is an instinct and innate drive has been rejected by later psychologists like Miller;
Bollard and many others. They have proposed that it is a frustration instigated drive.

The Frustration-Aggression hypothesis proposed by Miller Bollard and others (1939) is a significant
contribution is tracing the causes of aggression. This hypothesis states that aggression is always a consequence
of frustration. Miller applied this hypothesis to the Negroes of U.S.A. to study their reaction as a consequence to
the frustration imposed by the white groups.

Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis postulates the following:

1. A thwarting person’s efforts to reach a goal induces an aggressive drive in him which in turn triggers off a
behaviour to injure or destroy the person or object which has caused the frustration.

2. The expression of aggression reduces the desire for it.

The key aspect of the hypothesis is that aggression is the measure and fundamental reaction to frustration
though other responses like regression, withdrawal, reaction formation and displacement etc. may occur.

According to this hypothesis aggression is not inborn but is a learned behaviour. Since frustration is found
universally aggression is also found universally, they say, and hence frustration may be considered as a drive.

Marke and Ervin (1970) further view that even though the presence of some genetic or biological factors in
aggression cannot be ruled out in case of human beings, these mechanism are under the cognitive control of
man. A person with a particular brain injury may react aggressively to situations which may not give rise to any
aggressive response in case of a normal person without brain injury.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 61
This indicates that a normal person has cognitive control capacity where as a brain injured person lacks this. In
normal persons the frequency with which the aggressive behaviour is expressed, the form it takes and the
situations in which it is displayed are determined greatly by learning and socio-cultural factors.

The proponents of the Frustration Aggression hypothesis advocate that aggression is always a consequence of
frustration of some sort.

This hypothesis by far is said to be most influential model for intergroup prejudice and aggression. This theory
briefly holds that frustration produces aggression which acts as a drive or motive to react, combat or make
attacks.

Supporting the frustration—aggression hypothesis or drive theory of aggression, Newcomb opines “Frustration
always induces motivation of some kind of aggression and if no aggression occurs, it has been inhibited.”
If the frustration is produced by a powerful person like the employer, or the boss, the teacher, the husband or in
laws, the parents, the aggressive reaction is inhibited. My grandson Anuraag when wants to view cartoon net
work in television his father objects strongly.

Anuraag inhibits his aggression towards his father and withdraws from the Television. But when the maid
servant asks him not to see cartoon net work, immediately he shouts at her and sometimes gives her a kick.
Thus members of the out group who are considered less powerful become suitable targets of aggression and
hence become the scapegoats for the frustrated members of the more powerful groups.

Hence, in line with Freudian energy model, (Instinct theory), the aggression is stored and compounded with
each new frustration ready to be released on a powerless or less powerful stimulus. According to Freudians the
expression of aggression is desirable as it would drain off the accumulation of aggressive urges.

Inhibition of aggressive urges on the other hand will lead to psychological complications during the subsequent
stages of personality development. At least the child should be allowed to vent his aggression on his toys and
dolls or in painting and drawings. He should be allowed to play and run to release the suppressed energy.

Another theory based on Freudian theory postulates that repeated frustrations and severe harsh treatment in
early child hood produce subsequently an authoritarian personality which is rigid, unfriendly, undemocratic and
prejudiced towards the out groups and hence prone to violence. Such frustrated persons lack good social
relationship and fail to undertake successful social interactions.

They are moody, irritative and get excited all of a sudden on some very trivial or minor issues. With slightest
provocation they start quarrelling, combating and make counter arguments in an agitated manner as if
aggression is deep rooted in their personality. Such people are not liked by the society.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 62
From these two theories which are interred related the following conclusions can be made:
1. Aggression is not an inevitable response to frustration. In both animal and human studies frustration has
produced different other reactions like submission, regression, repression, projection, displacement, withdrawal
reaction and other defence mechanisms or forgetting about the episode.

2. Many aggressive acts are not instigated by frustration. Ber Kowitz’s research (1962) led to the undisputed
conclusion that there are some aggressive acts that are not necessarily instigated by frustration. For example,
killing and destruction during an operation or war is a policy decision and this need not be considered as
reactions of frustrated individuals.

3. The most frustrated people are not necessarily the most aggressive. Women are highly frustrated in societies
throughout the world, but they are relatively less aggressive than males perhaps because of biological reasons
and social learning.

Sherif (1953) in this connection holds “with a society divided by hatred and violence among its groups, the
direction of prejudice and hostility is typically from the dominants and mighty groups downward to the down
trodden and deprived.”
Comparison between different societies and cultures do not prove that the most frustrated are necessarily the
most aggressive.

As Klinberg rightly points out at the time when lynching negroes’ was not uncommon in the southern United
States, White Brazilians were by and large much more frustrated in their attempts to maintain a subsistence
level of life and were similarly subjected to the ups and downs of economic conditions.

But they were not lynching the Brazilian Negroes. The Indian soldiers in the Jammu and Kasmir border and
near the P.O.K are being killed mercilessly and subjected to terrorists attack daily. But they are not lynching the
enemies or making henius terrorist attacks.

4. The scape goat theory does not explain the targets of aggression. This theory holds that the most likely targets
would be the people most helpless and most likely to retaliate. BerKowitz (1962) found that the most helpless
groups are not always the objects of hatred and not the only ones.

He therefore reached at the conclusion that the scape goat theory as usually formulated is incomplete. In
studying juvenile gangs of Chicago in 1927 Thraser observed that the height of solidarity and mutual trust
among members frequently accompanied their most intense conflicts with other groups.

Considering the limitations of the famous frustration-aggression hypotheses, later psychologists challenged it
and tried to bring modifications. They hold that aggression is a consequence of frustration but it is not the only

SAGAR SUNUWAR 63
or sole reaction to frustration. G.K Morton, in “A note on the Frustration—Aggression theory of Dollard and his
associates” criticised as follows.
“The view of Miller, Dollard that frustration leads to some sort of aggression is equal to the falacy which was
popular 20 years back i.e., if you suppress your sexual urges a complex will set in and therefore people let
themselves go…perhaps the frustration aggression is roughly equivalent in validity to this view on sex.”

When exposed to severe frustration many people become depressed rather than aggressive. Aggression does not
always originate from frustration.

In-spite of the controversies the Frustration— Aggression hypothesis advanced by Dollard et.al.(1939) still
stands the test of time. That aggression is the fundamental reaction to frustration, though not the only one,
nobody can deny.

This theory is still considered as an excellent theory which explains how frustration produces aggression and if
frustration is minimized aggression, violence and crime can be minimized in the society if not totally uprooted.
In-spite of the criticisms that this hypothesis had to face and in-spite of its limitations it is undoubtedly the
starting point of all researches in the area of frustration, aggression and its probable reactions.

3. Social Learning Theory:

Subsequent research works in the area of frustration and aggression give the impression that Frustration—
Aggression hypothesis should be modified. From such researches originate the Social Learning Theory.

Bandura, Berkowitz and others, the proponents of social learning theory view that an awakening results from
frustration does not necessarily lead to aggression, but only creates a condition for a readiness to cope with a
threatening situation.

It can cause different kinds of responses depending upon the kind of responses an individual has learned to cope
with the frustrating situations in the earlier period of life.

Thus, he may become aggressive, may become regressive and cry or may withdraw from the situation, may
remain silent, may displace his aggression on others or may seek the help of others. That response which has
been most successful in the past in relieving his frustration will be repeated.

Bandura (1965) has demonstrated that aggressive responses can be learned by reinforcement or by imitation or
by modeling which come under social learning theory. In a study on nursery school children it was observed
that when an adult showed various forms of aggressive responses towards a large doll, the children showed
similar aggressive responses through imitation.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 64
There after they were shown film versions of aggressive modeling using dolls as cartoons. Results showed that
the children who had observed life cartoon characters exhibited greater aggressive behaviour. It was also
noticed from follow up studies that children remembered these aggressive reactions even after eight months.

Crime and violence shown in television and films now a day’s help increase of aggressive behaviour, crime and
hostility to enormous extent. This proves that aggressive behaviour in mostly learnt and imitated from the
environment is which the child lives.

Julian Rotter (1954, 1982) another, contributor to Social Learning Theory suggests that the likelihood that a
given behaviour will occur in a specific situation depends upon the learning and imitation of the organism in a
social situation, the expectancies concerning the outcome of a behaviour will produce and the reinforcement
value they attach to such out conies i.e. the degree to which they prefer one reinforce to another.

Social learning theory relies on the role of modeling, identification and human interactions. According to
Bandura a person can learn by imitating and observing the behaviour of another person. But at the same time
personal factors also play a role in determining one’s identification with and imitation of other persons.

If the model is not liked, appreciated or respected by the person, then his behaviour may not be imitated only
when a person identifies with another person and likes him, he accepts him as a model and imitates him.

A child imitates his parents because he likes and respects them as they take care of him, provide him security,
confidence, love and affection. In course of parenting he observes their behaviour and imitates them. Social
learning through observation is also called imitation learning. Social learning theorists combine operant and
classical conditioning theories.

How? Although observation of models is a major factor in the learning process of social learning theory, it is
important that-imitation of model must be rewarded and reinforced if the person has to identify with the person
and accept his qualities as his own quality. He not only accepts the qualities of his model, he also learns to
behave like them under similar situation.

Alfred Bandura is a major proponent of Social Learning School; According to him behaviour occurs as a result
of the interplay between cognitive and environmental factors, a concept known as reciprocal determinism.
When children or other persons learn by observing others either incidentally or intentionally, this process is
called Modeling or Learning through imitation.

But choice of a model depends upon so many factors like age, sex, status, similarity to oneself, whether he likes
or dislikes him, whether he respects or dis-respects him etc. usually it is found that that because of sex role
identification a son accepts his father as his model and a daughter usually accepts her mother as a model and
they imitate their parents accordingly.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 65
But suppose due to some reasons the boy does not like his father but loves his mother most then he may accept
his mother as a model and imitate her behaviour, likes and dislikes dress, emotion etc.

If the mother shows aggressive reaction towards the cook, the child will learn to show the same reaction. If the
mother does not like a particular food, the child will not like the same. Sometimes children are found to accept
their teachers as model and imitate their behaviour.

If the model selected by the child is normal, less aggressive, reflects healthy values and norms the child
develops socially acceptable qualities. On the other-hand an aggressive model helps in the development of
aggressive reactions. Normal and socially acceptable behaviour of the model develops the capacity to adapt to
normal everyday life and various threatening, dangerous situations in day to day life.

Even abnormal and maladaptive behaviour learnt from un-favourable role models can be eliminated through
behaviour modification technique (operant conditioning).

Through behaviour therapy a person can learn alternate behaviour from other role models who show normal and
society acceptable models. It is true that an aggressive and maladaptive model helps in the development of
aggressive and maladaptive behaviour. As children grow older they acquire the knowledge of sex category
through social learning.

Social learning theory emphasizes the impact of modeling and operant conditioning learning on acquisition of
different behaviors. According to social learning theory children are rewarded with verbal praise when they
behave in accordance with gender roles and gender stereotypes i.e., when they show the behaviour as boys or
girls sanctioned and expected by the society.

For example a boy learns to be dressed like his father or brother and he plays games decided for the boys or the
games which other boys play.

If a boy is dressed like a girl he is ridiculed by the society and this activity is not reinforced or rewarded. So he
gives up being dressed like a girl and starts wearing the dresses meant for boys. Similarly a girl learns to help
her mother in house hold works as society expects a girl to do so.

Here the approval of parents and sanction of society acts as rein-forcer for the child, so he imitates such
activities. On the contrary, punishment eliminates certain learning and behaviour not approved by the society
and culture. When a boy imitates the male members of his family and a girl imitates the female members of the
family they tend to adopt the behaviour shown by their same sex models.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 66
Bandura’s social learning theory suggests that people can learn by observing others and events in the
environment as well as by participating them. In several recent studies Bandura, Bandura and Walters et.al,
demonstrated the usefulness of observational learning in children.

They have also provided great deal of information regarding factors that influence the likelihood of a subject’s
subsequently imitating responses acquired through observation. In a typical experiment a child is exposed to a
real life or filmed model who is either a child or an adult.

The model then performs various activities and the child observes them. There after it is examined how far the
child has imitated the actions displayed by the models. Changes that occur in the behaviour of the child after
observing models and imitating them are not always positive in nature. Very often people are likely to acquire
bad habits as good ones.

A child of 3 years Atul went to a neighbor’s place to play with his friend Babloo. When he reached there he saw
Babloo was rolling on the floor, crying and crying and showing tantrums as his mother did not give him money
to buy ice-cream. Atul observed this vividly and next day he was found showing the same tantrums and
aggressive actions when his mother refused to give him money to buy chocolates.

In another incident a boy named Raju saw his friend Bittoo spitting on his maid servant as she did not allow her
to go out and play with his friend in the absence of his mother who was a working woman. Next day Raju was
found spitting on his servant boy’s face as he broke his Spiderman. These are all learned aggressive behaviour
coming under social learning.

Social learning theory suggests that through observation and imitation of models a lot of behaviour is learnt.
Even by observing “Saktiman”, “Spiderman” and other serials, in television many children learn to show
similar kinds of aggressive actions. Due to hero-worship many boys are found to run, jump, kick and beat.
However, in case of girls such actions are less found probably because of discouragement by parents and lack of
reinforcement by society. Many experiments on children prove the concept of social learning theory through
observational learning and imitation.

A very famous study on learning to show aggression was conducted by Bandura and Ross and Ross (1963). The
study indicates how children learn to be aggressive by observing an adult aggressive model.

In this study they took two groups of nursery school children as samples. The control group was exposed to a
quiet non-aggressive amiable adult model. But the experimental group was exposed to an aggressive adult
model that kicked a big inflated Bobo Doll, scolded and insulted it.

The adult model in the experimental group knocked the doll down, sat on it, pushed it, insulted verbally and
threw it several times in the air, punched it repeatedly in the nose.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 67
Later the children of both the groups were allowed to play in a room with several toys including a Bobo Doll.
Careful observation of their behaviour revealed that those who had seen the aggressive adult model often
imitated his behaviour. They too punched the toy, sat on it and often uttered verbal comments similar to those of
the model.

On the contrary children of the control group rarely if ever demonstrated such actions of violence and
aggression. The findings of this study prove that children acquire new ways of aggressing through exposure to
violent television programmes, movies and aggressive behaviour of his parents, grand-parents and teachers.

Social scientists explain the in-disciplined aggressive and ruthless behaviour of many modern youths as a
consequence of imitating the same from the above agencies. All learned aggressive behaviour come under
social learning.

The ability to learn by observing the activities of others in the family or society is due to the cognitive influence
of learning. Even Tolman’s experiment on rats learning to run mazes substantiates the fact that simple creatures
can learn from experience to form internal models to guide later behaviour.

Social learning theory emphasizes the role of learning, especially impact of modeling and operant conditioning
techniques of learning. According to this theory children are rewarded for behaving in accordance with gender
stereotypes and gender roles.

“I act like my Papa so I am a boy” “I act like my Mummy so I am a girl”, they say. In this manner their ideas
about sex role and sex stereotypes develop. Children usually identify with their own sex models.

Rotter who has also contributed to social learning theory is of view that those individuals who strongly believe
that they can make and change their own personalities, own destinies they are known as Internals. On the other
hand those who believe that their destiny and personality is an outcome of the forces in their outside or external
environment and they have no control upon them, they are known as Externals.

Internals are often happy people and are better adjusted because they try to shape their career and future. The
externals throw all the responsibilities on the outside environment and hardly make any attempt to build their
character, personality and future.

According to Rotter, “internal factors such as subjective estimates concerning the likelihood of various
outcomes, subjective reactions to those out comes and generalized expectancies of personal control all combine
to influence behaviour”.
These suggestions of Rotter definitely contrast very sharply with the view stated in early learning approach to
personality that only external reinforcement contingencies should be taken in the account.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 68
Internals:
In Rotters Social Learning theory “Internals” are those individuals who believe that they exert sufficient control
over the outcomes they experiences.

Externals:
Externals are those individuals who believe that they have little control over the outcomes they experience. The
social learning theory advocates that people benefit from the exposures to others. Many people who came to
psychologists for help appear to have inadequate basic social skills of communication and social relations.

They do not know how interact with others in an effective manner. They do not know how to make a request
without sounding pusliy or how to refuse one request without annoying the requester.

To-day, I went to a bank in some personal work. There I found that one customer was angrily arguing with one
bank employee and they were having very heated discussion over a very small issue i.e., updating the pass book
of the customer. Both the customer and the bank employee I feel lacked minimum sense of courtesy, patience
and the skill to interact successfully.

Such people don’t know how to expose their feelings clearly and how to hold their temper in check. They lack
in emotional intelligence and even how to start, continue and hold an ordinary conversation. Such individuals
experience difficulties in forming friendships and intimate relationships, they also face difficulties every-where
for getting things done. In short, they don’t know how to behave properly.

They feel helpless, depressed, aggressive and anxious because of their difficulties. Presence of such qualities
makes life hail.

Behaviour therapists have developed techniques to modify such aggressive, undesirable, socially unacceptable
qualities and help people improve their social skills through observational learning.

There techniques of therapy often involve modeling, i.e., showing these people live demonstrations or video
tapes of how people with good social skills behave in different situations. Modeling as a very successful
technique in social learning is often used in “Assertive training” which helps clients to learn how to express
their feeling and desires more clearly.
Women who learn to be unassertive, shy, obedient, submissive and tolerant by observing women models from
the childhood with these qualities, can be made assertive, confident, self supportive and protective by proper
assertive training through alternate models. But assertiveness is not aggressiveness.

Assertiveness means being able to state one’s preferences, wishes, desires and needs rather than simply
surrendering to others wishes and desires. Pushy persons can be checked through assertiveness. Sometime we
wish to avoid a person or refuse something which we don’t want.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 69
But we cannot do it because of our unassertiveness. This can be achieved by assertiveness training, women in
India and other developing, under developed countries should be given this assertiveness training.

Appropriate good social models in the view of Bandura can irradiate many aggressive behaviour. It can also be
controlled through social learning of desirable and unaggressive models. Thus the crux of social learning theory
is learning through models.

4.Nature vs Nurture Debate on Aggression (Is Aggression innate or learned??)

The nature vs. nurture topic has been a continuing debate for many aspects of human behavior, including
aggression. Instinct theories propose that the causes of aggression are internal, whereas learning theories
propose that the causes of aggression are external. There have been many studies indicating that chemical
relationships between serotonin, testosterone, and frontal lobe brain chemistry may play a key role in
determining aggressive behavior, while other studies have explored environmental and societal factors that have
been said to control patterns in human aggression.

Argument of Nature:

The argument for nature surrounds the possible biological reasons for why human aggression is exhibited. The
reasons for why there is aggressive behavior in humans include a range of hypotheses. Aggression may have a
chemical, hormonal, or genetic basis. Research has shown that stimulation of certain parts of animals' brains
leads to aggression. Stimulation of other parts stops aggression . Some researches believe that it stems from low
levels of serotonin. Terrie Moffitt and colleagues studied the blood serotonin levels of 781 21-year-old men and
women. The researchers report that "in this study, elevated whole blood serotonin was characteristic of violent
men." (Low brain levels of serotonin, but high levels of blood serotonin, are associated with behavior disorders-
apparently because of serotonin's different origin and function in blood and brain.) The violent men's mean
serotonin level was .48 standard deviations (SD) above the norm for males as a group, and .56 SD above the
mean for non-violent men. Among female subjects, no relationship between serotonin levels and aggression was
seen . Others seem to think that it may be due to testosterone. High testosterone (male sex hormone) is
associated with more unfaithfulness, more sex, more divorce, more competitiveness, and anti-social behavior.
And still others believe that it may stem from a specific gene. A large survey of adopted children has found that
living with an adoptive parent who committed crimes is less risky than merely having the genes from a person
who committed crimes.

Sigmund Freud argued that human motivational forces such as sex and aggression are based on instincts. In his
early writings, Freud proposed the drive for sensory and sexual gratification as the primary human instinct,
which he called eros. After witnessing the horrors of World War I, however, Freud proposed that humans also
have a destructive, death instinct, which he called thanatos.

According to Konrad Lorenz, a Nobel Prize-winning scientist, aggressive behavior in both humans and
nonhumans comes from an aggressive instinct. This aggressive instinct presumably developed during the course
of evolution because it promoted survival of the human species. Because fighting is closely linked to mating,
the aggressive instinct helped ensure that only the strongest individuals would pass on their genes to future
generations.

Argument of Nurture:

SAGAR SUNUWAR 70
The argument for nurture involves aspects of human life that surround societal reasons for why aggression
occurs as a part of human behavior. Certain aspects of human life have been singled out as factors that seem to
contribute to the development and control of aggression, including cognitive factors, family factors,
neighborhood factors, and peer influences.

Other psychologists have proposed that aggression is not an innate drive, like hunger, in search of gratification.

The Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis model states simply that: "Aggression is always a consequence of
frustration." and "The existence of frustration always leads to some form of aggression", where Frustration is
blocking a path towards the goal and Aggression is a series of actions whose goal response is injury to another
organism or its substitute. When a human being notices that his way to a goal is blocked, aggression arises.
Here aggression arises because the person is frustrated. Unfortunately, the second part of this sweeping claim is
patently false. Frustration may make you bite your tongue, think about something else, or laugh it off. Heavily
influenced by behaviorism as well as by Freud, frustration-aggression theorists define frustration as the
thwarting of an action that would have produced reward or gratification.

The Social Learning Theory denies that humans are innately aggressive and that frustration automatically leads
to aggression. Instead Bandura (1973) argues that aggression is learned in two basic ways: (1) from observing
aggressive models and (2) from receiving and/or expecting payoffs following aggression. The payoffs may be in
the form of (a) stopping aggression by others, (b) getting praise or status or some other goal by being
aggressive, (c) getting self-reinforcement and private praise, and (d) reducing tension.

According to Albert Bandura’s social learning theory, people learn aggressive behaviors the same ways they
learn other social behaviors—by direct experience and by observing others. When people observe and copy the
behavior of others, this is called modeling. Modeling can weaken or strengthen aggressive responding. If the
model is rewarded for behaving aggressively, aggressive responding is strengthened in observers. If the model
is punished for behaving aggressively, aggressive responding is weakened in observers.

This nature versus nurture debate has frequently generated more heat than light. Many experts on aggression
favor a middle ground in this debate. There is clearly a role for learning, and people can learn how to behave
aggressively. Given the universality of aggression and some of its features (e.g., young men are always the most
violent individuals), and recent findings from heritability studies, there may be an innate basis for aggression as
well.

Causes of Aggression:
Aggression is an act, carried out towards another person intentionally and without the permission of the victim.
Many people believe that we are naturally born with this reactionary act, while others believe that it is a learned
response from our culture. There of course is hundreds, maybe even thousands of studies proving each
conflicting theory. So whether it is nature or nurture, scientists have agreed there are many causes to
aggression, which will include inner, interpersonal and external categories.

a. Internal Causes of Aggression

Inner causes of aggression has been named and categorized into five different types.

Frustration:

SAGAR SUNUWAR 71
In psychology, frustration is a common emotional response to opposition, related
to anger, annoyance and disappointment. Frustration is a very common emotional response when we can’t get
what we want or when things don’t go the way we want them to; when we get blocked. Frustration arises from
the perceived resistance to the fulfillment of an individual's will or goal and is likely to increase when a will or
goal is denied or blocked. “They defined frustration as blocking or interfering with a goal” (Bushman &
Baumeister). This is one cause of aggression that most of us know too well, the type we show earliest. As
toddlers, children will get aggressive with each other quickly over any frustration that they are feeling. To me,
this is the most powerful inner cause of aggression because to have something in the way of a goal will cause
inner turmoil, that will result in action. Any action that will let you achieve your goal. Frustration often leads
directly to aggression as when a person gets angry.

Being in Bad Mood

Bad moods are another cause of aggression that will come from inside a person. People are far more likely to
get aggressive as a way of handling a situation, when they are already irritable about another unrelated issue.
Suppose you just broke up with your boyfriend and then someone knocks into you knocking you down
accidentally. You would be more likely to want to yell or hit that person if you are in a bad mood, as opposed to
if you were in a good mood from a previous event

Hostile Cognitive Biases

Hostile cognitive biases are the way we perceive ambiguous and even innocent actions of others. We are more
likely to act aggressively, if we view actions as aggressive from others. The bias that ambiguous actions are
hostile, is hostile attribution bias (Baumeister & Bushman). Perceiving all social interaction as aggressive would
be a hostile perception bias. If you expect hostility from others, this is a hostile expectation bias. So in general,
if a person perceive people or the world at large as hostile, they are more likely to react with hostility as well.

Age

Age is another cause of aggression. The most hostile and aggressive age for human is childhood, namely
toddlers. Toddlers will resort to violence 25% of the time when faced with a problem, much higher than any
other age group (Baumeister & Bushman). Adolescents and young adults come in second on the aggressiveness
scale, partly the reason why so many murderers are in this age range. A toddler then, has a better chance of
hitting you for taking something away from then, then any other age group.

Gender

A person’s gender may also be the cause of aggression, men of course, are statistically more aggressive. I am
sure it has a lot to do with the natural makeup and chemical compositions of their bodies. “There is no known
society in which women commit most of the violent crimes” (Baumeister & Bushman, 2013). So from
childhood, men will be far more likely to be aggressive in all stages of life and age, just because they are men.

b. Interpersonal Causes

Selfishness and Influence:

SAGAR SUNUWAR 72
This purports that people are aggressive as a way to get what they want. If a child throws a fit and yells, and is
then rewarded with his goal, he will continue the process. So if it works, it will be a method that is used up until
and including the years of adulthood.

Domestic Violence

Domestic and relationship violence is an epidemic in many cultures, ours included. “Aggression is
highest amongst siblings, as compared to all other relationships (Wiehe, 1991). This cause of
aggression includes child abuse, molestation, as well as spousal abuse.

c. External Causes of Aggression

Chemical Influences

Numerous chemicals have been shown to influence aggression, including testosterone, cortisol, serotonin, and
alcohol.

Testosterone. Testosterone is the male sex hormone. Both males and females have testosterone, but males have
a lot more of it. Testosterone has been linked to aggression. Robert Sapolsky, author of The Trouble With
Testosterone, wrote, “Remove the source of testosterone in species after species and levels of aggression
typically plummet. Reinstate normal testosterone levels afterward with injections of synthetic testosterone, and
aggression returns.”

Cortisol. A second hormone that is important to aggression is cortisol. Cortisol is the human stress hormone.
Aggressive people have low cortisol levels, which suggests that they experience low levels of stress. How can
this explain aggression? People who have low cortisol levels do not fear the negative consequences of their
behavior, so they might be more likely to engage in aggressive behavior. Also, people who have low cortisol
become easily bored, which might lead to sensation-seeking behavior such as aggression.

Serotonin. Another chemical influence is serotonin. In the brain, information is communicated between neurons
(nerve cells) by the movement of chemicals across a small gap called the synapse. The chemical messengers are
called neurotransmitters. Serotonin is one of these neurotransmitters. It has been called the “feel good”
neurotransmitter. Low levels of serotonin have been linked to aggression in both animals and humans. For
example, violent criminals have a serotonin deficit.

Alcohol. Alcohol has long been associated with violent and aggressive behavior. Well over half of violent
crimes are committed by individuals who are intoxicated. Does all of this mean that aggression is somehow
contained in alcohol? No. Alcohol increases rather than causes violent or aggressive tendencies. Factors that
normally increase aggression, such as provocation, frustration, aggressive cues, and violent media, have a much
stronger effect on intoxicated people than on sober people.

Genetically influenced

Aggressive behaviors are believed to be inherited thus being passed on from generation to generation through
the DNA of individuals. This has been witnessed where both a father and son display aggressive behaviors.
Genes or the genetic component of individuals influence personality and trait disorders thus determining the
behaviors of an individual. If there is a biological background for aggressive behavior, then the risk of
aggressive behavior in children will be high (Jones, 2005).

SAGAR SUNUWAR 73
Blood chemistry

Blood chemistry can contribute to aggressive behaviors. Alcohol in the blood encourages deindividuation. This
is the decrease of self awareness of individuals which leads to the decreasing ability to accurately perceive the
outcome of aggressive behaviors. It discourages the normal brain function by weakening brain mechanism
which normally holds back impulsive behaviors such as aggression (Glicksohn, 2002, pp. 120). In addition, low
blood sugar can result to aggressive behaviors.

Age and Aggression

Research has shown that the most aggressive human beings are toddlers, children 1 to 3 years old. Researchers
observing toddlers in daycare settings have found that about 25% of the interactions involve some kind of
physical aggression (e.g., one child pushes another child out of the way and takes that child’s toy). High
aggression rates in toddlers are most likely due to the fact that they still lack the means to communicate in more
constructive ways. No adult group, not even violent youth gangs or hardened criminals, resorts to physical
aggression 25% of the time.

Young children do not commit many violent crimes, especially as compared to young men. This is most likely
due to the fact that young children can’t do much physical damage, because they are smaller and weaker.

Longitudinal studies show that serious aggressive and violent behavior peaks just past the age of puberty. After
the age of 19, aggressive behaviors begin to decline. However, a relatively small subgroup of people continue
their aggressive behavior after adolescence. These “career criminals” typically started violent offending in early
life. The earlier the onset of aggressive or violent behavior is, the greater is the likelihood that it will continue
later in life.

Gender and Aggression

In all known societies, young men just past the age of puberty commit most of the violent crimes. Rarely
women. Rarely older men. Rarely young children. Research shows that males are more physically aggressive
than females, but this difference shrinks when people are provoked. Males are also more verbally aggressive
than females, although the difference is much smaller. Females are often taught to be less direct in expressing
aggression, so they often resort to more indirect forms of aggression. When it comes to relational aggression,
for example, females are more aggressive than males. Relational aggression is defined as intentionally harming
someone’s relationships with others. Some examples of relational aggression include saying bad things about
people behind their backs, withdrawing affection to get what you want, and excluding others from your circle of
friends. Thus, rather than simply stating that males are more aggressive than females, it is more accurate to state
that both sexes can behave aggressively, but they tend to engage in different types of aggression.

Weapons.

Obviously using a weapon can increase aggression and violence, but can just seeing a weapon increase
aggression? The answer is yes. Research has shown that the mere presence of a weapon increases aggression, an
effect called the weapons effect.

Violent Media

Content analyses show that violence is a common theme in many types of media, including television
programs, films, and video games. Children are exposed to approximately 10,000 violent crimes in the media
SAGAR SUNUWAR 74
per year. The results from hundreds of studies have shown that violent media increase aggression. The
magnitude of the effect of violent media on aggression is not trivial either. The correlation between TV violence
and aggression is only slightly smaller than that correlation between smoking and lung cancer. Smoking
provides a useful analogy for thinking about media violence effects. Not everyone who smokes gets lung
cancer, and not everyone who gets lung cancer is a smoker. Smoking is not the only factor that causes lung
cancer, but it is an important factor. Similarly, not everyone who consumes violent media becomes aggressive,
and not everyone who is aggressive consumes violent media. Media violence is not the only factor that causes
aggression, but it is an important factor. Like the first cigarette, the first violent movie seen can make a person
nauseous. After repeated exposure, however, the person craves more and more. The effects of smoking and
viewing violence are cumulative. Smoking one cigarette probably will not cause lung cancer. Likewise, seeing
one violent movie probably will not make a person more aggressive. But repeated exposure to both cigarettes
and media violence can have harmful long-term consequences.

Unit VII. Application of Social Psychology

Corruption:

Corruption is a form of dishonesty or criminal offense undertaken by a person or organization entrusted with a
position of authority, to acquire illicit benefit or abuse power for one's private gain. Corruption may include
many activities including bribery and embezzlement, though it may also involve practices that are legal in many
countries. According to the Transparency Organization Corruption is the abuse of entrusted power for private
gain.
Corruption and crime are endemic sociological occurrences which appear with regular frequency in virtually all
countries on a global scale in varying degree and proportion. Individual nations each allocate domestic
resources for the control and regulation of corruption and crime. Strategies to counter corruption are often
summarized under the umbrella term anti-corruption. Additionally, global initiative like the United
Nations Sustainable Development Goal 16 also has a target to substantially reduce corruption of all forms.
Corruption erodes trust, weakens democracy, hampers economic development and further exacerbates
inequality, poverty, social division and the environmental crisis.
Corruption can take many forms, and can include behaviours like:
 public servants demanding or taking money or favours in exchange for services,
 politicians misusing public money or granting public jobs or contracts to their sponsors, friends and
families,
 corporations bribing officials to get lucrative deals
Corruption can happen anywhere: in business, government, the courts, the media, and in civil society, as well as
across all sectors from health and education to infrastructure and sports.
Corruption can involve anyone: politicians, government officials, public servants, business people or members
of the public.
Corruption happens in the shadows, often with the help of professional enablers such as bankers, lawyers,
accountants and real estate agents, opaque financial systems and anonymous shell companies that allow
corruption schemes to flourish and the corrupt to launder and hide their illicit wealth. Corruption adapts to
different contexts and changing circumstances. It can evolve in response to changes in rules, legislation and
even technology.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 75
Causes of Corruption:
As Per R. Klitgaard, Corruption will occur if the corrupt gain is greater than the penalty multiplied by the
likelihood of being caught and prosecuted:
Corrupt gain > Penalty × Likelihood of being caught and prosecuted
Klitgaard has also coined a metaphorical formula to illustrate how the amount of corruption depends on three
variables: monopoly (M) on the supply of a good or service, the discretion (D) enjoyed by suppliers, and the
supplier's accountability and transparency (A) to others. The amount of corruption (C) could be expressed as:
C = M + D – A.
Since a high degree of monopoly and discretion accompanied by a low degree of transparency does not
automatically lead to corruption, a fourth variable of "morality" or "integrity" has been introduced by others.
The moral dimension has an intrinsic component and refers to a "mentality problem", and an extrinsic
component referring to circumstances like poverty, inadequate remuneration, inappropriate work conditions and
inoperable or over-complicated procedures which demoralize people and let them search for "alternative"
solutions. Hence the amended Klitgaard equation is
Degree of corruption = Monopoly + Discretion – Transparency – Morality
According to a 2017 survey study, the following factors have been attributed as causes of corruption:

 Greed of money, desires.

 Higher levels of market and political monopolization
 Low levels of democracy, weak civil participation and low political transparency
 Higher levels of bureaucracy and inefficient administrative structures
 Low press freedom
 Low economic freedom
 Large ethnic divisions and high levels of in-group favoritism
 Gender inequality
 Poverty
 Political instability
 Weak property rights
 Contagion from corrupt neighboring countries
 Low levels of education
 Lack of commitment to society
 Extravagant family

Nepal’s Rank: Nepal’s Score: 33/100

2020 Rank
117/180
Effects of Corruption on People and Public Life
Lack of quality in services
In a system with corruption, there is no quality of service. To demand quality, one might need to pay for it. This
is seen in many areas like municipality, electricity, distribution of relief funds, etc. If a person has to purchase a

SAGAR SUNUWAR 76
like medicine due to corruption in education, then the candidate, after completion of his course, will not like to
provide quality health service if there is not enough remuneration for his service.
Further, candidates who do not have the ability can also get into the same seat by purchasing it. So though he
becomes a medical practitioner, he may not be competent enough.
Lack of proper justice
Corruption in the judiciary system leads to improper justice. And the victims of offense might suffer. A crime
may be proved as a benefit of the doubt due to a lack of evidence or even the evidence erased. Due to corruption
in the police system, the investigation process goes on for decades.
This lets the culprits roam free and even perform more crimes. There are even chances that criminals due to old
age due to the delayed investigation. So it leads to a sense of “Justice delayed is justice denied.”
Chances of Unemployment
This we can see with an example. The private education and training institutes are given permits to start
providing education. This permit is given based on the infrastructure and sufficient recruitment of eligible staff.
Here there are good chances of corruption. The institute or college managements try to bribe the quality
inspectors so as to get permits. Though there is no sufficient eligible staff, these institutes get permission from
the inspectors leading to unemployment. Instead of 10 faculties, a college is run by 5. So, even if well-qualified
persons wish to get a job there, they will not be offered. If there were no corruption by inspectors, then there
would be a chance for more employment.
Poor Health and hygiene
In countries with more corruption, one can notice more health problems among people. There will be no fresh
drinking water, proper roads, quality food grains supply, milk adulteration, etc.
These low-quality services are all done to save money by the contractors and the officials who are involved.
Even the medicine provided in hospitals for the hospitals is of sub-standard quality. So all these can contribute
to the ill health of a common man.
Pollution
Pollution is mostly emitted in the form of water pollution, air pollution, and land pollution. This pollution is
from vehicles and factories. The governments have a monitor on this pollution by regular check of vehicle
emissions and also industrial exhausts.
Corruption in the government department lets the industry people opt to release untreated and harmful waste
into rivers and air. If there is no corruption, there can be fair probes. The industry personnel will then treat the
waste such that it is less toxic and harmless to the environment and people in it. So we can mean that corruption
is also the main cause of pollution.
Accidents
Sanction of driving license without a proper check of driving skills leads to accidents and death. Due to
corruption, there are countries where one can drive a license without any tests.
Failure of genuine research

SAGAR SUNUWAR 77
Research by individuals needs government funding. Some of the funding agencies have corrupt officers. These
people sanction the funds for research to those investigators who are ready to bribe them.
In doing so, they do not sanction the funds to genuine and hardworking investigators. Thus the research and
development will be lagging. This seems to be not a problem for the common public.
But if we notice the resistance of microbes to drugs, we can know that there were no new compounds
discovered in the past few decades for the efficient treatment of resistant microbes.
Effects of corruption on Society
Disregard for officials
People start disregarding the official involved in corruption by talking negatively about him. But when they
have work with him or her, they again approach them by a thought that the work is done if some monetary
benefits are provided.
Disregard officials will also build distrust. Even lower grade officers will be disrespectful to higher grade
officers. So even he may not obey his orders.
Even incidents where a lower grade police officer kidnapped higher grade officers for not offering him leave
when asked.
Lack of respect for rulers
Rulers of the nation like the president or prime ministers lose respect among the public. Respect is the main
criteria in social life.
People go for voting during the election not only with the desire to improve their living standards by the
election winner but also with respect for the leader.
If the politicians are involved in corruption, people knowing this will lose respect for them and will not like to
cast their vote for such politicians.
Lack of faith and trust in the governments
People vote for a ruler based on their faith in him/ her. But if found to be involved in corruption, people lose
faith in them and may not vote next time.
Aversion for joining the posts linked to corruption
Sincere, honest, and hardworking people develop an aversion for the particular posts deemed corrupt.
Though they like those jobs, they tend not to opt for them as they believe that they also would have to be
involved in corruption if they get into the post.
Effects of corruption on Economy
A decrease in foreign investment
Many incidents wherein foreign investments that were willing to come to developing countries have gone back
due to heavy corruption in government bodies.
Delay in growth

SAGAR SUNUWAR 78
Due to a desire to mint money and other unlawful benefits, the official who needs to pass the clearances for
projects or industries delays the process. A work which can be done in a few days may be done in a month.
This leads to delay in investments, the starting of industries, and also growth. Even if they started, company
growth hinders as every work linked to officials get delayed due to the need to provide bribes or other benefits.
Lack of development
Many new industries willing to get started in a particular region change their plans if the region is unsuitable.
If there are no proper roads, water, and electricity, the companies do not wish to start up there. This hinders the
economic progress of that region.
Differences in trade ratio’s
Some countries have inefficient standard control institutes. Or in other words, these standard control institutes
are corrupt and can approve low-quality products for sale in their country.

Child Labor:
The term “child labour” is often defined as work that deprives children of their childhood, their potential and
their dignity, and that is harmful to physical and mental development. It refers to work that:

 is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and harmful to children; and/or

 interferes with their schooling by: depriving them of the opportunity to attend school; obliging them to
leave school prematurely; or requiring them to attempt to combine school attendance with excessively
long and heavy work.
The worst forms of child labour involves children being enslaved, separated from their families, exposed to
serious hazards and illnesses and/or left to fend for themselves on the streets of large cities – often at a very
early age.
Nearly 1 in 10 children – some 152 million – are in child labour, almost half of whom work in hazardous
conditions. 30 million children live outside their country of birth, increasing their risk of being trafficked for
sexual exploitation and other work. By 2025, an estimated 121 million children will be in child labour, with 52
million enduring hazardous work.
Worst forms of child labour as defined by Article 3 of ILO Convention No. 182 :
 all forms of slavery or practices similar to slavery, such as the sale and trafficking of children, debt
bondage and serfdom and forced or compulsory labour, including forced or compulsory recruitment of
children for use in armed conflict;
 the use, procuring or offering of a child for prostitution, for the production of pornography or for
pornographic performances;
 the use, procuring or offering of a child for illicit activities, in particular for the production and
trafficking of drugs as defined in the relevant international treaties;
 work which, by its nature or the circumstances in which it is carried out, is likely to harm the health,
safety or morals of children.
Causes of Child Labor

SAGAR SUNUWAR 79
 The major reasons being poverty and overpopulation. These two go hand in hand. Poor families tend

to have more children, and when earnings of a sole person do not suffice, young children are forced to

take up jobs wherever they can. Having too many members puts a financial burden on poverty-stricken

families, and parents are compelled to send their children to work to get extra income.

 Lack of education among the poorer sections of society is also a leading cause for children to start

working early. Ignorant and illiterate people do not think twice about engaging their children in manual

labor, since they are not aware of the harmful physical and mental trauma it can inflict on the child.

Being poor, they cannot afford a decent education for the children, nor do they understand the

importance of primary education in children’s lives.

 In many developing nations, textile and garment manufacturers use children to make garments. Factory

owners cut back production costs by employing children rather than adults, who are in turn paid a lot

less and forced to work a lot more. Also, there is no risk of these young laborers coming up against the

factory owners by forming unions because they are unaware of their rights, and hence this practice

flourishes on a large-scale.

 Even though countries have laws in place, these are not being implemented, leading to further

exploitation of innocent children. Apathy by the government and the society has seen an increase in

child workers in developing and under-developed countries.

 In some countries, women are denied formal education and are brought up only to perform household

chores since a very young age. Such a society believes that an educated woman will not fit into the

traditional role of a home maker and bear children. This notion fuels child labor and young girls thus get

pushed into doing manual house work from an early age.

 Families migrating from rural to urban areas in search of better prospects often end up pushing their

children to take up odd, menial jobs. This happens due to lack of proper educational resources in the

rural areas, as a result of which these people do not find jobs in cities. So to make ends meet, children

bear the brunt while the adults are left unemployed.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 80
  In villages, people under heavy debt “sell off” their children for a small amount of money or to

repay the outstanding amount. This has given rise to the practice of bonded child labor. As a result,

children are thrust into doing very hard work for long durations of time, that could well extend into their

adulthood, till their family is free from the debt.

Effects of Child Labor

 Children who work often face serious health problems because of working incessantly in perilous

conditions. Often the employers do not care at all about underage children who are almost always

malnourished, and continue to work for long hours with little or no respite.

 Their mental health also takes a beating owing to this severe form of exploitation. These children often

face severe mental trauma when they attain adulthood, owing to the constant threats and ill-treatment

they received toiling away as laborers.

 Children who cannot find work to feed large families resort to begging on the streets, and in many cases,

also fall prey to prostitution. At other times, they even turn into thieves just to make a quick buck on

which the family’s survival depends.

 It also has a negative impact on the welfare of a nation. Since these children do not receive any

education, it increases illiteracy, hampering the overall economic growth of the country, reflecting poor

human development.

 Lack of education as children also means that when they turn into adults, finding jobs becomes tough

since these children do not possess the necessary skills and training. This leads to a sharp hike in

unemployment.

 Such children are always underpaid, and that lowers the country’s per capita income, putting long-term

economic development in peril.

Gender and Social Psychology:

SAGAR SUNUWAR 81
The formation of gender is controversial in many scientific fields, including social psychology. Specifically,
researchers and theorists take different perspectives on how much of gender is due to biological, neurochemical,
and evolutionary factors (nature), or is the result of culture and socialization (nurture). This is known as
the nature versus nurture debate.
Biological Perspective:
Biological differentiation is a fundamental part of human reproduction. Males have two different sex
chromosomes, an X and a Y. Females have two X chromosomes. The Y chromosome is what determines sexual
differentiation. If the Y chromosome is present, growth is along male lines; it results in the production of testes,
which in turn produce testosterone. In addition to physical effects, this prenatal testosterone increases the
likeliness of certain "male" patterns of behavior after birth, though the exact impact and mechanism are not well
understood.
The biological approach states that the distinction between men and women are due to inherent and hormonal
differences. Biological explanations of gender and sexual differences have been correlated to the work done
by Charles Darwin regarding evolution. He suggested that just as wild animals and plants had physiological
differences between sexes, humans did as well. Biological perspectives on psychological differentiation often
place parallels to the physical nature of sexual differentiation. These parallels include genetic and hormonal
factors that create different individuals, with the main difference being the reproductive function. The brain
controls behavior by individuals, but it is influenced by genes, hormones and evolution. Evidence has shown
that the ways boys and girls become men and women is different, and that there are variations between the
individuals of each sex.
Cognitive perspective
Males are found to have much wider variation than females in areas of quantitative reasoning, spatial
visualization, spelling, and general knowledge than females. Males are found to be better at the motor skill of
aiming, while females excel at the coordination of fine motor skills. Male chimpanzees, for example, are much
more likely to throw stones or clumps of earth than their corresponding gender. Females test higher on object
location memory and verbal memory than male. Females have shown to have a higher ability in reading facial
and body cues than their male counterparts. Though studies have found females to have more advanced verbal
skills, men and women in adulthood do not have varied vocabularies. Women tend to have better spelling
capabilities and verbal memory.
Although there is a large collection of information about how men and women differ in cognitive
functioning and the physical differences of each gender's brain, both sets of information have not been
definitely related to each other in research. The biggest difference between the genders are the sizes of the
brains. Men's brains are larger and heavier than women's by 10-15%, though the ratio of brain to body size in
both males and females varies based on body size. Researchers propose the extra brain weight in males is the
reason for the large sex difference in spatial ability. Women appear to have larger areas of connective fibers
between the two hemispheres, called hemispheric asymmetry.
Social-cultural perspecive
In most cultures, humans are subject from infancy to gender socialization. For example, infant girls typically
wear pink and infant boys typically wear blue. Gender schemas, or gendered cultural ideals which determine a
person's preferences, are also installed into our behaviors beginning at infancy. Studies show that toddler
children are more likely to interact with children of the same sex than they are to interact with children of the
opposite sex or even a mixed group.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 82
As people get older, gender stereotypes become more applied. The social role theory primarily deals with such
stereotypes, more specifically the division of labor and a gender hierarchy. When this theory is applied in social
settings, such as the workplace, it can often lead to sexism. This theory also applies to certain personality trails,
such as men are more typically more assertive and women more passive. According to this theory, ideally, in
most cultures, the woman is to stay and tend to the house and home while the man works to both better the
house itself and increase finances.
Psychodynamic theory
Psychodynamic theories, following on from Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, focus on unconscious
drives, the relationship of the child and early experiences with the parents (or primary caregivers). Gender is a
core part of personality that rests on the child’s awareness of its anatomy and its identification with the same-
sex parent. The key point in its development is the resolution of the Oedipus complex for boys and the Electra
complex for girls. Both involve resolving an incestuous desire for the opposite-sex parent and competition with
the same-sex parent. Girls view the same-sex parent as responsible for their loss of a penis. Boys fear that their
penis will be taken away by the same-sex parent. This antagonism is somehow resolved, and the child aligns
with the same-sex parent. For males, fear of the loss of the penis is a more abstract concept, meaning males
must work harder to deal with uncertainty. For females, the loss is already apparent. On this view, the male role
is stronger than is the female. It is not difficult to see the three gender lenses at work here.

Social learning theory

Instead of an innate, unconscious and biological basis of gender identity, social learning theory emphasises the
child’s environment and learning experiences. According to this view, gender roles are learned through a
mixture of observing the behaviour of others and modelling (imitation of same-sex caregivers). Children
recognise the differential behaviours of boys and girls, generally, and the treatment by others in the form of
rewards or punishments for appropriate/inappropriate actions. Children also experience individual differences in
treatment, which starts at birth with physical handling, clothes and toy choices and patterns of speech. Gender-
linked behaviours are observable by age one. Through conditioning, behaviours regularly and consistently
rewarded are most likely to persist, whereas those behaviours that are punished are more apt to cease.
Although social learning theory offers some explanation of how modelling and reinforcement interact, it tends
to underplay individual differences in development and reactions from others such as inconsistencies in
behavioural reinforcement. While it considers cognitive factors, it also underplays the agency of children and
how they actively make sense of the world. It is also not clear how children cope with conflicting messages
regarding gender.

Cognitive-developmental theory
According to the cognitive-developmental theory, as children we mature and experience the world, reorganising
mental processes as we progress through a series of stages of development. Children’s development hits various
milestones moving from the simple to the complex and from the concrete to the abstract, including language
development. Children are active agents in acquiring gender roles within development stages that allow for an
increasingly sophisticated grasp of concepts and language. As children mature, discrepancies between their
knowledge and their experiences of the environment cause their ideas to shift accordingly. The acquisition of
gender constancy, stability and consistency can only happen when a child has reached a certain level of
cognitive maturity.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 83
According to this view, gender identity exists at several levels, possibly developing in line with language. A
strong theme that emerges from the literature is that boys, more so than girls, value their own gender more
highly. This offers some support for the psychodynamic view that boys must try harder.
Generation Gap and Social Psychology:

The concept of the generation gap is one that has become part of our cultural vernacular. Reputedly coined by
renowned anthropologist Margaret Mead, the simplest definition of the concept is the differentiation (or gap) of
values, attitudes, or behaviors between members of an older generation and a younger generation. Typically, the
concept of the generation gap is used as an explanation of conflict between parents and children within
individual families. The concept gained particular notoriety during the 1960s and 1970s, when numerous
articles and books commented on the differences between baby boomers and their parents.

The gaps between generations can be considered in two particular ways. The first is when comparisons are
made at different times between generations at similar ages, such as comparing a parent’s high school
experiences relative to his or her child’s high school experiences. The classic example of this is the popular
saying by older family members, “when I was in school, I walked a mile in the snow.” The second approach is
to examine across groups at the same point in time. For example, parents and adult children may experience
conflict about child rearing, whereby the gap may be defined in terms of current differences in child-rearing
beliefs between children and their parents. Most studies from the 1960s and 1970s were based on the latter
approach.

Generation gaps emerge out of the differential experiences of what demographers refer to as birth cohorts. Birth
cohorts are groups of individuals born within a similar time, typically 10-or 20-year intervals. Typically, cohort
members have unique experiences that affect their human development in similar ways. This uniqueness of
birth cohorts is linked directly to the level of social change within a given society. The greater the degree of
social change (i.e., immigration, economic development, political instability), the more unique birth cohorts
become. Thus, the characteristics of birth cohorts influence generation gaps in two key ways. First, they
emphasize the distinctiveness of different birth cohorts. Second, through shared experiences and memories,
members of the same birth cohort form deep bonds with each other, often reinforcing that which makes them
unique to other generations.

Reasons for generation gap

Due to the difference in bringing up, their mental framework differ from each other. Physciological and
behavorial patterns are formed on the basis of circumstances one undergoes. When the people of the different
generations meet each other they often are induced to difference in opinion, communication gap, conflicts etc.
Due to the difference in mental framework the likes and dislikes also differ from each other. In this way both
the parties cannot live in peace with each other and they are unable to respect the likes and opinion of each
other.
The frequency of thoughts flow from opposite directions in a parallel manner. When the thought process from
the two parties is so different, then love cannot be expressed even if it exists between the two parties. Both of
them are unable to find a proper channel to express their feelings also. in this way gap creates between the two
relationships.

Effects of generation gap

The problem of generation gap creates negative consequences and the two parties already began to drift with
each other emotionally. Generation gap occurs between parents and children or between in-laws. It also occurs
SAGAR SUNUWAR 84
between teachers and students but the degree of gap is less because they do not spend much time with each
other. This problem leads to communication gap and the two parties are unable to understand the channel for
communication.
Due to emotional incompatibility arguments over silly matters and conflicts began to occur often frequently.
The peace in the premises of the house is disturbed.
In the extreme cases the parties even decide to abandon each other. The children decide to leave the house of
the parents due to lack of emotional space constantly. The daughter-in-law may provoke her husband to
abandon her mother-in-law for disability to cope up unreasonable demands.
Ways to combat the problem

There are no technical solutions to resolve this knotty problem. If you want to resolve the problem and be at
peace then both the parties must be willing to solve the problem. If the party is unable to accept the changes
then the other party should comprise to a greater extent which may not be possible.
Realization and a high level of understanding is one of the optimal solutions to combat the problem.
Both the parties should often discuss openly about their childhood and the funny and sad incidents that took
place during their childhood days. This activity not only creates bondage but also opens the doors for
understanding. The two parties can understand the lifestyle of each other. Knowing the childhood of each other
helps the parties understand the physiological patterns formed by each other also.
Both the parties should not develop a very high feeling about themselves. They should understand that they both
have their limitations since they are human-beings. They should understand that they both depend upon each
other at some point or the other.
They both should realize the peace that can be built by a means of co-operation. When both the parties are co-
operative they can complete the tasks very peacefully. This problem commonly occurs between mother-in-law
and daughter-in-law. The mother-in-law should realize that her daughter-in-law is customized to the atmosphere
of education and profession and hence suddenly coping up the domestic activities is not an easy task for her. At
the same time the daughter-in-law should also realize that her mother-in-law was not enough lucky to be
educated by her parents and hence she cannot be professionally competent and understand the professional
world.
Both the parties should realize the theory of limitations and both of them cannot be satisfied as per their wants.
Nobody in the world is satisfied according to their wants because human wants are only unlimited. They should
realize the easiness of expecting and difficulty of implementing. Especially in the initial stage when a mother-
in-law and daughter-in-law meet each other they cannot live with peace with each other because both of them
meet from the different worlds.
Everybody should develop the attribute of respecting each other. When one learns to respect each other peace
can be established between the two parties. A mother-in-law should realize that the woman of today struggle
with pain to earn bread for their family. The daughter-in-law at the same time should realize that her mother-in-
law once underwent a lot of pain to bring up her family and she has once undergone many economic and social
hardships.
To build a close relationship with each the two parties can enjoy with each other periodically such as going out
for a cinema, restaurants, shopping and many other fun-filled activities. They can also organize to celebrate the
birthday of each other .
Both the parties should purposely spend time with each other whenever they are free. This activity creates an
emotional bondage very quickly.
If both the parties are interested with the topic of spirituality then the formula works wonderfully because both
the parties require spirituality in life to create peace.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 85
Beggary
Begging (also panhandling) is the practice of imploring others to grant a favor, often a gift of money, with
little or no expectation of reciprocation. A person doing such is called a beggar or panhandler. Beggars may
operate in public places such as transport routes, urban parks, and markets. Besides money, they may also ask
for food, drink, cigarettes or other small items. Beggars differ from religious mendicants in that some
mendicants do not ask for money. Their subsistence is reciprocated by providing society with various forms
of religious service, moral education, and preservation of culture. Beggars have existed in human society since
before the dawn of recorded history.
Types of Beggars:
There are three kinds of beggars;
a. Traditional beggars: These are who crowd the major shrines of the city and consider it their right
to be given alms, owing to their proclaimed lineage to the saint buried there. These include the
“rat-children”, who are made to wear steel helmets immediately after birth to produce an
artificial deformation in the shape of their heads. This serves to elicit sympathy from the passers-
by and thus better earnings.
b. Second class: These are the professional mendicants who roam the urban locality. T
c. the third type is the people who are genuinely in dire financial straits “but have dignity, and
normally are unable to beg,
Causes of Beggary:

a) Economic causes: The three main economic causes are poverty, loss of employment or under-employment
and lucrative business.
(i) Poverty: One of the main factors which forces people to take to beggary is destitution. Having no sufficient
means to support themselves or their families, many persons resort to begging.
(ii) Loss of employment and Under-employment: But poverty alone cannot be held responsible because all
those who live on poverty line do not take to beggary. A man begs not only when he is poor but also when he is
unemployed or under-employed.
(iii) Lucrative Business: Owing to easy gains and sufficient income from begging many people make it a
profession instead of doing honest labour. Not only that, many make it a business and exploit others by
investing some amount in this business. There are groups operating in big cities, which force many children to
this profession.
b) Social causes: Among the social causes are family disorganization, lack of parental control, community
disorganization, break up of joint family system and social custom.
(i) Family Disorganization: Family is an integral part of our social relationship, which influences our patterns
of behaviour and activities. Any disturbance in our home condition especially in the case of a poor one leads to
a breakdown of family, which in return gives rise to beggary.
(ii) Lack of Parental Control: In the industrial centres parents do not have the required control over their
children, where often the mothers also go to factories for work. The result is that children’s energies may turn to
any direction. If they fall into bad company, they may develop wanderlust, which may lead to beggary. (iii)

SAGAR SUNUWAR 86
Community Disorganization: Disorganization in rural community may also be responsible for increase in
beggary.
(iv) Break-up of Joint Family System: In the past the Hindu joint family supported the handicapped, orphans,
blind etc. But owing to break-up of the joint family system in the present age, such persons are often thrown in
the streets.
(v) Social Custom: Some of the castes and tribes ask for alms only because begging is their hereditary
profession. They are often migratory in character.
c) Biological Causes: Among the biological causes may be mentioned sickness, physical or mental defects and
old age.
(i) Sickness or Disease: The diseases may be curable and preventive in the beginning, but in the long-run may
become chronic and incurable. Diseases like syphilis, T.B., skin diseases and leprosy turn most people into
beggary.
(ii) Physically Disabled or Infirm: The physical defects like blindness, deafness acquired in the beginning or got
later on force many people to beg as the economic condition of their family is not such as to afford the
maintenance of these disabled persons.
(iii) Mentally Deficient: There are persons who are mentally deficient or insane and cannot earn any living and
they are forced to begging.
(iv) Old Age: Persons who become physically weak in old age and cannot do any work and at the same time
have nobody to support become beggars to get some money and sustain themselves.
d) Religious Causes: Among religious causes may be included religious mendicancy and indiscriminate alms
giving
(i) Religious Mendicancy: Religious mendicancy facilitates a man to beg under the garb of a Sadhu or Fakir.
Such people take the form of religious mendicants only as means to an end.
(ii) Indiscriminate Alms-giving: Indiscriminate alms giving by the public because of their religious sentiments
encourages beggary.
(e) Other Reasons: Among other reasons may be mentioned those who are forced to beg. There are persons
upon whom beggary is enforced. There are orphans and waifs and strays who are sometimes deliberately
maimed or disfigured in order that their guardians or some other persons may earn their living. Many normal
parents also trade on their children’s infirmities using these as sources of supplementary income.
Effects of Beggary:
1. The future of child is ruined
2. It leads to prostitution, drug addiction and crime.
3. They are disturbing health system by spreading communicable diseases.
4. They are disturbing economic system as there is unequal distribution of wealth.
5. They are creating the traffic jam.
6. They are disturbing the privacy of the people.

Nature vs Nurture

SAGAR SUNUWAR 87
The nature versus nurture debate involves whether human behavior is determined by the environment
(prenatal or during a person's life), or by a person's genes.
Nature is what people think of as pre-wiring and is influenced by genetic inheritance and other biological
factors. Nurture is generally taken as the influence of external factors after conception e.g. the product of
exposure, experience and learning on an individual.
The wording of the phrase “nature vs. nurture” makes it seem as though human individuality—
personality traits, intelligence, preferences, and other characteristics—must be based on either the genes people
are born with or the environment in which they grew up.
This controversial debate has existed since 1869, when the phrase "Nature Versus Nurture" was coined by the
English polymath, Francis Galton. Those who agree with the nature side argue that the DNA and genotype that
we are born with determine who we are and what personality and traits we will have. On the other hand, those
who agree with the nurture side of the debate argue that we are born with our minds as a 'blank state'. Through
learning experiences and interactions with the world around us, we begin to gain an understanding of life and
acquire different attributes.

Some people believe in both sides of the argument, saying that although we can learn and acquire traits from
our surroundings, we are also born with unique abilities. When psychologist Donald Hebb was asked which
contributes more to personality, nature or nurture, he answered, "Which contributes more to the area of a
rectangle, its length or its width?"

Throughout different time periods, this controversy continued with two contrasting scientists leading the
debate. During the Greek Classical period, Plato, who favored nature, disputed with Aristotle, who favored
Nurture. Similarly, Emanuel Kant and John Locke, during the Enlightenment period, held the same debate.
Nature vs Nurture developed among Ancient psychologists because of their interest in how individuals obtained
their knowledge. Modern psychologists, however, are more concerned with factors such as intelligence,
personality, and mental illness.
Francis Galtung: His work, Natural Inheritance (1889), shows the influence of former generations in the hereditary of
individuals. His research shows that parents each contribute one-quarter to heredity of their children, grandparents
each one-sixteenth, and so on. Although this favors nature over nurture as well, he also believed that evolution assured
the survival of the best physical and mental traits.

Comparison chart

Nature versus Nurture comparison chart

Nature Nurture

What is In the "nature vs nurture" debate, In the "nature vs nurture" debate, nurture refers to
it? nature refers to an individual's personal experiences (i.e. empiricism or
innate qualities (nativism). behaviorism).

Example Nature is your genes. The physical Nurture refers to your childhood, or how you were

SAGAR SUNUWAR 88
 Nature versus Nurture comparison chart

Nature Nurture

and personality traits determined brought up. Someone could be born with genes to
by your genes stay the same give them a normal height, but be malnourished in
irrespective of where you were childhood, resulting in stunted growth and a failure
born and raised. to develop as expected.

Factors Biological and family factors Social and environmental factors

Nature: DNA and genotype determine who we are (heredity):

Comparing a parent to their child, it is evident that physical characteristics come from specific genes. The
nature theory, however, emphasizes that personality and character traits are determined by heredity as well.
Recently, scientists have focused on aspects of intelligence, aggression, and sexual orientation that may be also
encoded in an individual's DNA. Some parents may think that any bad trait that their child has is a direct result
of bad parenting. The Nature Theory suggests that it is actually because of biological genes that were
predetermined at birth. Plato, a classical Greek philosopher and mathematician, believed that knowledge was
inborn in humans. Emmanuel Kant, a Prussian professor during the 18th Century Enlightenment period,
believed that before the mind can make sense of its experiences, there needs to be an initial structure in the
mind that enabled it to give meaning to that experience. Galton concluded that intelligence was inherited when
he saw in his studies that achievement tend to run in families.
Nurture: the notion of the mind as a ‘blank slate’:
John Locke, an English philosopher and physician, was the first to define the self through a continuity of
consciousness. He founded the theory that the mind was a blank slate, or tabula rasa. Individuals are born
without built-in knowledge, contrary to Plato´s beliefs. One learns through experience, parental guidance, and
perception. William Golding's novel, Lord of the Flies, was written in hope of convincing readers that humans
are born with an innate evil. It is the job of humans to contain that evil, similar to what Locke and Rousseau
believed. Behaviorism shows the environment’s influence on individuals and their behavior. John Watson, an
American psychologist believed that if he were given infants, then he could make one a doctor, another a thief,
another a painter, and so on. All that would need to be done to accomplish this would be to control and
manipulate the environment in which an individual developed. Hereditary factors are irrelevant to the
development of an individual. You may think that the nurture we are referring to begins after birth, however the
nature-nurture dynamic begins at the time of conception. The food that the mother eats, the air she breathes, the
stress or trauma she experiences - all may affect her child.

Interaction of Nature and Nurture

With all the differences identified it is time to check the interaction between these two phenomena. Although
there are numerous examples of nature and nurture interaction we will be discussing the most researched ones.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 89
  It is found that if a child is coming from a family where everyone is tall, the genes are likely to be
inherited. But, if the same child is deprived of a nourishing environment then s/he might not be able to
attain the height that s/he might otherwise have (in a healthier environment).
 Another example of nature or nurture interaction is intelligence. Studies have time and again found that
kids with high IQ parents have high IQs themselves. But, if adopted and raised away from the parents in
a deprived environment the chances of IQ to not develop to its highest level are evident.

 Nature and nurture is a hotly contested argument concerning what influences the behavior and
personality attributes of individuals. Nature is entirely dependent on the genetic combination of an
individual which dictates their character and appearance. On the other hand, nurture is dependent on the
environmental factors that an individual gets exposed to which end up shaping his or her personality.
Nature and nurture influence individuals to a certain extent because individuals get exposed to both of
them in one way or the other dictating their development process.

Relationship between Attitude and Behavior:

The effects of attitudes on behaviors is a growing research enterprise within psychology. Icek Ajzen has led
research and helped develop two prominent theoretical approaches within this field: the theory of reasoned
actionand, its theoretical descendant, the theory of planned behavior. Both theories help explain the link
between attitude and behavior as a controlled and deliberative process.

Importance of Social Psychology:

Social Psychology is a scientific study of human behavior in society. It studies human behavior in groups and
that how human behavior is influenced by others. It attempts to understand the socio-psychological causes and
motives of human behavior in groups. Social Psychology has a very wide significance in the modern world. The
importance of Social psychology is divided into following spheres:

1. Social Psychology and Mental Health

2. Social Psychology and Business
3. Social Psychology and Industry
4. Social Psychology and Education
5. Social Psychology and Military
6. Socialization and Personality Development
7. Social Psychology as a source of Knowledge

Social Psychology and Mental Health

Mental health problems such as depression, anxiety, stress, phobia, schizophrenia, psychosis, and personality
disorders are the growing problems of modern world. Most of the mental health problems have socio-
psychological causes such as loss of job, death of loved ones, marriage adjustment issues, burden of work, weak
family bonds, stressful relationship, break-ups, working in a stressful environment and unexpected social
changes. Such social circumstances become cause of criminal behavior, mental retardation, emotional
disturbance, drug abuse and long-term impacts on physical health.

Social Psychology plays a significant role addressing the mental health issues. Social Psychology is concerned
with diagnosis and treatment of mental illnesses. Social Psychologists are specialized in exploring the socio-
psychological causes of mental illnesses and remedying them using the psychological practices. In some
countries, Social Psychologists are licensed to treat patients with mental health issues independently. In many
SAGAR SUNUWAR 90
other countries, the Social Psychologists work together with Psychiatrists and Social Workers for the treatment
of mental illnesses.

Social Psychology and Business

Business is crucial to country’s economy as it provides goods, services and jobs opportunities to the citizens.
Social Psychology plays a prominent role in business sector. Nowadays, business uses psychological techniques
for boosting the production and sale of goods. The television advertisements for products are made on the basis
of social psychological techniques of marketing. These advertisements are made to change the attitude of people
towards the product in the desired way. Attitude change is a part of subject matter of Social Psychology that
guides how to change the attitude of others towards something positively e.g. by presenting products in
advertisement in a way to fascinate the viewers.

Surveys are conducted by the business to understand socio-psychological orientation of people towards
products and services. These considerations are taken into account for making products in future, e.g. colours,
flavors, characteristics, features, cost, durability, and other considerations which attract the people. Similarly,
attractive names, labels, titles and logos are used to enhance the sale of products.

Customer service is a key contributor in the success of a business. It helps in building a good relationship with
the customer. It adds to customer satisfaction. The representatives of customer services are trained to acquire
good social skills to build relationships and convince customer psychologically.

Social Psychology and Education

Social Psychology has an important role in the educational sector. It helps in improvement of teaching
techniques, learning practices, intelligence level and cognition skills of students, motivation of students, and
student-teacher relationship.

Poor academic performance of students is mostly due to socio-psychological issues. Restrictive environment,
lack of encouragements, punishments, overburden of studies, fear of failure in exam and harsh treatment destroy
the student’s creativity. Social Psychology point outs the shortcomings in educational environment in schools,
colleges and university in order to make the environment conducive for learning. It devises techniques for
effective learning. It guides you how to cope with stress related to studies such as exam stress. It guides about
the methods of teaching according to psyche and mental-level of learners so that they can learn effectively.

Social Psychology and Industry

Industrialization strengthens country’s economy and lead to national development. Social Psychology has a
wide applicability in the industrial sector. Good working environment and working relations among the
employees in an industry enhances it productivity and effectiveness. The stakeholders of industries are trained
by Social Psychologists to create a suitable working environment and working relations among the employees
in industries.

Motivation is another important factor in the productivity of employees. Motivation is an important part of
subject matter of Social Psychology. The psychological techniques are designed to keep the employees
motivated towards their work and to refine teamwork practices in industrial sector.

Social Psychology and Military

SAGAR SUNUWAR 91
Social Psychology has a prominent role in military organizations. The soldiers are trained physically as well as
psychologically to cope with difficult situations courageously. The psychological techniques are used train the
soldiers to become fearless strugglers and determined to their aim. The soldiers have to come across various
situations in life such as wars, disasters, harsh environmental conditions and so on. The soldiers are trained to
have an emotionally balanced personality to deal with such situations bravely.

The selection of candidates for Military involves specific psychological tests. The purpose of the psychological
evaluation is to ensure that the candidate must have the psychological attributes required for the delivery of
their services.

Socialization and Personality Development

Children are the future of a nation. The children should grow in adults having healthy personality so that they
can contribute to the development and prosperity of their nation. The parents should raise their children with
care and attention. Shortcomings in upbringing of children can lead to serious personality disorders in children
such as sense of deprivation, inexpressiveness, shyness, mental retardation, fears, emotional disturbances and
so on. These shortcomings are mostly due to socio-psychological causes within the family, such as quarreling
parents, ignoring children, harsh treatment towards children, discouraging environment etc.

Social Psychology provides guidelines for proper socialization of kids. Considering these guidelines, parents
can help their children develop a healthy personality. Social Psychology points out all the problems that leads
to wrong socialization of children as well as suggest the considerations for a healthy socialization of children so
that they can achieve their full potential and perform well.

Social Psychology as a source of Knowledge

Social Psychology has wide subject-matter. Apart from its practical applicability, the Social Psychology also
serves as huge source of useful Knowledge. The subject matter of Social Psychology encompasses all those
areas of knowledge which are useful for researchers, development community and scholars. These areas include
perception, cognition, behavior, motivation, leadership, attitude, group dynamics, social interactions, skills of
socialization and personality development and so on. Research is a hallmark of social psychology which is
undertaken to generate reliable and updated knowledge. The generated knowledge offers a theory for
understanding many psychological trends and resolving the psychological issues. Its theory also helps other
disciplines in explaining various phenomena such as Sociology, Law, Political Science and other social
sciences.

Causes of Divorce in Nepal:

It is known that the number of divorces is growing all over the world. But the causes for divorce are
significantly different, according to sociologists. There is only one thing that unites citizens of all states: all of
them are not ready to endure adultery. This cause of divorce remains one of the main causes of the whole world.
And in our country, about a quarter of all divorces occur due to cheating.
Nobody thinks they’re going to get divorced, at least not at the beginning of the marriage. It often happens that
the relationship does not evolve in the right direction and the feelings, no matter how strong they were before,
disappear over time. Almost half of the married couples in recent years have been divorced, and the number

SAGAR SUNUWAR 92
continues to grow at an alarming rate. In the year 2018 and 2019, a survey conducted by Divorce Nepal among
100 samples found the following causes of divorce in Nepal:
1. Monotony
In survey, 64 of 100 cases that are 64% of all data have shown their spouses went abroad for foreign
employment. When they were asked the question, why did you file for divorce? Most people said IT is, very
good Monotony. Sometimes partners are bored with each other. Sometimes they have unrealistic expectations
about the relationship, and when it gets tedious, they lose interest and decide to quit and stop trying. Boredom in
a marriage occurs when two people stay together for a long time – months or years – and constantly distance
themselves due to the lack of dynamism in the relationship. Or the opposite may happen when one of the
spouses is in a distant place and absent from home for a long time. This has been the major cause of divorce in
Nepal.
2. Lack of commitment
When the question was asked to the ex-couple for the cause of divorce, one or both partners have the complaint
of not fulfilling the obligations and not showing any commitment towards each other. This has been the second
major cause of divorce in Nepal. Often, the husband indulges himself in alcoholism forgetting his
responsibilities towards his family which has been the main cause for divorce. At the beginning of the marriage,
no one thinks that a lack of devotion and dedication will end a couple. Unfortunately, this is one of the biggest
causes of divorce. Even if at the beginning of the relationship that commitment exists, over time husbands lose
interest in acting for their relationship. They succumb to routine and habit and, finally, become completely
alienated.
3. Lack of Intimacy
As mentioned above, 64% of cases have shown that one of the spouses went abroad for employment and remain
absent from home for a long time. Therefore, lacking intimacy in their relationship. Often, the sexual
compatibility of partners is another problem that leads to separation. Low sexual satisfaction, for both husband
and wife, can lead to mutual accusations. Lack of intimacy is one of the most common causes of divorce today.
Because of the absence of one partner for a long time, often the other partner starts the relation with other
people. This reduced the intimacy between husband and wife and increased suspicion toward each other.
4. Too many discussions and different opinions
Many said that there were disputes over general issues. This is probably the most serious reason that can lead to
divorce: lack of a common vision, moral, and intellectual values that are the foundation of a solid relationship.
Disagreements and differences of opinion often occur when the two partners are incompatible and never
manage to be on the same page. Couples who marry too soon fall into this trap, before actually analysing their
relationship from all points of view.
5. Infidelity
The survey has given us the result in which one of the causes of divorce is infidelity. Many were told that they
had been deceived. Often, husbands engaged in foreign employment send money to the wife while the wife
thens ignores her duties and gets involved in sexual relationships with others. It is not the most common cause
of divorce, but it is definitely the most painful. It may occur as a result of the reasons mentioned above or the
partner who cheats is seeking validation from other people. Regardless of the reason, infidelity is responsible
for many broken hearts and marriages that have been destroyed since antiquity.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 93
6. Get married early
In the survey, there were 22 cases involving minors that is 22 out of 100 cases that were studied have married
early. When asked for the reason for getting married at an early age, they gave various reasons. For several
reasons, many choose to get married at college age, as a way of trying to escape from their parents or declare
their maturity ahead of their time, or by religious rules. Whatever the reason, people who marry too young
break up after just a few years, as a consequence of the two really maturing.
7. Money or economical reason
Money or economic reasons were also a major cause for divorce in Nepal. The survey concluded that most of
the husbands were addicted to alcohol and could not even earn a living. All couples often argue about this.
Although perhaps not the most serious, there is always the chance that a couple will split up when money is
lacking.
8. Unrealistic expectations
Of those surveyed, 33 were under 25 years of age. Unrealistic expectations were seen in couples of this age.
You marry with the idea that everything will be perfect from that moment on, and that the life of a married
woman is a dream. This is an example of unrealistic expectations that can cause long-term damage. Life is
never as easy as it is in romance books and certainly a person should not expect only joy and happiness. Upon
asking the couples, we found that they expect their married life to be like their dating phase. For example, going
movies, eating out at restaurants, going shopping, or expecting gifts. When such expectation is not fulfilled,
they seek for divorce.
9. Abuse
Out of 100 cases, 11 cases have reported the physical and sexual abuse to be the cause of their divorce. It
remains a reality that we have neglected in the 21st century. Whether we blame it on education or lack of it,
religious customs and traditions, sexual abuse is a practice that has been going on for many centuries.
Unfortunately, most women fear to end a marriage that suffers from it. Two of the women in the survey had
even said that their husbands tried to have unnatural sex
10. Children
When asked for the cause of divorce, several couples had even answered their children to be the cause for their
divorce. Things between husband and wife can become unpleasant when it comes to raising and educating
children. Each of the partners believes that the decisions they make are the best. Another issue that causes
misunderstandings in a marriage is the division of responsibilities in raising the little ones. And one parent is
more involved than the other.

SAGAR SUNUWAR 94