Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

SPECIFYING ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC
TRANSDUCERS, PNEUMATIC BOOSTERS,
AND CONTROL VALVE POSITIONERS

Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.

Chapter : Process Instrumentation For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: PCI-114.02 PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
Engineering Encyclopedia Sizing and Selecting Control Valves - Part 2
Specifying Electro-Pneumatic Transducers,
Pneumatic Boosters, and Control Valve Positioners

SECTION PAGE

INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................... 10
Control Objectives And Control Valve Performance ........................................... 10
Instruments And Instrument Selection................................................................ 10
DETERMINING WHETHER ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC TRANSDUCERS,
PNEUMATIC BOOSTERS, AND CONTROL VALVE POSITIONERS ARE
REQUIRED ................................................................................................................... 11
Baseline For Instrument Selection...................................................................... 11
Simple Pneumatic Loop ........................................................................... 11
Control Objectives That Can Be Achieved
With Transducers, Boosters, And Positioners .................................................... 12
Proper Control Valve Operation From The Available Control Signal....... 12
Overcoming Valve Friction....................................................................... 13
Increased Seat Load................................................................................ 13
Faster Stroking Speed ............................................................................. 13
Split-Range Control.................................................................................. 13
Modification Of Control Valve Flow Characteristics ................................ 14
Reversal Of The Control Valve Action .................................................... 14
Electro-Pneumatic Transducer Function, Role, And Typical Application ............ 15
Function ................................................................................................... 15
Role And Application................................................................................ 16
Electro-Pneumatic Transducer Operation, Types, And Options ......................... 17
Electro-Pneumatic Transducer Operation................................................ 17
Types Of Electro-Pneumatic Transducers .............................................. 18
Electro-Pneumatic Transducer Options .................................................. 19
Filter-Regulators For Pneumatic Instruments .................................................... 20
Function, Role, And Typical Application.................................................. 20

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Engineering Encyclopedia Sizing and Selecting Control Valves - Part 2
Specifying Electro-Pneumatic Transducers,
Pneumatic Boosters, and Control Valve Positioners

Regulator Operation................................................................................. 21
Specific Control Objectives That Can
Be Achieved With Electro-Pneumatic Transducers ............................................ 23
Operation Of A Pneumatic Device With An Electronic Control Signal...... 23
Split Ranging ........................................................................................... 25
Reversal Of The Control Valve Action .................................................... 26
Electro-Pneumatic Transducer Selection Guidelines.......................................... 27
Signal Conversion.................................................................................... 27
Split Range Control.................................................................................. 27
Reversal Of The Control Valve Action ..................................................... 27
Filter-Regulator Selection Guidelines....................................................... 28
Pneumatic Booster Function, Role, And Typical Application .............................. 28
Function ................................................................................................... 28
Role ......................................................................................................... 29
Typical Application ................................................................................... 29
Pneumatic Booster Operation, Types, And Options ........................................... 30
Pneumatic Booster Operation.................................................................. 30
Types Of Pneumatic Boosters ................................................................. 31
Pneumatic Booster Options ..................................................................... 34
Specific Control Objectives That Can Be Achieved
With Pneumatic Boosters ................................................................................... 34
Operation Of A Pneumatic Device
With An Incompatible Pressure Signal..................................................... 34
Reduced Stroking Time ........................................................................... 36
Reversal Of The Control Valve Action ..................................................... 39
Pneumatic Booster Selection And Application Guidelines .................................. 39
1:1 Boosters (Relays Or Repeaters) ........................................................ 39
Pressure Boosters And Reducers............................................................ 39

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Engineering Encyclopedia Sizing and Selecting Control Valves - Part 2
Specifying Electro-Pneumatic Transducers,
Pneumatic Boosters, and Control Valve Positioners

Volume Boosters ..................................................................................... 39

Reversal Of The Control Valve Action ..................................................... 40
Filter Regulator Selection Guidelines....................................................... 40
Control Valve Positioner Function, Role, And Typical Application ...................... 41
Function ................................................................................................... 41
Role ......................................................................................................... 42
Typical Application ................................................................................... 42
Positioner Operation, Types, Actions, And Options............................................ 43
Positioner Operation ................................................................................ 43
Types Of Positioners................................................................................ 46
Positioner Options ................................................................................... 49
Specific Control Objectives That Can
Be Achieved With Control Valve Positioners ...................................................... 54
Throttling Control With Double-Acting Piston Actuators........................... 54
Split-Range Control.................................................................................. 56
Overcoming Valve Friction....................................................................... 57
Increased Seat Load................................................................................ 61
Proper Control Valve Operation From The Available Control Signal........ 63
Modification Of Control Valve Flow Characteristics ................................. 64
Reduced Stroking Time Through Isolation............................................... 65
Reversal Of The Control Valve Action ..................................................... 66
Control Valve Positioner Selection And Application Guidelines.......................... 67
Static Selection And Application Guidelines ............................................ 67
Dynamic Application Guidelines............................................................... 68
Filter Regulator Selection Guidelines....................................................... 71
Summary Of Selection Guidelines...................................................................... 72
Filter-Regulator Selection ................................................................................... 73

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Engineering Encyclopedia Sizing and Selecting Control Valves - Part 2
Specifying Electro-Pneumatic Transducers,
Pneumatic Boosters, and Control Valve Positioners

General Specification Guidelines ............................................................. 73

SPECIFYING ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC TRANSDUCERS ............................................ 75
Introduction: Basis For Transducer Specifications.............................................. 75
Control Objectives ................................................................................... 75
Ratings And Specifications Of Connected Components .......................... 75
Components Of A Transducer Specification ............................................ 75
Components Of A Filter Regulator Specification..................................... 76
Developing A Specification ...................................................................... 76
Specifications For Electro-Pneumatic Transducers ........................................... 77
Line 80: Transducer Type and Model Number......................................... 78
Line 81: Transducer Input mA / Output .................................................... 78
Line 42: Valve Action On Increase In Signal (Open or Close) ................. 80
Line 43: Supply Max. Avail / Min. Req'd................................................... 80
Specifications For Filter Regulators
That Are Used With Electro-Pneumatic Transducers ........................................ 81
Line 74: Air Filter-Regulator Type / Size .................................................. 81
Line 75: Air Req'd Set Pressure............................................................... 82
SPECIFYING PNEUMATIC BOOSTERS...................................................................... 83
Introduction: Basis For Booster Specifications ................................................... 83
Control Objectives ................................................................................... 83
Ratings And Specifications Of Connected Components .......................... 83
Components Of A Booster Specifications ................................................ 83
Components Of A Filter Regulator Specification...................................... 84
Specifications For Pneumatic Boosters .............................................................. 84
Line 80 Transducer Type / Model No....................................................... 85
Line 81: Transducer Input mA / Output .................................................... 86
Line 42: Valve Action On Increase In Signal (Open or Close) ................. 87

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Specifying Electro-Pneumatic Transducers,
Pneumatic Boosters, and Control Valve Positioners

Line 43: Supply Max. Avail / Min. Req'd................................................... 87

Specifications For Filter Regulators That Are Used With Pneumatic Boosters... 88
Line 74: Air Filter Regulator Type / Size .................................................. 88
Line 75: Air Required Set Pressure ......................................................... 89
SPECIFYING CONTROL VALVE POSITIONERS ........................................................ 90
Introduction: Basis For Control Valve Positioner Specifications ......................... 90
Control Objectives ................................................................................... 90
Ratings And Specifications Of Connected Components .......................... 90
Positioner Specifications.......................................................................... 91
Filter Regulator Specifications ................................................................. 91
Specifications For Control Valve Positioners ...................................................... 92
Line 5: Manufacturer ................................................................................ 93
Line 6: Model / Type Number................................................................... 93
Line 9: Overall Valve / Actuator Characteristic......................................... 93
Line 38: Positioner Type / Model Number................................................ 93
Line 39: Positioner Bypass / Gauges ....................................................... 94
Line 40: Positioner Input and Output ....................................................... 95
Line 41: Positioner Action ........................................................................ 97
Line 42: Valve Action On Increase In Signal............................................ 97
Line 43: Supply Max. Avail / Min. Req'd................................................... 98
Line 45: Cam Characterized .................................................................... 98
Specifications For Filter Regulators
That Are Used With Control Valve Positioners ................................................... 98
Line 74: Air Filter Regulator Type / Size ................................................. 98
Line 75: Air Required Set Pressure ........................................................ 99
WORK AID 1: APPLICABLE PROCEDURAL STEPS AND THE PERTINENT
CONTENT FROM SAES-J-700 FOR DETERMINING WHETHER
ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC TRANSDUCERS, PNEUMATIC

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Engineering Encyclopedia Sizing and Selecting Control Valves - Part 2
Specifying Electro-Pneumatic Transducers,
Pneumatic Boosters, and Control Valve Positioners

BOOSTERS, AND CONTROL VALVE POSITIONERS ARE

REQUIRED ......................................................................................... 100
Work Aid 1A: Applicable Procedural Steps For Determining Whether
Electro-Pneumatic Transducers, Pneumatic Boosters, And
Control Valve Positioners Are Required..................................... 100
Is an electro-pneumatic transducer required?....................................... 100
Is a pneumatic booster required? .......................................................... 100
Is a control valve positioner required? ................................................... 101
Work Aid 1B: Pertinent Content From Saes-J-700 For Determining
Whether Electro-Pneumatic Transducers, Pneumatic
Boosters, And Control Valve Positioners Are Required ............. 101
WORK AID 2: PROCEDURAL STEPS THAT ARE USED TO SPECIFY
ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC TRANSDUCERS......................................... 102
Line 42: Valve Action On Increase In Signal......................................... 102
Line 43: Supply Max. Avail / Min. Req'd................................................ 103
Line 74: Air Filter Regulator Type / Size ................................................ 104
Line 75: Air Req'd Set Pressure............................................................ 104
Line 80: Transducer Type and Model Number...................................... 104
Line 81: Transducer Input mA / Output ................................................. 104
WORK AID 3: PROCEDURAL STEPS THAT ARE USED TO SPECIFY
PNEUMATIC BOOSTERS .................................................................. 105
Line 42: Valve Action On Increase In Signal......................................... 105
Line 43: Supply Max. Avail / Min. Req'd................................................ 106
Line 74: Air Filter Regulator Type / Size ................................................ 107
Line 75: Air Required Set Pressure ...................................................... 107
Line 80 Transducer Type / Model No.................................................... 107
Line 81: Transducer Input mA / Output ................................................. 107
WORK AID 4: PERTINENT SECTIONS OF SAES-J-700 AND APPLICABLE
PROCEDURAL STEPS THAT ARE USED TO SPECIFY
CONTROL VALVE POSITIONERS..................................................... 108

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Engineering Encyclopedia Sizing and Selecting Control Valves - Part 2
Specifying Electro-Pneumatic Transducers,
Pneumatic Boosters, and Control Valve Positioners

Work Aid 4A: Pertinent Sections Of Saes-J-700 That Are Used To Specify
Control Valve Positioners........................................................... 108
Work Aid 4B: Procedural Steps That Are Used To Specify Control Valve
Positioners ................................................................................. 108
Line 5: Manufacturer .............................................................................. 108
Line 6: Model / Type Number................................................................. 108
Line 9: Overall Valve / Actuator Characteristic...................................... 108
Line 38: Positioner Type / Model Number............................................. 109
Line 39: Positioner Bypass / Gauges .................................................... 109
Line 40: Positioner Input and Output .................................................... 109
Line 41: Positioner Action ...................................................................... 110
Line 42: Valve Action On Increase In Signal......................................... 110
Line 43: Supply Max. Avail / Min. Req'd................................................ 112
Line 74: Air Filter Regulator Type / Size ............................................... 112
Line 75: Air Required Set Pressure ...................................................... 112
GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................ 113

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Engineering Encyclopedia Sizing and Selecting Control Valves - Part 2
Specifying Electro-Pneumatic Transducers,
Pneumatic Boosters, and Control Valve Positioners

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Simple Pneumatic Control Loop.................................................................... 11

Figure 2. I/P Transducer Function ................................................................................ 15
Figure 3. I/P Transducer Application ............................................................................ 16
Figure 4. Electro-Pneumatic Transducer Construction And Operation......................... 17
Figure 5. Direct- And Reverse-Acting Transducers ...................................................... 19
Figure 6. Filter-Regulator Application ........................................................................... 21
Figure 7. Direct-Operated Regulator ............................................................................ 22
Figure 8. Transducer Loading An Actuator................................................................... 24
Figure 9. Transducer Loading A Positioner .................................................................. 24
Figure 10. Transducers In A Split Range Application ................................................... 25
Figure 11. Reverse-Acting Transducer Application ...................................................... 26
Figure 12. Pneumatic Booster Function ....................................................................... 28
Figure 13. Pneumatic Booster Application ................................................................... 29
Figure 14. Pneumatic Booster...................................................................................... 30
Figure 15. Pneumatic Pressure Reducer And Pressure Booster ................................. 32
Figure 16. Dead Band Volume Booster........................................................................ 33
Figure 17. Pneumatic Pressure Booster Application .................................................... 35
Figure 18. Pneumatic Pressure Reducer Application ................................................... 36
Figure 19. Improving Actuator Response Through Control Signal Isolation ................. 37
Figure 20. Dead Band Volume Booster Application ..................................................... 38
Figure 21. Control Valve Positioner Inputs And Outputs .............................................. 41
Figure 22. Positioner Role............................................................................................ 42
Figure 23. Positioner Operation ................................................................................... 44
Figure 24. Positioner Input And Output Relationships.................................................. 45
Figure 25. Electro-Pneumatic Positioner With Internal I/P Transducer......................... 46

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Specifying Electro-Pneumatic Transducers,
Pneumatic Boosters, and Control Valve Positioners

Figure 26. Rotary-Shaft Feedback Linkage.................................................................. 47

Figure 27. Double-Acting Positioner............................................................................. 48
Figure 28. Direct Versus Reverse Acting Positioner Output......................................... 49
Figure 29. Positioner Gauges....................................................................................... 50
Figure 30. Positioner Bypass Valve.............................................................................. 51
Figure 31. Commonly Available Positioner Characteristics .......................................... 52
Figure 32. Combined Positioner And Control Valve Characteristics.............................. 53
Figure 33. Double-Acting Positioner Application .......................................................... 55
Figure 34. Split-Range Control Application .................................................................. 56
Figure 35. Dead Band And Hysteresis ......................................................................... 58
Figure 36. Control Valve Dead Band (Upper Plot) And Limit Cycle (Lower Plot) ......... 59
Figure 37. Minimizing Dead Band With A Control Valve Positioner.............................. 60
Figure 38. Additional Diaphragm Pressure
That Is Available For Control Valve Shutoff ................................................ 61
Figure 39. Additional Diaphragm Pressure That Is Available To Open The Valve ....... 62
Figure 40. Operating A Control Valve With An Incompatible Signal Range ................. 63
Figure 41. Modification Of Control Valve Characteristics ............................................. 64
Figure 42. Isolating The Control Signal From The Actuator ......................................... 65
Figure 43. Reversing The Control Valve Action ........................................................... 66
Figure 44. Positioner As A Cascade Control Loop ....................................................... 69
Figure 45. Fast And Slow Processes ........................................................................... 71
Figure 46. Instrument Selection Guidelines.................................................................. 72
Figure 47. Transducer Specifications On The Saudi Aramco ISS ................................ 77
Figure 48. Booster Specifications On The Saudi Aramco ISS...................................... 85
Figure 49. Positioner Specifications On The Saudi Aramco ISS .................................. 92

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Engineering Encyclopedia Sizing and Selecting Control Valves - Part 2
Specifying Electro-Pneumatic Transducers,
Pneumatic Boosters, and Control Valve Positioners

INTRODUCTION

Control Objectives And Control Valve Performance

Specifying engineers select and specify control equipment,

including control valves and control valve accessories, to ensure
that specific control objectives are met. This Module discusses
the instruments that are commonly selected and specified to
control the loading pressure of a control valve actuator. The
relationship between control objectives, control valve
performance, and the instruments that are presented in this
Module can be described as follows:
• To achieve specific control objectives, a control valve must
perform in a specific manner.
• Many aspects of control valve performance are a function
of actuator performance.
• Actuator performance is determined, to a large degree, by
the instrumentation that supplies the actuator loading
pressure.

Instruments And Instrument Selection

The instruments that are commonly specified to ensure proper

control valve performance are:
• Electro-pneumatic transducers
• Pneumatic boosters
• Control valve positioners

Whether or not electro-pneumatic transducers, pneumatic

boosters, and control valve positioners are needed in control
loops is determined in view of specific control objectives and the
control valve performance that is required to meet those
objectives. If the specifying engineer determines that one or
more instruments are needed, these instruments are then
specified to ensure that the control valve will satisfy all control
objectives.
This module will determine, in view of specific control objectives,
whether the subject instruments are needed and to specify
these instruments.

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Engineering Encyclopedia Sizing and Selecting Control Valves - Part 2
Specifying Electro-Pneumatic Transducers,
Pneumatic Boosters, and Control Valve Positioners

DETERMINING WHETHER ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC TRANSDUCERS,

PNEUMATIC BOOSTERS, AND CONTROL VALVE POSITIONERS ARE REQUIRED

Baseline For Instrument Selection

Simple Pneumatic Loop

To provide a basis for determining when specific instruments

would be selected, a simple pneumatic control loop that includes
only minimal instrumentation will be reviewed. See Figure 1.

Pneumatic
Controller
Loading Pressure Supply
To Actuator Pressure Plant Air
3 To 15 psig

Actuator Control
Signal

Transmitter

Process

Control Valve
Process
A6475 Variable

Figure 1. Simple Pneumatic Control Loop

Loop Components And Functions - The essential elements of the

control loop are as follows:

• The transmitter measures the process variable and sends

a control signal to the controller.
• The controller sums the control signal from the transmitter
with the set point for the process variable to determine if an
error exists; i.e., if the process variable is not at the set
point value. If an error exists, the controller adjusts the
output pressure (actuator loading pressure) that is sent to
the actuator. The controller output derives from an
independent source of supply pressure.

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Specifying Electro-Pneumatic Transducers,
Pneumatic Boosters, and Control Valve Positioners

• The actuator positions the control valve closure member to

reduce the error.

Control Valve Performance Considerations - The simple loop that is

shown in Figure 1 may provide satisfactory control in some
applications. However, if any one of a number of specific control
objectives are to be achieved, the specifier must consider the
selection of additional instrumentation to provide the control
valve performance that is required.

Control Objectives That Can

Be Achieved With Transducers,
Boosters, And Positioners

Throughout this Module, the subject of instrument selection and

specification will be discussed in terms of achieving specific
control objectives. The control objectives that are referenced in
these discussion are briefly described below.

Proper Control Valve

Operation From The
Available Control Signal

Incompatible Control Signal Range - In some applications, an

actuator may be sized for operation from a pressure range that
is different from the controller output pressure range. For such
applications, an instrument that converts one pressure range to
another is required. Such instruments are referred to as
pneumatic boosters, relays, and reducers.

Incompatible Control Signal Form - Control valve actuators are

typically operated with a pneumatic pressure; however, the
available control signal may be in the form of an electrical
current or an electrical voltage. For such applications, an
accessory instrument that converts a signal from one form to
another is required. Instruments that convert a signal from one
form to another are referred to as transducers.

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Engineering Encyclopedia Sizing and Selecting Control Valves - Part 2
Specifying Electro-Pneumatic Transducers,
Pneumatic Boosters, and Control Valve Positioners

Overcoming Valve Friction

For many applications, the quality of process control is

determined by the ability of the actuator to move the valve plug
to the precise position that is indicated by the control signal (the
controller output). When the friction that is produced by valve
stem packing and valve seals prevents accurate stem
positioning, an instrument that ensures valve stem positioning
accuracy may be selected. This instrument is a control valve
positioner.

Increased Seat Load

To increase the control valve seat load for the purpose of

achieving tighter valve shutoff, an instrument that increases the
loading pressure to the diaphragm may be selected. Either
pneumatic boosters or control valve positioners may be
selected.

Faster Stroking Speed

Some control objectives call for very short stroking times, or fast
stroking speeds. Actuator stroking times can be reduced by
selecting an instrument that increases the capacity, or volume,
of the actuator loading pressure. The instrument most
commonly selected for this purpose is a volume booster.

Split-Range Control

Split range control is a method of control in which two control

valves (or other final control elements) are operated by one
controller. In a typical split range control application, an
instrument on one control valve is configured to fully stroke the
valve from a portion of the control signal range, and the
instrument on the other control valve configured to fully stroke
the valve from the remaining portion of control signal range.
Split range systems may be implemented to achieve one of
several specific objectives, including the following:

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Specifying Electro-Pneumatic Transducers,
Pneumatic Boosters, and Control Valve Positioners

Increased Rangeability - When the ratio of the maximum required

control valve Cv to the minimum required control valve Cv is
very large and a single valve cannot provide the required
rangeability, two valves may be piped in parallel and controlled
with a split-range control strategy.

Control Of Different Process Variables - Split range systems may be

designed to control two or more different process variables; e.g.,
steam and cold water.

Control Of Different Types Of Final Control Elements - Split range

systems may be designed to operate different types of final
control elements; e.g., a valve actuator and an air damper.

Control valve positioners are the preferred instruments for split-

range applications.

Modification Of Control
Valve Flow Characteristics

In some instances, the desired control valve flow characteristic

is not available as an option for the preferred valve type. To
produce the desired flow characteristic, the available control
valve characteristic can be modified by selecting an instrument
that includes a characterizing function. Of the instruments that
are discussed in this Module, control valve positioners are the
only ones that are routinely available with a characterizing
function.

Reversal Of The
Control Valve Action

To achieve a specific control objective, it may be necessary to

alter the action of a control valve. The action of the control valve
can be functionally changed by selecting a reverse-acting
instrument. Most instruments are available in both direct-acting
and reverse-acting constructions.

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Engineering Encyclopedia Sizing and Selecting Control Valves - Part 2
Specifying Electro-Pneumatic Transducers,
Pneumatic Boosters, and Control Valve Positioners

Electro-Pneumatic
Transducer Function, Role,
And Typical Application

Function

The function of an electro-pneumatic transducer is to convert an

input signal of one form to an output signal of a different form,
as shown in Figure 2. The most common type of electro-
pneumatic transducer is the current-to-pressure transducer, also
known as an I/P transducer, or simply an I/P (pronounced "I to
P"). An I/P transducer converts an input that is in the form of a
mA dc signal to a proportional output in the form of a pressure
signal. The input signal range is often 4 to 20 mA dc because
this range matches the output signal range of many electronic
controllers and other instruments. Pressure outputs of 3 to 15
psig and 6 to 30 psig are common because these are the
popular ranges for pneumatic control signals. The output
derives from an independent supply pressure.

Supply
Pressure

Input Output
I/P
Control Signal Pressure Signal
4 To 20 mA dc
A6476

Figure 2. I/P Transducer Function

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Specifying Electro-Pneumatic Transducers,
Pneumatic Boosters, and Control Valve Positioners

Role And Application

I/P transducers are commonly selected to allow the operation of

a pneumatic control valve actuator from the output signal of an
electronic controller, as shown in Figure 3.

Current-to-Pressure Electronic
Actuator Transducer Controller
Loading Pressure Control Signal
I/P
3 To 15 psig 4 To 20 mA dc

Supply
Pressure

Process

Transmitter
A6477
Process Variable

Figure 3. I/P Transducer Application

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Engineering Encyclopedia Sizing and Selecting Control Valves - Part 2
Specifying Electro-Pneumatic Transducers,
Pneumatic Boosters, and Control Valve Positioners

Electro-Pneumatic
Transducer Operation,
Types, And Options

Electro-Pneumatic Transducer Operation

Although the specifics of transducer construction and operation

vary from manufacturer to manufacturer, the construction that is
shown in Figure 4 is typical. The operating principles of the
transducer that is shown in Figure 4 are discussed below.

DC Input
Signal
+ – N

N
S
N S
S
N Armature (Flapper)
Coil S
Nozzle
Output Pressure
Nozzle Pressure
Supply Pressure
Exhaust Pressure
Transducer Output
Pressure
Relay

CP4285-A
Supply
A6456 Pressure

Figure 4. Electro-Pneumatic Transducer

Construction And Operation

Electrical Input Signal Detector - An electro-pneumatic transducer

accepts an electrical input signal in the form of a voltage or
current. The input signal energizes a coil that surrounds an
armature. As the input signal changes, the position of the
armature also changes. The coil and armature arrangement
converts a change in the electrical input signal to a change in
the position of the armature.

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Specifying Electro-Pneumatic Transducers,
Pneumatic Boosters, and Control Valve Positioners

Signal Conversion - The armature serves as the flapper for a

nozzle-flapper signal conversion device. The supply pressure is
routed through the relay to the nozzle. As the armature (flapper)
approaches the nozzle, the nozzle pressure is restricted and the
pressure in the tubing that is upstream of the nozzle increases.
As the armature moves away from the nozzle, the pressure in
the tubing that is upstream of the nozzle decreases.

Pressure Signal Amplification - The pressure in the tubing that is

upstream of the nozzle is the input to a pneumatic pressure
amplifier, or relay. The relay amplifies the pressure that is
produced by the nozzle-flapper device by modulating a supply
pressure. The output of the relay has sufficient capacity and is
of the proper pressure range to operate a control valve actuator.

Action On Increasing Input - An increase in the electrical input

signal to the transducer will cause the armature to restrict the
flow of the supply pressure through the nozzle. Because the
nozzle is restricted, the pressure that is directed to the relay
(power amplifier) increases. The result is an increase in the
transducer output pressure.

Action On Decreasing Input - If the electrical input signal

decreases, the armature moves away from the nozzle and the
supply pressure bleeds to the atmosphere. The reduced
pressure at the relay input causes a decrease in the transducer
output pressure.

Types Of Electro-Pneumatic
Transducers

Electro-pneumatic transducers are categorized, by type,

according to the type of conversion they perform.

I/P - As previously explained, the most common transducer type

is the current-to-pressure transducer.

E/P - An E/P transducer converts a control signal in the form of

an electrical voltage into a proportional pressure signal.
Common input ranges are 1 to 5 volts dc and 1 to 9 volts dc.
Popular output ranges are 3 to 15 psig and 6 to 30 psig. Other
input and output ranges are available.

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Engineering Encyclopedia Sizing and Selecting Control Valves - Part 2
Specifying Electro-Pneumatic Transducers,
Pneumatic Boosters, and Control Valve Positioners

Other Transducer Types - Other transducer types are also

available; for example, P/I (pressure-to-current) transducers
convert pressure signals to mA dc signals. Pressure-to-pressure
transducers (P/P) are also common. P/P transducers are most
often referred to as pneumatic boosters or relays. Boosters and
relays will be discussed later in this Module.

Electro-Pneumatic
Transducer Options

Input and Output Ranges - Transducers are often available with a

choice of input range and output range. Options for 3 to 15 psig,
0 to 18 psig, 6 to 30 psig, and 0 to 33 psig pressure outputs are
common. Options for various input signal ranges may also be
available.

Action - Transducers, like every other hardware element in the

loop, may be selected or configured as direct-acting or reverse-
acting devices, as shown in Figure 5. In a direct-acting
transducer, an increase in the input signal produces a
proportional increase in the output pressure. In a reverse-acting
transducer, an increase in the input signal produces a
proportional decrease in the output pressure.

15 15

Output Output
psig psig

3 3

Input Input
4 20 4 20
mA dc mA dc
A6478
A6478
Direct-Acting Reverse-Acting

Figure 5. Direct- And Reverse-Acting Transducers

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Specifying Electro-Pneumatic Transducers,
Pneumatic Boosters, and Control Valve Positioners

Intrinsically Safe Constructions - Some transducers are available

as intrinsically safe devices. An intrinsically safe device is one in
which insufficient energy is available to cause arcs and sparks
that would be dangerous in a flammable or explosive
environment.

Filter-Regulators For
Pneumatic Instruments
Function, Role,
And Typical Application
Function - A filter-regulator removes dust, dirt, pipeline scale, and
other impurities from an air supply, and it reduces the pressure
of the supply.
Role - Each of the instruments that are discussed in this Module
modulates an independent source of supply pressure. In many
applications, the source of the supply pressure is a dedicated
"plant air" system or "instrument air" system that is designed to
power all the pneumatically operated devices within a plant.
Plant air systems typically operate at 80 to 100 psig. The
required or recommended supply pressure of a transducer or
other instrument is often a pressure value that is just slightly
higher than the maximum output pressure of the instrument;
e.g., an electro-pneumatic transducer that provides a maximum
output pressure of 15 psig may require a supply pressure of 20
psig. Pneumatic instruments often have maximum supply
pressure ratings that are well below the pressure of the plant air
system. To reduce the pressure of the instrument air system to
the supply pressure that is needed by each instrument, and to
remove impurities from the supply, a filter-regulator is commonly
selected for each pneumatic instrument.
Typical Application - Figure 6 illustrates a filter-regulator that
removes impurities from plant air and reduces the pressure of
the plant air system to the supply pressure that is required by a
transducer.

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Current-to-Pressure Electronic
Actuator Transducer Controller
Loading Pressure Control Signal
I/P
0 To 18 psig 4 To 20 mA dc
Supply Filter
Pressure Regulator
23 psig
typical Plant Air
80 To 100 psig typical

Process

A6479
Transmitter
Process Variable

Figure 6. Filter-Regulator Application

Regulator Operation

Direct-Operated Regulators- Most supply pressure regulators may

be classified as direct-operated, pressure-reducing regulators.
In this context, direct-operated means that the power that is
required to operate the regulator is taken from the controlled
fluid.

Major Elements - As shown in Figure 7, the three primary

elements of a direct-operated regulator are:

• A measuring element, or diaphragm

• A spring

• A valve

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Spring Adjuster

Spring
Diaphragm

Valve

Plant Supply
Air Pressure

A6455

Figure 7. Direct-Operated Regulator

Operation - The purpose of a regulator is to maintain the supply

pressure at a specific pressure value, or set pressure. In
operation, the supply pressure registers on the bottom side of
the regulator diaphragm. The force that is produced by the
diaphragm is opposed by the force that is produced by the
regulator spring. If the diaphragm force and the spring force are
equal, the regulator valve holds a fixed position; i.e., the
regulator is at a steady state condition. The steady state
condition is achieved only when the supply pressure is the same
as the set pressure.

Decreased Demand - If there is a decrease in flow to the

downstream device, the supply pressure will increase to a
pressure value that is above the set pressure. Because of the
increase in the supply pressure, the diaphragm force will
become greater than the spring force and the regulator valve
will move toward the closed position. The action of the valve
closing will reduce the flow to the downstream device, thereby
causing the supply pressure to fall to the set pressure.

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Pneumatic Boosters, and Control Valve Positioners

Increased Demand - If there is an increase in flow to the

downstream device, the supply pressure will fall below the value
of the set pressure. Because of the decrease in the supply
pressure, the diaphragm force will be less than the spring force.
The spring will move the valve toward the open position, thereby
increasing the flow to the downstream device. As a result, the
supply pressure will increase towards the set pressure.

Pressure Ranges - The range of set pressures that are available

from a particular regulator is determined by the spring rate of
the regulator spring.

Establishing Set Pressure - The value of the set pressure is

established by the supply pressure requirement of the particular
device. The pressure is set by the amount of initial spring
compression that is wound into the spring with the spring
adjuster.

Specific Control Objectives

That Can Be Achieved With
Electro-Pneumatic Transducers

Operation Of A Pneumatic Device

With An Electronic Control Signal

The most common application for an I/P transducer is to convert

an electronic control signal from an electronic controller into a
pressure signal that can operate control valve actuators or other
pneumatic instruments.

Operating Control Valve Actuators - Figure 8 shows an application

in which an I/P transducer converts the 4 to 20 mA dc control
signal from the controller into a 0 to 18 psig actuator loading
pressure.

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Current-to-Pressure Electronic
Actuator Transducer Controller
Loading Pressure Control Signal
I/P
0 To 18 psig 4 To 20 mA dc
Supply Filter
Pressure Regulator
23 psig
typical Plant Air
80 To 100 psig typical

Process

A6503
Transmitter
Process Variable

Figure 8. Transducer Loading An Actuator

Operating Pneumatic Figure 9 illustrates an

Instruments -
application in which an I/P transducer converts a 4 to 20 mA dc
controller output into a 3 to 15 psig control signal that is
connected to the input of another instrument (a control valve
positioner).

Filter
Regulator
Supply
Pressure
Plant Air

Control Signal Control Signal

Control Valve P I/P
Positioner 3 To 15 psig 4-20 mA dc

Plant Air

Filter
Supply Regulator
A6504
Pressure

Figure 9. Transducer Loading A Positioner

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Split Ranging

Transducers may also be selected achieve the objectives of

split-range control strategies.

Example Application - Figure 10 shows an application in which a

small valve controls the flow of a fuel gas when the demand is
low. When the demand for the fuel gas increases, a large valve
operates to control the high volume flow of the gas. To
implement the strategy that is shown, transducer A has an input
signal range of 4 to 12 mA dc; i.e., transducer A will provide a
full-span output pressure of 3 to 15 psig from a portion (4 to 12
mA dc) of the control signal range. Transducer B has an input
span of 12 to 20 mA dc and provides a full span output pressure
(3 to 15 psig) from the remaining portion (12 to 20 mA dc) of the
control signal range.

Actuator
Loading Pressure Control Signal
I/P
3 To 15 psig 4 To 20 mA dc

Transducer A Filter
Input Span: Regulator
4 To 12 mA dc Supply
Pressure Plant Air

Fuel
Gas Electronic
Controller
Small Valve
Actuator
Loading Pressure Control Signal
I/P
3 To 15 psig 4 To 20 mA dc

Transducer B Filter
Input Span: Regulator
Supply
12 To 20 mA dc
Pressure Plant Air

Fuel
Gas

A6505 Large Valve

Figure 10. Transducers In A Split Range Application

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Reversal Of The
Control Valve Action

When it is necessary to reverse the action of a control valve

assembly, the reversal can be achieved through the selection of
a reverse-acting transducer. Figure 11 shows an application in
which the selection of a reverse-acting transducer reverses the
output of a direct-acting controller for the purpose of preserving
negative feedback control. Note that the loop includes a
reverse-acting actuator and a PDTC control valve. Because the
transducer and the actuator are both reverse-acting, the control
valve will close upon an increase in the control signal.

Reverse-Acting Direct-Acting
Current-To-Pressure Electronic
Transducer Controller

I/P
Reverse-Acting
Actuator

Push-Down-To-Close
Control Valve
Process

Direct-Acting
A6506
Process Variable Transmitter

Figure 11. Reverse-Acting Transducer Application

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Electro-Pneumatic Transducer
Selection Guidelines

Signal Conversion

When it is necessary to convert an electronic control signal to a

pressure signal, there are no viable alternatives to the selection
of an I/P transducer. In other words, transducers are selected
without hesitation.

Split Range Control

While it is possible to select electro-pneumatic transducers to

implement split-range control strategies, control valve
positioners are generally favored over transducers for this
application. Positioners are preferred because of the stem
positioning accuracy that they provide. With transducers, there
is no assurance that the actual valve stem position will be the
same as the position that is implied by the controller output. If
gross errors in valve stem position occur, the split-range
strategy will not provide good control.

Reversal Of The
Control Valve Action

The process engineer must exercise caution when selecting the

action (direct or reverse-acting) of each instrument in the control
loop. The general guidelines for selecting a particular action are
as follows:

• To preserve the action of a control valve; i.e., direct or

reverse acting, any number of direct-acting components
can be added without affecting the control valve action.
Reverse-acting components must be added in pairs.

• To modify the action of a control valve, an odd number of

reverse-acting components must be added to the loop.

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Filter-Regulator Selection Guidelines

Like all other pneumatic and electro-pneumatic instruments, an

electro-pneumatic transducer requires a supply pressure that is
clean and regulated. The specific guidelines that direct the
selection of a filter-regulator include the following:

• Unless the plant air (instrument air) system includes

provisions for supplying clean air at the appropriate
pressure value to each pneumatic instrument, a filter-
regulator is required.

• A filter-regulator should be selected for each instrument in

the loop; i.e., the operation of several instruments from a
single filter-regulator is not recommended.

Pneumatic Booster Function,

Role, And Typical Application

Function

Boosters (also known as relays, pressure boosters, pressure

reducers, and pressure-to-pressure transducers) accept a
pneumatic input pressure and a supply pressure, and they
provide a pneumatic output pressure as shown in Figure 12.
The input pressure modulates the supply pressure to produce
an output pressure that is proportional to, but independent from,
the input pressure. In other words, the input pressure is isolated
from the output pressure.

Input Pressure Output Pressure

P/P
Output Options:
Increased Pressure
Supply Reduced Pressure
Pressure Increased Volume

A6507

Figure 12. Pneumatic Booster Function

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Role

The role of a booster is to ensure that a control signal arrives at

a pneumatic instrument or control valve actuator with sufficient
pressure or capacity to ensure the proper operation of the
instrument or actuator.

Typical Application

An example application that includes a booster for the purpose

of achieving isolation is illustrated in Figure 13. The capacity of
the controller output is relatively small while the volume of the
actuator diaphragm casing is relatively large. If the actuator
were to be operated directly from the controller output,
substantial time would be required for the controller to load the
relatively large volume of an actuator diaphragm casing. The
result would be sluggish control valve response to changes in
the control signal.

Control valve response can be improved by adding a pressure-

to-pressure booster. Compared to an actuator casing, the input
section of a booster has a relatively tiny volume; therefore, a
limited capacity control signal can load or 'charge-up' a booster
rather quickly. The booster, because it modulates an
independent supply pressure, can deliver extra capacity to the
actuator casing.

Pressure-To-Pressure
Transducer Pneumatic
(Pneumatic Booster) Controller
Actuator Loading
Pressure Control Signal
P/P
3 To 15 psig 3 To 15 Psig
Supply
Large Actuator Pressure

Plant Air

Process

A6511 Transmitter
Process Variable

Figure 13. Pneumatic Booster Application

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Pneumatic Booster Operation, Types, And Options

Pneumatic Booster Operation

Connections - All pneumatic boosters have three pressure

connections. The input pressure is typically the output signal
(control signal) from a pneumatic controller or an I/P transducer.
The supply pressure is clean, regulated air from the plant air
system. The booster output is a pressure that is proportional to
the input pressure.

Double Diaphragms - A typical booster construction is shown in

Figure 14. The booster includes two diaphragms. The input
pressure registers on the upper diaphragm and the output
pressure registers on the lower diaphragm. The two diaphragms
are connected to and separated by a spacer. The assembly that
consists of the diaphragms and the spacer is free to move
upward or downward.

Input
Spacer Pressure

Flow Passage Upper Diaphragm

Exhaust

Exhaust Valve Lower Diaphragm

Output
Pressure
Supply
Pressure Supply Valve

A6512

Figure 14. Pneumatic Booster

Pressure-Balanced Device - The booster is a pressure-balanced

device; i.e., when the pressure on the upper diaphragm (the
input pressure) is the same as the pressure on the lower
diaphragm (the output pressure), the diaphragm assembly
remains in a fixed position.

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Pressure Unbalance And Valve Position - If the input pressure and

the output pressure are not identical, the diaphragm assembly
will move away from the source of the higher pressure. Any
change in the position of the diaphragm assembly will cause a
change in the position of the supply valve and the exhaust
valve.

Increasing Signal - If the input pressure increases to a value that

is greater than the output pressure, the diaphragm assembly
moves downward. The downward motion of the diaphragm
assembly opens the supply pressure valve and the output
pressure increases. The exhaust valve remains closed at this
time. As the output pressure approaches the value of the input
pressure, the diaphragm assembly moves upward and closes
the supply valve to restore pressure balance.

Decreasing Signal - If the input pressure decreases to a value that

is less than the output pressure, the diaphragm assembly
moves upward. The upward motion of the diaphragm assembly
closes the supply pressure valve, and the output pressure
decreases. If the pressure unbalance continues, the diaphragm
continues to move upward, thereby opening the exhaust valve
and bleeding some of the output pressure to the atmosphere.
Note that the spacer between the diaphragms includes flow
passages that allow the pressure to exhaust to atmosphere.
When the output pressure is the same as the input pressure,
pressure balance is restored and the supply valve and the
exhaust valve are both closed.

Types Of Pneumatic Boosters

Pneumatic boosters are categorized, by type, according to the

ratio of the input and output pressures, and according to
whether their intended function is to modify the pressure of the
output or the capacity of the output. The common types of
pneumatic boosters are discussed below.

1:1 Boosters - 1:1 boosters, also referred to as repeaters,

produce an output pressure that is identical to the input
pressure. Because the output pressure derives from an
independent supply pressure, the capacity of the output
pressure may be greater than the capacity of the pressure
signal that is connected to the booster input.

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Pressure Reducers - A pressure-reducer (or pressure reducing

relay) produces an output pressure that is less than the input
pressure by a fixed ratio; e.g., a 2:1 reducer converts a 6 to 30
psig input pressure into a 3 to 15 psig output pressure. To
provide a 2:1 pressure reduction ratio, the area of the upper
diaphragm must be one half the area of the lower diaphragm, as
shown in Figure 15.

Pressure Boosters - A pressure booster (or pressure amplifying

relay) produces an output pressure that is greater than the input
pressure by a fixed ratio; e.g., a 1:2 booster converts a 3 to 15
psig input pressure into a 6 to 30 psig output pressure. To
increase the output pressure by a 1:2 ratio, the area of the
upper diaphragm must be twice as large as the area of the
lower diaphragm, as shown in Figure 15.

Upper Diaphragm Area Upper Diaphragm Area

Is Larger Than The Lower Is Smaller Than The Lower
Diaphragm Area Diaphragm Area

A6513 Pressure Booster Lower Pressure Reducer

Diaphragm

Figure 15. Pneumatic Pressure

Reducer And Pressure Booster

Volume Boosters - Volume boosters typically provide a 1:1 ratio of

input to output pressure, but they include larger valve ports for
the purpose of increasing the capacity of the output pressure.

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Dead Band Volume Boosters - Dead band volume boosters (see

Figure 16) are 1:1 volume boosters that include a bypass circuit
and bypass valve. Dead band boosters direct the normal control
signal to the downstream device unless a large or sudden
change occurs in the control signal. A large or sudden change
initiates a booster response, and the capacity of the booster
output is temporarily increased to ensure very fast loading or
unloading of the downstream device. The magnitude of the
change in the input signal that must occur to initiate a booster
response is adjustable. Until this magnitude of change occurs,
there is no booster response, hence the name dead band
booster.

Input
Dead Band Adjustment
(Needle Valve)

Exhaust
Bypass

Output
Supply

Large Valves
A6514

Figure 16. Dead Band Volume Booster

• Operation - In normal operation, the input pressure

(controller output) is routed through a needle valve and a
bypass circuit to the output connection. When the output
and input pressures are equal, there is no pressure
unbalance across the diaphragms and there is no booster
response; i.e., both the supply and exhaust valves remain
closed. If the input pressure changes quickly, and if the
bypass valve is adjusted so that the input pressure cannot
quickly pass to the output, the pressure imbalance causes
the diaphragm assembly to move, thereby opening (or
closing) the appropriate booster valve and greatly
increasing or decreasing the volume of the output
pressure.

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• Instrument Grade Vs. High-Capacity Dead Band Boosters -

An important distinction is whether a particular booster is
an instrument grade booster or a high-capacity booster.
Instrument grade boosters maintain a reasonably accurate
1:1 ratio of the output pressure to the input pressure. This
accuracy is required for smooth throttling control.

• High-capacity dead band boosters are designed to load or

unload a downstream device as quickly as possible, often
for the purpose of fully opening or fully closing a control
valve. High-capacity volume boosters are not as accurate
as instrument grade boosters; i.e., they do not provide the
precise 1:1 input-to-output pressure relationship that is
required for precise throttling control. Manufacturer's
product specification bulletins provide information that
helps to identify a booster as an instrument grade booster
or a high-capacity booster.

Pneumatic Booster Options

Input And Output Ranges - Boosters are available with various

input and output pressure ranges. As a general rule, the
available input ranges are the standard control signal ranges of
3 to 15 psig and 6 to 30 psig. Output pressure ranges vary
according to the booster type.
Action - Many 1:1 boosters, pressure amplifiers, and pressure
reducers are available as either direct-acting or reverse-acting
devices. Volume boosters and dead band volume boosters are
typically available only as direct-acting devices.

Specific Control Objectives

That Can Be Achieved
With Pneumatic Boosters

Operation Of A Pneumatic Device

With An Incompatible Pressure Signal

There are instances when the available control signal pressure

range is not compatible with the input pressure range of a
downstream device. In such instances, pressure boosters and
pressure reducers may be selected to ensure proper operation
of the downstream device.

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Actuator Application - Figure 17 illustrates an application in which

an actuator with a 6 to 30 psig operating pressure range has
been selected; however, the available control signal is 3 to 15
psig. To ensure proper actuator operation, a 1:2 pressure
booster is selected to convert the 3 to 15 psig control signal to
the required 6 to 30 psig actuator loading pressure range.

Figure 17. Pneumatic Pressure Booster Application

Instrument Application - Figure 18 illustrates an application in

which the control valve assembly includes a positioner with a 3
to 15 psig input pressure range. The available control signal is
the output from a transducer with a 6 to 30 psig output pressure
range. To ensure proper control valve and positioner operation,
a 2:1 pressure reducer is selected to convert the 6 to 30 psig
control signal to the required positioner input pressure range.

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Supply
Plant Air Pressure
Supply
Plant Air Pressure
Actuator Loading
Pressure
Control Signal Control Signal
P/P
3 To 15 psig 6 To 30 Psig

Pneumatic
Positioner Filter Controller
Input Range: Supply Regulator
3 To 15 psig Pressure Supply Pressure
P 50 psig Typical 80 To 100 psig Typical

Process

A6516
Transmitter
Process Variable

Figure 18. Pneumatic Pressure Reducer Application

Reduced Stroking Time

Proper control loop operation requires that the control valve

respond quickly to changes in the control signal. Beyond this
basic requirement for reasonably fast response, some
applications have requirements for extremely short stroking
times. Boosters, volume boosters, and dead band volume
boosters may be selected to reduce stroking times. Example
applications are discussed below.

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Isolating Instrumentation From Large Volume Actuators - Figure 19

illustrates a typical application in which the control valve
actuator is located a considerable distance from the controller.
Over the distance between the controller and the actuator,
piping friction will "weaken" the control signal. Considerable time
may be required for the weakened control signal to fill the
relatively large volume of the actuator diaphragm casing. The
result may be sluggish actuator operation and poor control. To
reduce response time and to improve the quality of control, a
1:1 relay (1:1 booster, or repeater) is installed on or near the
control valve actuator. Even though the capacity of the control
signal is small, it is sufficient to quickly load the relatively small
volume of the booster. The booster, in turn, modulates a supply
pressure that has sufficient capacity to ensure fast actuator
response.

Actuator Loading Pressure-To-Pressure

Pressure Transducer Pneumatic
3 To 15 psig (Pneumatic Booster) Controller
Control Signal
P/P
3 To 15 Psig
Supply
Pressure 200 Feet

Filter
Regulator

Process Variable
Plant Air
A6517
Transmitter

Figure 19. Improving Actuator Response

Through Control Signal Isolation

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Achieving Very Short Stroking Times - Figure 20 shows a typical

gas vent application. The objective of this loop is to protect the
downstream system from overpressure. If the pressure of the
process variable increases to a value that is above the controller
set point, the vent valve will open, thereby venting gas to the
atmosphere and relieving process pressure. In this application,
the valve must respond very quickly to changes in the control
signal; therefore, a volume booster is selected. If good throttling
control throughout the duration of the transient (large or sudden
change in the control signal) is required, an instrument grade
volume booster would be selected. If fast response is more
important than good throttling control, a high-capacity volume
booster would be selected. Note that the output of the volume
booster is always connected to a high capacity device such as
an actuator; never to the input of another instrument.

Plant Air Vent

80 To 100 psig Typical
Filter
Regulator Volume
Booster
Supply Pressure

Control Signal
I/P
3 To 15 psig
P/P
4 To 20 Electronic Current-To-Pressure
mA dc Controller Transducer

P
Flow Positioner

Process Variable
A6518 Transmitter

Figure 20. Dead Band Volume Booster Application

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Reversal Of The Control Valve Action

If it is necessary to reverse the control valve action, a reverse-

acting 1:1 repeater, pressure amplifier, or pressure reducer may
be selected. Volume boosters are typically not available in
reverse-acting constructions.

Pneumatic Booster Selection

And Application Guidelines

1:1 Boosters (Relays Or Repeaters)

To isolate a low capacity control signal pressure from any large

volume device that it controls, 1:1 boosters are commonly
selected without reservation. 1:1 relays are typically located
between the controller and the control valve, and are often
located near the signal source; i.e., the controller.

Pressure Boosters And Reducers

Although boosters can be 'problem solvers', process control

engineers should, whenever possible, avoid the application of
pressure reducers and pressure amplifiers. One alternative to
the selection of boosters is the conversion, or retro-fitting, of the
existing, incompatible instruments. Instrument input and output
pressure ranges can often be changed by (a), recalibrating the
instrument, or (b), changing, in the field, certain instrument
components such as input diaphragms and bellows.

Volume Boosters

Downstream Devices - The output of a dead band volume booster

should only be connected to the input of a large volume device
such as a pneumatic actuator. Because volume boosters
produce high-capacity output signals, they may easily over drive
the low-volume input sections of other instruments.

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Caution On High-Capacity Volume Boosters - High-capacity dead

band boosters can produce very large and sudden changes in
pressure. Such large and sudden changes can result in erratic
and unstable loop performance if the booster is not applied and
adjusted properly. As a result, high-capacity dead band
boosters should be selected only when the requirement for a
very short stroking time is critical, and when the installation and
calibration of the booster can be supervised by experienced
personnel. The output of a high-capacity volume booster should
only be connected to a large capacity device such as an
actuator.

Dead Band Volume Boosters And Control Valve Positioners - High-

capacity dead band boosters are typically used only in
combination with a control valve positioner. If a high-capacity
volume booster is applied without a positioner, the large
changes in the output pressure may cause the actuator to over
react and move the valve plug farther than is indicated by the
controller output. The combination of a high-capacity booster
and a control valve positioner provides extremely fast response
while preserving some measure of stem positioning accuracy.

Reversal Of The Control Valve Action

Boosters are not typically selected for the express purpose of

reversing the valve action; however, if the action must be
reversed and the reversal cannot be achieved in any other way,
reverse-acting 1:1 relays, pressure amplifiers, or pressure
reducers may be selected. Volume boosters are typically not
available as reverse-acting devices.

Filter Regulator Selection Guidelines

A pneumatic booster requires a supply pressure that is clean

and regulated. The specific guidelines that direct the selection of
a filter-regulator for a booster application are the same as those
that were given previously for electro-pneumatic transducers.
The guidelines are:

• Unless the plant air (instrument air) system includes

provisions for supplying clean air at the appropriate
pressure value to each pneumatic instrument, a filter-
regulator is required.

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• A filter-regulator should be selected for each instrument in

the loop; i.e., the operation of several instruments from a
single filter-regulator is not recommended.

Control Valve Positioner Function,

Role, And Typical Application

Function

The function of a control valve positioner (see Figure 21) is to

adjust the actuator loading pressure until the actual valve stem
position is the same as the implied valve position (the controller
output). To achieve stem-positioning accuracy, the positioner
modulates an independent supply pressure on the basis of the
measured values of two inputs. The two inputs are:

1. The control signal (the controller output, or the implied

valve position).

2. The actual position of the valve stem.

If the measured values of the above two inputs are not the
same, an error exists. Whenever an error exists, the positioner
adjusts its output, the actuator loading pressure, to minimize or
eliminate the error.

Positioner Output:
Actuator Loading
Pressure
Positioner Input:
Controller Output
(Implied Valve Position)

Control Valve
Positioner Supply
Pressure
Positioner Input: Actual
A6519
Valve Stem Position

Figure 21. Control Valve Positioner Inputs And Outputs

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Role

The role of the positioner is to achieve valve stem positioning

accuracy, even when valve friction and fluid forces tend to
prevent the actuator from accurately positioning the control
valve stem. Figure 22 shows the role of the positioner in
graphical form; i.e., to ensure that the valve stem position is the
same as the implied valve stem position.

100%

Valve
Travel

0%

0% 100%
Input Signal
A6317
(Implied Valve Position)

Figure 22. Positioner Role

Typical Application

Although positioners may be selected to achieve many different

specific control objectives, they are most commonly selected for
applications in which valve friction is considerable; e.g., when
the control valve includes high friction graphite packing.

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Pneumatic Boosters, and Control Valve Positioners

Positioner Operation,
Types, Actions, And Options

Positioner Operation

Major Elements - Positioner operation is best understood by first

examining the function of each of the elements of a typical
positioner. The elements are:

• The input measurement element

• The stem position feedback linkage

• The summing element

• The signal detector

• The power amplifier

The elements that are listed above are illustrated in Figure 23.
The function of each element is explained below.

• Input Measurement Element - One input to the positioner is

the controller output or the implied valve position. In a
typical pneumatic positioner, the controller output pressure
is measured by a deformable, pressure sensitive element
such as a bellows. The bellows expands and contracts as
the controller output pressure changes.

• Stem Position Feedback Linkage - The second input to the

positioner is the actual stem position. The actual stem
position is communicated to the positioner by a stem
position feedback mechanism; typically a mechanical link
such as an arm, lever, spring, or cam.

• Summing Element - In the positioner that is shown in

Figure 23, the summing element is a summing beam that
pivots on a fixed fulcrum. The input measurement element
and the stem position feedback linkage are connected to
the beam in such a way that the forces that are produced
by each input are in equilibrium only when the actual stem
position is the same as the implied stem position. When an
error exists, the beam pivots in one direction or the other.

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• Signal Detector - A signal detector in the form of a nozzle-

flapper device converts the sum of the two inputs (the
relative position of the summing beam) into a pneumatic
pressure signal.

• Power Amplifier - To increase the capacity and the output

pressure range of the nozzle-flapper device, the output of
the nozzle flapper device is connected to a power amplifier.
A power amplifier is essentially a pneumatic relay that
operates in the same fashion as the pneumatic boosters
that were previously described.

Supply Pressure
Power
Controller Output Amplifier Positioner
(Relay) Output

Input Signal
Measurement Detector

Summing
Beam

Fulcrum Feedback
Spring

Stem Position
Feedback Linkage
A5192

Figure 23. Positioner Operation

Positioner Response To Error - If the control signal increases, the

bellows expands and causes the beam to rotate in a counter-
clockwise direction. As the beam (flapper) moves closer to the
nozzle, the flow of supply pressure through the nozzle is
restricted and the supply pressure is directed to the pneumatic
power amplifier (relay). The power amplifier increases the
loading pressure to the actuator (the positioner output), causing
the valve stem to move downward.

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Pneumatic Boosters, and Control Valve Positioners

As the valve stem moves downward, the feedback linkage

exerts a force on the summing beam and the beam (flapper)
moves away from the nozzle. As the beam moves away from
the nozzle, the supply pressure bleeds though the nozzle to
atmosphere, the positioner output pressure decreases, and the
downward movement of the valve stem slows or stops. When
the two inputs to the summing beam become equal; i.e., when
the actual stem position is the same as the implied stem
position, there is no error and the positioner output is again at a
steady state.

Positioner Output - It is important to note that the positioner

output, unlike most other instruments, is not necessarily
proportional to the value of the input pressure. As shown in
Figure 24, the positioner output pressure will go to any pressure
value that is required to achieve stem positioning accuracy
(minimize error). The output pressure can be any pressure
value between 0 psig and a pressure that is slightly less than
the supply pressure to the positioner. (The maximum output
pressure is slightly less than the supply pressure because of
pressure losses within the positioner.)

Closed Closed

Valve Valve
Position Position

Open
Open

Nominal Actuator
0 100 Operating Pressure PS
A6318 Range

Input Signal To Positioner, Positioner Output Pressure

Percent Of Span

Figure 24. Positioner Input And Output Relationships

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Types Of Positioners

Positioners are classified, by type, according to the criteria that

is explained below.
Pneumatic Vs. Electro-Pneumatic Positioners - Pneumatic
positioners accept a pneumatic control signal and produce a
pneumatic output pressure. Electro-pneumatic positioners (refer
to Figure 25) include an internal I/P transducer; therefore,
electro-pneumatic positioners can accept an electrical input
signal (typically 4 to 20 mA dc) directly and do not require a
separate I/P transducer.
Referring to the positioner that is shown in Figure 25, the output
of the I/P transducer is sent to an input bellows. The bellows
and the stem position feedback linkage exert opposing forces
on the summing beam. The position of the summing beam is
detected by a nozzle-flapper device. The output of the nozzle
flapper device is the input to a power amplifier (relay). The relay
modulates the supply pressure to produce the positioner output
that is sent to the actuator.

4-20 Milliampere
Input Signal
–
+

Transducer
I/P Transducer Output

Input Bellows
Supply
Pressure

Positioner
Output to Relay
Actuator Summing Beam

Stem Position
Feedback
Nozzle-Flapper Device
Linkage
A4818

Figure 25. Electro-Pneumatic Positioner With Internal I/P Transducer

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Sliding Stem Vs. Rotary Shaft - Another distinction for positioners is

whether they are designed for rotary-shaft control valves or for
sliding-stem control valves. The major difference between
rotary-shaft and sliding-stem positioner types is the type of stem
position feedback linkage that is employed. A typical feedback
linkage for a rotary-shaft control valve is shown in Figure 26.
The positioner feedback lever follows a cam that is attached to
the actuator lever.

Actuator Lever Arm

Positioner

Positioner
Feedback Lever

Cam
48A7851-C
A6319

Figure 26. Rotary-Shaft Feedback Linkage

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Single-Acting Vs. Double-Acting - Single acting positioners provide

only one output pressure and are designed for use with
actuators that require one controlled pressure; e.g., spring-and-
diaphragm actuators. Double-acting positioners provide two
output pressures and are designed to operate double-acting
piston actuators in throttling control applications. As shown in
Figure 27, a double-acting positioner includes two nozzle-
flapper devices and two power amplifiers (relays). The nozzle
pressure at each nozzle-flapper device is determined by the
position of an "L"-shaped summing beam. When the input signal
increases, the output pressure of one relay increases and the
output pressure of the other relay decreases. These opposing
output pressures are required to control the position of the
piston in a double-acting piston actuator.

Nozzle-Flapper "B"

Relay "B''

Pivot Point

Stem Position Summing Beam

Feedback
Linkage Input Signal
Nozzle-Flapper "A"
Supply

Relay "A''

Supply
Piston Pressure Input Signal Pressure
Supply Pressure
Top Cylinder Pressure
Bottom Cylinder Pressure
Nozzle Pressure

A6454

Figure 27. Double-Acting Positioner

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Positioner Options

Several options are commonly available for control valve

positioners. These options are discussed below.

Positioner Action - While many instruments must be selected as

direct-acting or reverse-acting devices, most control valve
positioners can be configured to provide either action. Refer to
Figure 28.

100% 100%

Valve Valve
Travel Travel

0% 0%

0% 100% 0% 100%
Input Signal Input Signal
(Implied Valve Position) (Implied Valve Position)
A6320 Direct-Acting Positioner Reverse-Acting Positioner

Figure 28. Direct Versus Reverse Acting Positioner Output

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Gauges - Positioners may include up to three gauges, as shown

in Figure 29. Gauges provide a visual indication of the following:

• The supply pressure

• The input signal pressure

• The positioner output pressure

Gauges provide useful information to personnel who have

responsibility for troubleshooting, maintenance, and calibration.

Instrument

Output

Supply

11B5619-E
C0775

Figure 29. Positioner Gauges

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Bypass Valve - A bypass valve (see Figure 30) provides a means

for switching the positioner out of the loop, either on a
temporary basis or on a permanent basis. When the bypass
valve is opened, the controller output is routed directly to the
actuator. The bypass valve may be temporarily opened to allow
the operator to maintain control of the process in the event of a
positioner malfunction or failure.

A control valve positioner is a high gain instrument. In some

applications, the high gain of the positioner may actually
degrade the quality of control that can be achieved. If it is
determined, by temporarily opening the bypass valve, that
control loop performance is improved when the positioner is
removed from the loop, the bypass valve may be permanently
opened and locked to functionally remove the positioner from
the loop.

Depending on the positioner manufacturer and the positioner

model, a bypass valve may be included as a standard positioner
feature, a bypass valve may be an option, or a bypass valve
may not be available.

Process
Load Variable
Process

Bypass

–
Process Trans-
Valve Actuator Positioner
Controller mitter
–

A6321
Stem Position Feedback Set Point

Figure 30. Positioner Bypass Valve

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Positioner Characteristics - In some positioners, the inherent flow

characteristic of a control valve can be modified by changing
certain components in the positioner feedback linkage.
Feedback linkages are typically characterized with cams that
are shaped to establish the desired relationship between the
positioner input signal and the valve stem position, as shown in
Figure 31. For purposes of illustration, assume that three
different cams are available for a particular positioner: cam A,
cam B, and cam C. Cam A establishes a linear characteristic,
cam B establishes a quick-opening characteristic, and cam C
establishes an equal-percentage characteristic. Note that these
characteristics refer only to the positioner characteristic.

100

80
Cam B
Valve
Stem
A
Position, 60 m
Percent Of Ca
Rated 40
Travel Cam C

20

0
20 40 60 80 100
A6332 Positioner Input Signal,
Percent Of Span

Figure 31. Commonly Available Positioner Characteristics

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Pneumatic Boosters, and Control Valve Positioners

The positioner characteristic is imposed on the valve

characteristic. For example, the left-hand chart (marked A) in
Figure 32 shows that when a linear valve characteristic is
selected, the combined valve and positioner characteristic is the
same as the positioner characteristic. Figure 32 (B) shows how
the various positioner characteristics influence the combined
characteristic when an equal percentage valve characteristic is
selected. Note, for example, that the combination of a quick-
opening positioner characteristic (cam B in Figure 31) and an
equal percentage valve characteristic results in an
approximately linear inherent valve characteristic.

Combined Characteristic Combined Characteristic

With Linear Valve With Equal Percentage
Characteristic Valve Characteristic
Push Down To Open Push Down To Open
100 100
90 90
80 80
70 Cam B 70
60 60
Percent Of 50 Percent Of 50
Maximum C v Cam A Maximum C v Cam B
40 40
30 Cam C 30
Cam A
20 20
10 10
Cam C
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
A6339/G1 Percent Of Rated Valve Travel Percent Of Rated Valve Travel
(A) (B)

Figure 32. Combined Positioner And Control Valve Characteristics

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Specific Control Objectives

That Can Be Achieved With
Control Valve Positioners

Throttling Control With Double-

Acting Piston Actuators

Required Pressure Control - A double-acting piston actuator that is

applied in a throttling control application requires the
simultaneous control of the upper cylinder pressure and the
lower cylinder pressure, as shown in the upper portion of Figure
33.

Positioner Application - A double-acting positioner has the

capability to simultaneously control two pressures, as shown in
the lower portion of Figure 33. A double-acting positioner must
be specified for a double-acting piston actuator that is applied in
a throttling control application.

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Upper
Cylinder
Pressure

Lower
Cylinder
Pressure
A6338/G1

Upper
Closed Closed Cylinder
Pressure

Valve Valve
Position Position

Lower
Open
Cylinder
Open Pressure

0 100 0 PS
A6327
Control Signal, Cylinder Pressures, psig
Percent Of Span

Figure 33. Double-Acting Positioner Application

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Split-Range Control

Typical Application - Figure 34 illustrates a split range application

in which the control objective requires very wide control valve
rangeability; i.e., a very low minimum Cv requirement and a very
high maximum Cv requirement. If the rangeability requirement
cannot be satisfied with a single valve, two valves may be
installed in a parallel piping arrangement. Each valve is
operated by a split-ranged positioner. Positioner A is calibrated
to provide full stroke operation of control valve A with an input
signal range of 3 to 10 psig, and positioner B is calibrated to
provide full stroke operation of control valve B with an input
signal range of 8 to 15 psig.

Supply
Pressure Plant Air
Positioner A
Input Pressure
Range: Control Signal Control Signal
3 To 10 psig P I/P
3 To 15 psig 4-20 mA dc

Control
Valve A Plant Air
Supply Filter
Pressure Regulator Electronic
Controller

Positioner B Plant Air

Input Pressure
Range:
8 To 15 psig Control Signal Control Signal
P I/P
3 To 15 psig 4-20 mA dc

Control Plant Air

Valve B Supply Filter
A6520 Pressure Regulator

Figure 34. Split-Range Control Application

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Overlap - In the example application that is shown in Figure 34,

the system has been designed so that the two input pressure
ranges overlap. If the input ranges do not overlap, a small error
in instrument calibration may result in a "gap" or a "dead" spot at
the split. Any separation of the two signal ranges will result in
dead band; the condition where a change in input does not
result in any observable change in output. Calibration overlap
ensures smooth transfer of control from one valve to the other.

Overcoming Valve Friction

Control Loop Performance And Valve Stem Positioning Accuracy - The

best control loop performance is achieved when the actual
control valve stem position is the same as the implied valve
stem position.

Valve Friction - The most common factor that interferes with stem
positioning accuracy is control valve friction. Valve stem packing
and valve seals are common sources of control valve friction.
The characteristics of the process fluid can also introduce valve
friction; for example, in coking applications, particulates tend to
build up on sliding surfaces and interfere with accurate stem
positioning, and viscous fluids may coat valve components with
sticky residues that inhibit movement of the control valve
closure member.

Valve Friction, Dead band, And Hysteresis - The effects of valve

friction on control valve performance can be discussed in terms
of dead band and hysteresis. Dead band and hysteresis are
illustrated in Figure 35. Dead band is the range through which
an input signal may be varied, upon reversal of direction of the
input signal, without initiating an observable response in the
output. Hysteresis refers to the maximum deviation of the output
from the ideal output, and it is measured as the input signal is
continuously increased from the minimum signal to the
maximum, and then continuously decreased from maximum to
minimum.

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100 Hysteresis

Ideal Output

Valve
Position,
Percent Of
Rated
Travel

Deadband

0
0 100
A6521
Control Signal, Percent Of Span

Figure 35. Dead Band And Hysteresis

Limit Cycle - The effects of dead band and hysteresis can be

observed in the process as a distinct oscillation of the process
variable that is referred to as limit cycle. See Figure 36. Limit
cycle is uniquely different from the oscillations that result from
excessive loop gain. Limit cycle occurs when the valve closure
member "sticks" because of static friction, then suddenly jumps
to a new position when the actuator force exceeds the static
friction, as shown in the upper plot in Figure 36. The response
of the process variable to the abrupt changes in valve stem
position is shown in the lower plot in Figure 36. Note the
following:

• The distinct shape of the limit cycle is determined by the

time constant of the process and other factors.

• The magnitude of the limit cycle is determined by the

proportional gain of the controller.

• The frequency of the limit cycle is a function of any integral

action in the controller or in the process.

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Valve
Position,
Percent
Of Travel

Process Set Point

Variable,
Percent

A6522 Time

Figure 36. Control Valve Dead Band (Upper Plot)

And Limit Cycle (Lower Plot)

Minimizing Friction Effects With Equipment Selection -

Obviously, the occurrence of limit cycles detracts from control
loop performance. Because limit cycles are caused, in part, by
valve friction and imprecise stem positioning, any tactic that
minimizes dead band will help to minimize limit cycles. In terms
of equipment selection, the specifying engineer may:

• Select a control valve positioner.

• Select a larger actuator.

• Increase the operating pressure range of the actuator.

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The selection of a control valve positioner is often the easiest

and most practical solution. The improvement in stem
positioning accuracy that can be achieved with a positioner is
illustrated in Figure 37.

100

Performance
Valve With A
Position, Positioner
Percent Of
Rated
Travel

Performance
Without A
Positioner

0
0 100
A6329
Control Signal, Percent Of Span

Figure 37. Minimizing Dead Band With A Control Valve Positioner

Minimizing Friction Band With Controller Tuning - The controller can

be adjusted (tuned) to minimize the limit cycle in an existing
system as follows:

• Reducing the proportional gain of the controller reduces

the magnitude of the limit cycle.

• Changing the integral action. Increased integral action

compensates for the reduction in proportional gain and
increases the frequency of the cycles, while reducing the
integral action will decrease the frequency of the cycles.

Even if the limit cycles cannot be totally eliminated, they may be

minimized to the extent that their effects on the process variable
become very small or even imperceptible.

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Increased Seat Load

Another performance objective that can be achieved by

selecting a positioner is increased seat load and tighter control
valve shutoff. The amount of additional seat load that can be
gained depends upon whether the actuator is direct or reverse-
acting, and whether the control valve is a push-down-to-close
(PDTC) or a push-down-to-open (PDTO) type.

Direct-Acting Actuator: PDTC Valve - For purposes of illustration,

assume that a direct-acting actuator operates a PDTC control
valve as shown in Figure 38. Assume also that the actuator has
been sized for a 3 to 15 psig operating pressure range, and that
the supply pressure to the positioner is set at 50 psig. As soon
as the valve plug touches the seat, the positioner will perceive
an error. In an effort to correct the error, the positioner output
pressure will increase to its maximum value (the supply
pressure minus approximately 5 psig that is consumed by the
positioner). As a result, an additional shutoff force that is equal
to 30 psig (45 psig minus 15 psig) times the area of the
diaphragm is available to increase the seat load.

Diaphragm
Pressure
Actuator Sized For
3 To 15 psig
Open Diaphragm Pressure Range
Diaphragm
Pressure
Valve That Is
Position Available For
Additional
Seat Load

Closed

0 3 6 9 12 15 18 45 50
Direct-Acting Actuator
Positioner Output (Actuator Diaphragm Pressure), psig
A6523

Figure 38. Additional Diaphragm Pressure

That Is Available For Control Valve Shutoff

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Reverse-Acting Actuator: PDTC Valve - In the case of a reverse-

acting actuator (see Figure 39), the additional loading pressure
results in an additional force for opening the control valve.
Increased seat load may be achieved by increasing the amount
of initial compression of the actuator spring; however, increasing
the amount of initial compression will alter the actuator bench
set and may lead to the selection of a larger actuator.

Actuator Sized For

3 To 15 psig
Diaphragm Pressure Range
Open

Diaphragm
Pressure
Valve
Available For
Position
Additional
Diaphragm
Opening Force
Pressure

Closed

0 3 6 9 12 15 18 45 50
Reverse-Acting Actuator Positioner Output (Actuator Diaphragm Pressure), psig
A6524

Figure 39. Additional Diaphragm Pressure

That Is Available To Open The Valve

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Proper Control Valve Operation

From The Available Control Signal

Another objective that can be achieved with a positioner is the

operation of a pneumatic actuator from an incompatible control
signal range. As the basis for an example, consider the
application that is illustrated in Figure 40. The actuator has been
sized on the assumption that an actuator operating pressure
range of 0 to 33 psig is available, but the controller output is a 3
to 15 psig control signal. In this application, a positioner with a 3
to 15 psig input pressure range is selected. To ensure stem
positioning accuracy, the positioner output pressure will go to
any value between zero psig and a pressure that is slightly less
than the supply pressure.

Positioner Output Supply

Actuator Operating Pressure Range: Plant Air Pressure
Pressure Range: 0 psig To
0 To 33 psig Supply Pressure
Controller Output
3 To 15 psig

Pneumatic
Filter Controller
Supply Regulator
Pressure Plant Air
P 50 psig Typical 80 - 100 psig Typical

Positioner
Process
A6525
Transmitter
Process Variable

Figure 40. Operating A Control Valve With An Incompatible Signal Range

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Modification Of Control
Valve Flow Characteristics

Typical Application - Figure 41 shows a pressure relief application

in which the control valve must open quickly whenever the
process variable (pressure) increases to a value that is above
set point. To ensure rapid pressure relief, a quick-opening valve
characteristic is preferred. The control valve that has been
selected for this application is a rotary-shaft valve that was
selected because of its wide rangeability. The control valve has
a fixed, approximately linear characteristic. To modify the
inherent valve characteristic, a quick-opening positioner
characteristic is selected. The combination of the approximately
linear valve characteristic and the quick-opening positioner
characteristic results in an approximate quick-opening
characteristic.

Vent

Filter Positioner
Regulator Characteristic:
Quick-Opening

I/P

Electronic Current-To-Pressure
Controller Transducer
P

Positioner
Process

Transmitter
A6526 Process Variable Inherent Control Valve
Characteristic: Linear

Figure 41. Modification Of Control Valve Characteristics

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Reduced Stroking
Time Through Isolation

As previously discussed, long pneumatic signal transmission

lines may weaken the control signal. A standard solution to this
problem is to isolate the control signal from the actuator with
any instrument that includes a small volume input (measuring)
element. Because the volume of a positioner input element is
very small and does not require a high-capacity control signal,
isolation can be achieved with a positioner, as shown in Figure
42. Because the positioner output derives from an independent
supply pressure, the positioner output is of sufficient capacity to
quickly load the actuator diaphragm casing.

Large Volume
Actuator
Control Signal
3 To 15 Psig
200 Feet

Low Volume
Positioner Input
Requirement
Supply
A6527 Pressure

Figure 42. Isolating The Control Signal From The Actuator

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Reversal Of The
Control Valve Action

When necessary, it is possible to reverse the action of the

control valve by selecting a reverse-acting positioner. As
mentioned previously, many positioners may also be easily
reversed in the field. To form the basis for an example
application, refer to Figure 43 below. The objective of the control
loop is to maintain a downstream pressure by closing the control
valve when the downstream pressure increases. As
downstream pressure increases, the controller output increases.
A direct-acting transducer is already included in the system and
it cannot be changed. A reverse-acting actuator has been
selected to achieve a fail-closed fail mode. In view of the
existing components and their actions, a reverse-acting
positioner is selected to ensure that the control valve will tend to
close upon an increase in the controller output.

Reverse-Acting
Actuator Direct-Acting
Transducer
Reverse-Acting
Positioner
Controller Output
Control Signal
P I/P
Push-Down-To-Close
Control Valve Supply Pressure Controller Output
Increases As
Downstream
A6528 Pressure Increases

Figure 43. Reversing The Control Valve Action

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Control Valve Positioner Selection

And Application Guidelines

Static Selection And

Application Guidelines

Following is a summary of the typical applications and

applications guidelines that have been presented in this section.

Overcoming Valve Friction - When significant valve friction is

present, the use of a control valve positioner helps to improve
stem positioning accuracy. Improved stem positioning accuracy
results in improved process control.

Double-Acting Piston Actuators - When double-acting positioners

are to provide throttling (versus on-off) control, a double-acting
positioner must be selected. No other instrument can provide
the pressure control that is required.

Split Range Applications - Positioners are typically the instrument

of choice for split range applications because of their ability to
accurately position the valve stem. Section 7.2 of SAES J-700
states that an I/P transducer shall be selected for each control
valve in a split-range system if the control valves are separated
by 25 feet or more. The same standard requires that the I/P
transducers be located equidistant from each final control
element. This guideline ensures that the pressure losses from
each I/P transducer to its associated control valve are
minimized and equal.

Increased Seat Load - A positioner is often the instrument of

choice when additional seat load is required to achieve the
needed ANSI Class shutoff rating. Specifiers must remember
that selecting a positioner for the purpose of increasing the seat
load that is available from a reverse-acting actuator may require
a change in the actuator specification; i.e., if the initial
compression is increased, the bench set will change and a
larger actuator may be required.

Proper Control Valve Operation From The Available Control Signal - If

the actuator requires a loading pressure range that is different
from the control signal pressure range, a positioner may be
selected to achieve instrument compatibility.

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Modification Of Control Valve Flow Characteristics - Positioners may

be selected to alter the control valve characteristic when (a), the
desired characteristic is not available as an option for the
selected valve, or (b) it is desirable to change the characteristic
of an installed valve.

Reduced Stroking Time - To compensate for pressure losses in

long pneumatic signal lines, or to reduce the time that is
required to fill the diaphragm casing of a relatively large
actuator, either a positioner or a 1:1 booster may be selected. A
positioner is often preferred because of the stem positioning
accuracy that it can provide.

Reversal Of The Control Valve Action - Unless no other viable

means of achieving the needed control valve action is available,
the selection of a reverse-acting positioner should be avoided.
Problems with bypass operation and calibration complexity are
the primary disadvantages of reverse-acting positioners. Section
7.1.1 of SAES-J-700 allows reverse-acting positioners only
when the "valve action cannot be reversed otherwise".

Dynamic Application Guidelines

Positioners are required to achieve throttling control with a

double-acting piston actuator, and they are recommended for
split-range control applications because of their ability to ensure
valve stem positioning accuracy. In most other applications,
positioners are optional; i.e., the control objective could be
achieved in some other way; e.g., through the selection of
another instrument, through the specification of a different
(generally larger) actuator, or through calibration or retro-fitting
of existing equipment. For each of the applications in which the
selection of a positioner is considered optional, the specifying
engineer may analyze the dynamic aspects of positioner
performance before selecting a positioner. In this context, the
dynamic concerns of interest are the speed of response of the
positioner compared to the speed of response of the process.

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Positioner Application As A Cascade Loop - The application of a

positioner results in a cascade control loop. Recall from
prerequisite courses that cascade control is a control strategy in
which an inner loop operates within an outer loop for the
purpose of minimizing supply upsets before these upsets can
affect the process variable. To implement cascade control, the
output of one controller is the set point for another controller.

Cascade Loop Operation - To examine a positioner as an example

of cascade control, the positioner is seen as a secondary
controller for which the set point is the primary controller output
and the measured variable is the actual valve stem position.
See Figure 44. The role of the positioner (as a secondary
controller) is to determine if an error exists between its
measured variable (the actual stem position) and its set point
(the primary controller output) and to correct the error by
producing the appropriate change in its output (the actuator
loading pressure).

Outer Loop

Process
Load Variable
Process

Primary Trans-
Valve Actuator Positioner Controller mitter

Secondary Controller

Stem Position Feedback Set Point

A6457 Inner Loop

Figure 44. Positioner As A Cascade Control Loop

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Cascade Loop Requirements And Limitations - Recall from previous

courses that to ensure the proper operation of a cascade control
strategy, the inner loop (in this case, the positioner) must have a
much faster response than the outer loop. If the inner loop is
slower than the outer loop, it will always be trying to correct a
prior error. If the inner loop is always "behind", the corrections
that are made by the secondary controller may actually
introduce additional error into the process resulting in loop
instability. If the inner loop is faster than the outer loop, it will be
able to "keep up" up with the demands of the outer loop.

Fast Loop-Slow Loop Guidelines - A simple 'fast loop-slow loop'

guideline can be applied to (a) guide positioner selection and (b)
predict the performance of a loop that includes a positioner. This
guideline is based on the speed of typical processes, and is
expressed as follows:

• For slow processes, specify positioners without

reservation.

• For fast processes, evaluate solutions other than

positioners. If positioners are selected for fast loops,
anticipate a tendency toward control loop instability.

While the terms "fast" and "slow" are somewhat arbitrary, the
relative speed of most processes can be characterized
according to the chart that is shown in Figure 45.

Potential Problems And Solutions - When positioners need to be

applied in fast loops, good control may be achieved by making
adjustments to the controller tuning settings. See Figure 45. The
adjustments that are typically required tend to detune the
controller. The adjustments are:

• Reduced proportional gain

• Increased integral action

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Speed Designation Process Notes

Slow Processes Liquid Level Good Loop Performance
Temperature With A Positioner
Large Volume Gas Pressure
Fast Processes Flow If Instability Occurs, Adjust
Controller:
Liquid Pressure Reduced Gain
Small Volume Gas Pressure Increased Integral Action

Figure 45. Fast And Slow Processes

Filter Regulator
Selection Guidelines

A control valve positioner, like the other instruments that have

been discussed in this Module, requires a supply pressure that
is clean and regulated. The specific guidelines that direct the
selection of a filter-regulator are the same as those that have
been previously presented.

• Unless the plant air (instrument air) system includes

provisions for supplying clean air at the appropriate
pressure value to each pneumatic instrument, a filter-
regulator is required.

• A filter-regulator should be selected for each instrument in

the loop; i.e., the operation of several instruments from a
single filter-regulator is not recommended.

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Summary Of Selection Guidelines

A summary of the selection guidelines that have been presented

throughout this Module is shown in Figure 46.

Control Objective Positioner (1) Booster Transducer

(I/P)
Overcome Valve Friction
(Reduce Dead Band And Stem
Hysteresis) Positioning
Accuracy
Increased Seat Load Maximum Effect Pressure Some Effect Is
Because Pa = 0 Amplifier Possible If The
and Pb = Full Moderate Effect Output Span Is
Supply 0 to 18 psig or
Pressure 0 to 33 psig
Compensation for Long Signal Isolation Is 1:1 Amplifier
Lines (Signal Isolation) Provided By (Repeater)
The Relay
Action
Operation Of Double-Acting Piston Double-Acting
Actuators Positioner
Split Range Control Preferred Possible
Modification Of Control Valve Flow Via Cam
Characteristics Selection
Reversal Of The Control Valve YES YES YES
Action
Current-To-Pressure Signal Electro- Saudi Aramco
Conversion Pneumatic Preferred
Positioner Method
(Not Allowed
Per Section
7.1.1 of SAES-
J-700)
Increased Stroking Speed Possible, Volume Booster
Depending On (Use Only In
Positioner Cv, Combination
Gain, And With A Valve
Response Time Positioner)
1. Caution on high loop gain and instability when positioner is used with a fast process.

Figure 46. Instrument Selection Guidelines

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Filter-Regulator Selection

General Specification Guidelines

A nearly infinite number of regulator types and styles could be

specified for a specific instrument application. To simplify filter-
regulator selection and specification, control valve
manufacturer's offer pre-engineered filter-regulator
combinations that have been designed to provide optimum
instrument performance in a broad range of applications. To
select an appropriate filter-regulator type and size, the specifier
may observe the following guidelines:

• For all instruments except high-capacity devices such as

volume boosters and dead band volume boosters, select a
standard filter-regulator. For example, the Fisher Type
67AFR is a standard regulator that is designed to provide
optimum operation under most circumstances. The Type
67AFR is compatible with the following:

− Inlet pressures up to 400 psig

− Outlet pressure ranges from 5 to 35 psig through 35

to 100 psig

− 1/4-inch inlet and outlet pressure connections

• For high-capacity instruments such as volume boosters

and dead band volume boosters, select a standard high-
capacity regulator. For example, the Fisher Type 64R
provides more than sufficient capacity to operate most
high-capacity instruments and the downstream devices
that they control. Because the Type 64R does not include a
filter, a separate filter such as a Fisher Type 254 must be
specified.

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• When very short stroking times are critical to the

successful operation of the control loop, the process of
calculating the capacity requirements of the instruments
and the actuator can become highly involved. In this
situation, the specifier may simply note the stroking time
that is required and request the equipment vendor or
manufacturer to recommend equipment that will achieve
the control objective.

• When the instrument air supply is at a very high pressure

(greater than the maximum input pressure rating of a
standard or high-capacity regulator), a second stage of
pressure reduction will be necessary. An example of a
high-pressure source is when a control valve uses gas
pipeline pressure (instead of a plant air supply) as a
pneumatic source. In this instance, the value of the
available pressure should be noted and the vendor
should be requested to provide an equipment
recommendation.

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SPECIFYING ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC TRANSDUCERS

Introduction: Basis For

Transducer Specifications

Control Objectives

The specification for a particular transducer is determined, in

part, by evaluating the specific control objectives. The most
common control objectives that are achieved with transducers
are:

• Operation of a pneumatic device with an electronic control

signal

• Split-range control

• Reversal of the control valve action

Ratings And Specifications

Of Connected Components

The specification for a transducer is also developed in view of

the specifications and ratings of the components that are
connected to the transducer; e.g.:

• Upstream devices such as controllers

• Downstream devices such as actuators or other

instruments

Components Of A
Transducer Specification

The components of a complete transducer specification include

the following:

• Manufacturer and model number (or type number)

• Type of electro-pneumatic transducer (I/P, E/P, etc.)

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• Transducer action (direct or reverse)

• Input signal range

• Output signal range

• Required supply pressure

Components Of A Filter
Regulator Specification

If a filter-regulator is required, the components of its

specification are:

• Type of air filter/regulator

• Size of air filter/regulator

• Filter regulator set pressure

• Maximum available supply pressure to the filter/regulator

• Minimum required supply pressure to the filter/regulator

Developing A Specification

This Information Sheet section will provide the background

information that a Process Control Engineer needs to
understand in order to specify electro-pneumatic transducers.

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Specifications For
Electro-Pneumatic
Transducers

During the discussion that follows, the specification for an I/P

transducer will be discussed in terms of the pertinent entries on
the Saudi Aramco ISS. The pertinent entries on the Saudi
Aramco ISS are shown in Figure 47.

Many of the specifications are determined after consulting

manufacturer's specification bulletins; therefore, Participants
may wish to refer to a typical specification bulletin that lists
transducer specifications; e.g., Fisher Specification Bulletin
62.1:546.

Figure 47. Transducer Specifications On The Saudi Aramco ISS

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Line 80: Transducer

Type and Model Number

Transducer Type - The transducer type; e.g., I/P, E/P, etc., is

entered in the first box on line 80.

The type (I/P, E/P, etc.) of transducer that is specified is

determined by the following:

• The form of the signal that is to be converted; i.e., whether

the signal is an electrical current, an electrical voltage, or a
pneumatic pressure.

• The required form of the transducer output; i.e., whether

the downstream device requires an input in the form of an
electrical current, an electrical voltage, or a pneumatic
pressure.

Transducer Model Number - The transducer model number, or type

number; e.g., Fisher 546, is entered in the second box on line
80. The transducer model number may include designators that
indicate a reverse-acting construction, an expanded output
pressure range, an intrinsically safe rating, or other options and
features.

Line 81: Transducer

Input mA / Output

Transducer Input mA - The transducer input signal range is

entered in the first box on line 81. If the transducer is not an I/P
type, then "mA" should be ruled out and the appropriate units
should be noted.

For most applications, the transducer input signal range is

determined by the output signal range of the upstream
instrument. For example, if the upstream instrument is an
electronic controller that provides a 4 to 20 mA dc output, the
input signal range of the transducer is specified as 4 to 20 mA
dc.

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For split range applications, the transducer input signal range

must be specified according to the design of the control loop.
For example, if two final control elements are to respond to two
equal portions of a 4 to 20 mA dc control signal, one transducer
will be specified with an input signal range of 4 to 12 mA dc, and
another transducer will be specified with an input signal range of
12 to 20 mA dc.

Output - The transducer output signal range is entered in the

second box on line 81. The appropriate units should be noted;
e.g., 3 to 15 psig. The required output signal range is
determined by the input signal range of the downstream device.
Specifiers should consider the following:

• Instruments often require either 3 to 15 or 6 to 30 psig

control signals.

• Many actuators are sized on the assumption that a 0 to 18

psig or a 0 to 33 psig actuator operating pressure range is
available.

If an inappropriate output range is selected, the downstream

device may fail to perform as designed. For example, if a
transducer with an output pressure range of 3 to 15 psig loads
an actuator that was sized on the assumption of a 0 to 18 psig
actuator operating pressure, the actuator may not fully stroke
the control valve, or the actuator may not provide sufficient seat
load to achieve the full rated shutoff of the control valve.

The specification of the output pressure range can also indicate

whether the transducer is a direct-acting type or a reverse-
acting type. For example, the following specification indicates a
reverse-acting construction.

Transducer Input: 4 to 20 mA dc

Transducer Output: 15-3 psig

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Line 42: Valve Action On

Increase In Signal
(Open or Close)

The valve action on increase in signal is a function of the

following:

• Whether the instrument or instruments between the control

signal and the actuator are direct-acting or reverse-acting
types.

• Whether the actuator is a direct-acting type or a reverse-

acting type.

• Whether the control valve is a PDTC (push-down-to-close)

or PDTO (push-down-to-open) type.

To ensure the desired valve response to an increase in the

control signal, the specifier must evaluate the control loop and
select the proper transducer action; i.e., direct-acting or reverse-
acting.

If the wrong action is specified, the control valve will close when
it should open and it will open when it should close. This action
will quickly result in loss of control (positive feedback) and the
system will cease to perform altogether.

Line 43: Supply Max.

Avail / Min. Req'd.

Supply Max. Avail - The maximum supply pressure that is

available to the filter-regulator is entered in the first box on line
43. The entry for this line is the maximum pressure of the plant
air system. By noting the maximum available inlet pressure to
the regulator, the specifier and the vendor may verify that the
maximum regulator input pressure is not exceeded. For
example, the maximum input pressure rating of the Fisher Type
67AFR filter-regulator is 400 psig.

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Supply Min. Req'd. - The minimum supply pressure that is required

for proper filter-regulator operation is entered in the second box
on line 43.

Generally speaking, the filter-regulators that have been

discussed in this Module will provide optimum performance as
long as the minimum inlet pressure is approximately 30 percent
greater than the regulator set pressure. If the supply pressure to
the regulator approaches the set pressure of the regulator, the
regulator outlet pressure will droop and downstream devices
may not perform as designed.

Specifications For Filter

Regulators That Are Used
With Electro-Pneumatic
Transducers

Line 74: Air Filter-Regulator

Type / Size

Air-Filter Regulator Type - The air filter-regulator type is entered in

the first box on line 74. The air filter-regulator type is the
manufacturer's type number or model number; e.g., a Fisher
Type 67AFR. According to the guidelines previously given, a
standard filter-regulator (Fisher Type 67AFR) is satisfactory for
most transducer applications.

Size - This specification refers to the size of the inlet and outlet
pressure connections at the filter-regulator. Most standard
regulators include 1/4-inch NPT inlet and outlet pressure
connections.

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Line 75: Air Req'd

Set Pressure

This line asks for the set pressure of the filter-regulator. The
regulator set pressure must be set to the transducer's supply
pressure requirement.

The supply pressure to an I/P or E/P transducer is generally

determined by the maximum transducer output pressure.
Because there is some pressure loss in the transducer, the
supply pressure to the transducer (the regulator set pressure)
must be slightly higher than the maximum transducer output
pressure. Some manufacturers recommend a supply pressure
that is 5 to 10 percent greater than the maximum transducer
output pressure. The information that is needed to specify the
supply pressure requirement is included in the manufacturer's
product specification bulletins.

Supply pressures that are higher than the manufacturer's

recommendation may result in:

• An elevated output pressure range and less than optimum

transducer performance.

• Damage to the transducer and/or downstream equipment.

An inadequate supply pressure will result in poor transducer

performance and a reduced transducer output pressure range.

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SPECIFYING PNEUMATIC BOOSTERS

Introduction: Basis
For Booster Specifications

Control Objectives

The specification for a pneumatic booster is determined, in part,

by evaluating the specific control objectives that are to be
achieved. The specific control objectives that can be achieved
with transducers are summarized as follows:

• Operation of related pneumatic devices with incompatible

pressure ranges

• Reduced stroking time

• Reversal of the control valve action

Ratings And Specifications

Of Connected Components

The specification for a transducer is also developed in view of

the specifications and ratings of the components that are
connected to the transducer; e.g.:

• The output pressure range of the upstream device; e.g.,

the controller or transducer

• The input pressure range of the downstream device; e.g.,

an actuator or another instrument

Components Of A
Booster Specifications

The components of a complete transducer specification include

the following:

• Manufacturer and model number (or type number)

• Type of booster (pressure booster, 1:1 repeater, volume

booster, etc.)

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• Booster action (direct or reverse)

• Input signal range

• Output signal range

• Required supply pressure

Components Of A Filter
Regulator Specification

If a filter-regulator is required, the components of its

specification are:

• Type of air filter/regulator

• Size of air filter/regulator

• Filter regulator set pressure

• Maximum available supply pressure to the filter/regulator

• Minimum required supply pressure to the filter/regulator

Specifications For
Pneumatic Boosters

During the discussion that follows, the specification for a

pneumatic booster will be discussed in terms of the pertinent
entries on the Saudi Aramco ISS. The pertinent entries on the
Saudi Aramco ISS are shown in Figure 48.

Many of the specifications are determined after consulting

manufacturer's specification bulletins; therefore, Participants
may wish to refer to a typical specification bulletin that lists
pneumatic booster specifications; e.g., Fisher Specification
Bulletin 62.3:2625 and Moore Specification Bulletin GC-61.

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Figure 48. Booster Specifications On The Saudi Aramco ISS

Line 80 Transducer
Type / Model No.

Type - The transducer type is entered in the first box on line 80.
Here, the specifier should enter the manufacturer's name and
designate a P/P transducer. A complete specification must also
indicate what type of booster is being specified. This entry
should also indicate whether the booster is a pressure booster,
a pressure reducer, a 1:1 repeater, or a volume booster. The
type of booster that is needed is determined according to the
control valve performance that is required to achieve specific
control objectives.

Model Number - The model number of the booster is entered in

the second box on line 80.

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Line 81: Transducer

Input mA / Output

Input - The Saudi Aramco ISS is pre-printed to accept an I/P

transducer specification. Because of the functions that they
perform, pneumatic boosters can be regarded as pressure-to-
pressure (P/P) transducers. To enter a P/P specification, the
specifier should blacken "mA" as a units designator for the input
and indicate that the units are "psig". The pressure range of the
input to the booster is entered in the first box on line 81.

The input pressure range to the booster is determined by the

output pressure range of the upstream device. For example, if
the input to the booster is the output of a pneumatic controller
that produces a 3 to 15 psig output, the input pressure range to
the booster must be specified as 3 to 15 psig.

If a booster input range is incorrectly specified, the booster will

not provide the desired performance. For example, if a controller
output of 0 to 18 psig is connected to the input of a booster with
a 3 to 15 psig input pressure range, the booster will only
respond to a portion of the control signal pressure range.

Output - The booster output pressure range is entered in the

second box on line 81. The booster output pressure range is
determined by the input pressure range of the downstream
device. For example, if the output of the booster is to operate a
pneumatic actuator that requires a 6 to 30 psig operating
pressure range, the booster output pressure range must be
specified as 6 to 30 psig.

If the output pressure range of the booster is incorrectly

specified, the downstream device will not perform as designed.
For example, if the output of a volume booster with a 3 to 15
psig output pressure range is connected to an actuator with a 0
to 18 psig operating pressure range, the actuator may not be
able to produce sufficient force to fully close or fully open the
valve.

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Line 42: Valve Action On

Increase In Signal
(Open or Close)

The valve action on increase in signal is a function of the

following:

• Whether the instrument or instruments between the control

signal and the actuator are direct-acting or reverse-acting
types.

• Whether the actuator is a direct-acting type or a reverse-

acting type.

• Whether the control valve is a PDTC (push-down-to-close)

or PDTO (push-down-to-open) type.

To ensure the desired valve response to an increase in the

control signal, the specifier must evaluate the control loop and
select the proper transducer action; i.e., direct-acting or reverse-
acting.

Line 43: Supply Max.

Avail / Min. Req'd.

Max. Avail. - The maximum available supply pressure is entered

in the first box on line 43. The value for this specification is the
maximum supply pressure that is available from the plant air
system.

Min. Req'd. - The minimum required supply pressure is entered in

the second box on line 43. As previously discussed, optimum
performance may generally achieved as long as the minimum
inlet pressure is approximately 30 percent greater than the
regulator set pressure.

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Specifications For Filter

Regulators That Are Used
With Pneumatic Boosters

Line 74: Air Filter

Regulator Type / Size

Type - The air filter and regulator manufacturer and model

number (or type number) are entered in the first box on line 74.
The guidelines for selecting a regulator for use with a pneumatic
booster are as follows:

• For all instruments (including 1:1 repeaters, pressure

amplifiers, and pressure reducers) except high-capacity
volume boosters, select a standard filter-regulator; e.g., a
Fisher Type 67AFR.

• For volume boosters and dead band volume boosters,

select a high-capacity regulator; e.g., a Fisher Type 64R.
Because the Type 64R does not include a filter, a separate
filter such as the Fisher Type 254 must be specified.

• When very short stroking times are critical to the

successful operation of the control loop, request the
equipment vendor or manufacturer to analyze the capacity
requirements and select an appropriate filter-regulator
device.

If the specified filter-regulator does not provide adequate

capacity, pressure losses and sluggish response of the
instruments and devices that are downstream of the regulator
may result.

Size - This specification refers to the size of the inlet and outlet
pressure connections at the filter-regulator. Most standard
regulators include 1/4-inch NPT inlet and outlet pressure
connections.

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Line 75: Air Required

Set Pressure

The regulator set pressure must be set to the supply pressure

requirement of the selected booster. The required supply
pressure to the booster may be determined by the maximum
booster output pressure, or it may be determined by an
operating limit of the booster design. For example, some
boosters require a supply pressure that is just slightly higher
than the maximum output pressure of the booster, while other
boosters will accept supply pressures that are substantially
higher than the maximum booster output pressure. The
information that is necessary to specify the supply pressure
requirements for a specific booster is included in the
manufacturer's product specification bulletins.

If the regulator set pressure is less than the booster's supply

pressure requirement, sluggish booster operation and reduced
booster output pressure may result. If the regulator set pressure
is greater than the booster's supply pressure requirement, the
booster output pressure range may be elevated and/or damage
to the booster may result.

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SPECIFYING CONTROL VALVE POSITIONERS

Introduction: Basis For Control

Valve Positioner Specifications

Control Objectives

The specification for a particular positioner is determined, in

part, after evaluating the specific control objectives. The specific
control objectives that can be achieved with control valve
positioners include:

• Operation of double-acting piston actuators

• Implementation of split range control techniques

• Increased seat load

• Proper control valve operation from the available control

signal

• Modification of control valve flow characteristics

• Reduced stroking time

• Reversal of the control valve action

Ratings And Specifications Of Connected Components

The specification for a positioner is also developed in view of the

specifications and ratings of the components that are connected
to the positioner. These devices include:

• Upstream devices, including controllers and transducers

• Downstream devices; normally a control valve actuator

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Positioner Specifications

The components of a complete positioner specification include

the following:

• Manufacturer and model (or type number)

• Type of positioner (pneumatic or electro-pneumatic)

• Positioner action (direct or reverse)

• Input signal range

• Output pressure range

• Required supply pressure

• Desired options (gauges, characteristics, and bypass

valves)

Filter Regulator Specifications

If a filter-regulator is required, the components of its

specification are:

• Type of air filter/regulator

• Size of air filter/regulator

• Filter regulator set pressure

• Maximum available supply pressure to the filter/regulator

• Minimum required supply pressure to the filter/regulator

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Specifications For
Control Valve Positioners

During the discussion that follows, the specification for a control

valve positioner will be discussed in terms of the pertinent
entries on the Saudi Aramco ISS. The pertinent entries on the
Saudi Aramco ISS are shown in Figure 49.

Many of the specifications are determined after consulting

manufacturer's specification bulletins; therefore, Participants
may wish to refer to a typical specification bulletin that lists
positioner specifications; e.g., Fisher Specification Bulletin
62.1:3582.

Figure 49. Positioner Specifications On The Saudi Aramco ISS

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Line 5: Manufacturer

The name of the positioner manufacturer is entered on line 5.

The positioner or positioners that are available for a specific
control valve may be manufactured by the control valve
manufacturer, or by a different company. For example, it is may
be possible to specify, for a Fisher control valve, a Fisher
positioner or a PMV positioner.

Line 6: Model / Type Number

The model number or type number of the positioner is entered

on line 6. The positioner model number or type number
generally indicates whether the positioner is designed for a
sliding-stem or rotary-shaft control valve, whether the positioner
is a pneumatic or electro-pneumatic type, and whether the
positioner is single-acting or double-acting. The model number
may also indicate that the positioner includes specific features
and options.

Line 9: Overall Valve /

Actuator Characteristic

If the positioner is characterized (see Line 45), the combined

valve and positioner characteristic is noted on line 9.

Line 38: Positioner Type /

Model Number

Type - The positioner type (pneumatic or electro-pneumatic) is

entered in the first box on line 38. Because Section 7.1.1 of
SAES-J-700 disallows the use of electro-pneumatic control
valve positioners, the positioner type will always be entered as
"pneumatic".

Model Number - The positioner model number; e.g., Fisher 3582,

is entered in the second box on line 38.

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Line 39: Positioner

Bypass / Gauges

Bypass - To indicate whether or not a bypass valve is being

specified, the specifier enters "yes" or "no". Section 7.1.4 of
SAES-J-700 requires the specification of a positioner bypass
valve unless one of the following conditions applies:

• The actuator operating pressure range is other than 3 to 15

psig.

• The actuator is a double-acting piston type.

In addition to the requirements that are included Section 7.1.4 of

SAES-J-700, the specifier should not specify a bypass valve for
reverse-acting positioners.

If a bypass valve is a standard positioner feature, the specifier

should request that the manufacturer disable the bypass under
the following conditions:

• The actuator operating pressure range is other than 3 to 15

psig.

• The selected actuator is a double-acting piston type.

• The selected positioner is reverse-acting.

If the positioner is specified as part of a complete control valve

assembly and any of the above conditions are noted on a
specification, some manufacturers, as a matter of standard
operating procedure, will disable the bypass valve.

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The improper application and operation of a bypass valve can

produce catastrophic results, as described below.

• If a bypass valve is specified for a reverse-acting positioner

(increase in control signal produces a decrease in
positioner output), and if the bypass valve is opened, the
controller output will be sent directly to the actuator. The
resulting valve action will be exactly opposite of the desired
valve action. In this situation, the controller will sense an
infinite error and the valve will remain at one travel extreme
until the bypass valve is closed.

• If the actuator operating pressure range is different from

the controller output pressure range, and if the positioner
bypass valve is opened, the actuator will not be able to
perform as it should. For example, if a controller output
pressure of 3 to 15 psig is bypassed directly to an actuator
with a 0 to 33 psig operating pressure range, the actuator
will be grossly underpowered.

Gauges - Section 7.1.3 of SAES-J-700 requires the specification

of pressure gauges that indicate the following pressure values:

• Supply pressure (to the positioner).

• Controller air pressure signal.
• Positioner output pressure.

To indicate that gauges are required, the specifier enters "yes",

and he may optionally add the number "3" to indicate that three
gauges are required.

Line 40: Positioner

Input and Output

Input - The positioner input pressure range is entered in the first

box on line 40. According to Section 7.1.1 of SAES-J-700, the
input will be a pneumatic pressure signal. For most applications,
the input pressure range will be the same as the output
pressure range of the upstream instrument; i.e., the upstream
controller or transducer. For split-range applications, the input
pressure range is specified as the portion of the control signal
pressure range that is to operate the control valve.

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Specification of the proper input range is crucial to the proper

operation of the positioner and the control valve. For example, if
the controller output pressure range is 3 to 15 psig and if the
positioner input range is specified as 6 to 30 psig, the positioner
will interpret an input pressure of 15 psig as a requirement for a
valve position of 50 percent of the rated valve travel, instead of
a requirement for full valve travel.

Output - The positioner output pressure range is entered in the

second box on line 40. The minimum value of the positioner
output pressure range is 0 psig. The maximum positioner output
pressure is set according the application requirements and the
maximum pressure ratings of the positioner and the actuator, as
follows:

• For normal operation of a control valve actuator, the

maximum output pressure is typically set to a pressure
value that is slightly higher than the maximum actuator
operating pressure that was assumed during the actuator
sizing process. For example, if an actuator is sized for a 0
to 33 psig actuator operating pressure range, the maximum
positioner output pressure may be set to 35 psig. The
additional pressure allows for calibration errors and it
ensures that adequate actuator force will be available to
operate the control valve.

• If additional seat load is required to achieve tighter shutoff

(direct-acting actuator), or if more actuator force is required
to ensure that the valve will fully open (reverse-acting
actuator), the positioner output pressure may be increased
to a higher pressure value. The maximum output pressure
must not exceed either of the following:

− The maximum supply pressure rating of the

positioner.

− The maximum diaphragm pressure rating of the

actuator.

The appropriate ratings are listed in manufacturer's specification

bulletins.

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Improper specification of the positioner output pressure can

result in improper control valve operation and damage to the
positioner, actuator, and control valve.

Line 41: Positioner Action

Most positioners can be configured as either direct-acting or

reverse-acting devices. When the positioner is specified as part
of a control valve assembly, the correct action should be
included in the initial specification. The needed action is
determined by evaluating the control loop objectives and the
existing control loop components. The appropriate positioner
action is determined in conjunction with the entry on Line 42;
Valve Action On Increase In Signal (See the information for Line 42,
below).

To specify whether the positioner is direct-acting or reverse-

acting, the specifier circles the appropriate selection on line 41.

Line 42: Valve Action

On Increase In Signal

To specify whether the control valve is to open or close upon an

increase in control signal, the specifier circles the appropriate
selection on line 42. The valve action on increase in signal is a
function of the following:

• Whether the instrument or instruments between the control

signal and the actuator are direct-acting or reverse-acting
types.

• Whether the actuator is a direct-acting type or a reverse-

acting type.

• Whether the control valve is a PDTC (push-down-to-close)

or PDTO (push-down-to-open) type.

To ensure the desired valve response to an increase in the

control signal, the specifier must evaluate the control loop and
select the proper transducer action.

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Line 43: Supply Max.

Avail / Min. Req'd.

Max. Avail. - The value for this specification is the maximum

supply pressure that is available from the plant air system.

Min. Req'd. - The minimum pressure that is required for proper

regulator operation is entered in the second box on line 43.

Line 45: Cam Characterized

If it is necessary or desirable to alter the inherent flow

characteristic of the control valve, the specifier must determine
the appropriate positioner characteristic and include it in the
positioner specification.

Specifications For
Filter Regulators That
Are Used With Control
Valve Positioners

Line 74: Air Filter

Regulator Type / Size

Type - The type number or model number of the filter-regulator is

entered in the first box on line 74. Standard air filter-regulators
normally provide adequate performance with control valve
positioners. For example, the Fisher Type 67AFR is commonly
specified.

When volume boosters and dead band volume boosters are

located downstream of a control valve positioner, a high
capacity regulator and a separate filter must be specified.

Size - The size of the regulator inlet and outlet pressure

connections is entered in the second box on line 74.

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Line 75: Air Required

Set Pressure

The regulator set pressure is set to the value of the required

supply pressure to the positioner. The supply pressure
requirement for the positioner is to be found in the appropriate
specification bulletin.

To compensate for pressure losses within the positioner, the

positioner's supply pressure requirement is generally a value
that is slightly higher than the maximum positioner output
pressure; however, the set pressure must be less than the
maximum supply pressure that is recommended for the
positioner, and it must be less than the maximum actuator
pressure rating.

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WORK AID 1: APPLICABLE PROCEDURAL STEPS AND THE PERTINENT

CONTENT FROM SAES-J-700 FOR DETERMINING WHETHER
ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC TRANSDUCERS, PNEUMATIC BOOSTERS,
AND CONTROL VALVE POSITIONERS ARE REQUIRED

Work Aid 1A: Applicable Procedural Steps For Determining Whether Electro-
Pneumatic Transducers, Pneumatic Boosters, And Control
Valve Positioners Are Required

While there is no formal set of procedures to select the

appropriate instrumentation, the answers to a few basic
questions typically narrows the field of possible solutions to a
specific instrument or group of instruments. To determine which
specific instruments are required for each of the processes that
are described Exercise 1, answer the following questions:

Is an electro-pneumatic
transducer required?

If the answer to any of the following is "yes", an I/P transducer

may be an appropriate instrument selection.

• Is it necessary to operate a pneumatic spring-and-

diaphragm actuator from an electronic control signal?

• Is it necessary to operate a pneumatic positioner from an

electronic control signal?

Is a pneumatic booster required?

• If the control signal is a pneumatic pressure, is it of a

different pressure range than the input pressure range of
the instrument or actuator that it controls? If so, consider a
pressure amplifier or a pressure reducer.

• Is there a requirement for isolating the actuator from the

control signal? If so, consider a 1:1 pressure relay.

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• Is there a special requirement for very short stroking

times? If so, consider a volume booster or a dead band
volume booster and a positioner.

Is a control valve positioner required?

If the answer to any of the following is "yes", a control valve

positioner may be an appropriate instrument selection.

• Is there a need for accurate stem positioning?

• Does the control strategy involve split-range control?

• Does the control valve include high friction packing?

• Is there a need to increase seat load?

• Is it necessary to characterize the valve with

instrumentation?

Work Aid 1B: Pertinent Content From SAES-J-700 For Determining Whether
Electro-Pneumatic Transducers, Pneumatic Boosters, And
Control Valve Positioners Are Required

To guide the selection of a particular instrument, it may be

helpful to consult the pertinent sections of SAES-J-700.

The pertinent sections of SAES-J-700 are as follows:

Section 7.1: Positioners And Boosters

Section 7.2: Electro-Pneumatic Transducers

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WORK AID 2: PROCEDURAL STEPS THAT ARE USED TO SPECIFY ELECTRO-

PNEUMATIC TRANSDUCERS

The following procedural steps provide guidance for specifying

I/P transducers on the Saudi Aramco ISS.

Line 42: Valve Action

On Increase In Signal

When one knows whether the valve is to open or close on an

increase in the signal, one may determine whether the selected
instrument should be a direct-acting type or a reverse-acting
type. The valve action on increase in signal is a function of the
following:

• Whether the instruments between the control signal and

the actuator are direct-acting or reverse-acting.

• Whether the actuator is a direct-acting type or a reverse-

acting type.

• Whether the valve is a push-down-to-open (PDTO) type or

a push-down-to-close (PDTC) type.

To determine the transducer action that is required to ensure

the appropriate valve action, refer to the following table:

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Valve Type Actuator Type Transducer Action Valve Action On

Increase In Signal
Push-Down Direct Direct Close
To-Close Reverse Open
(PDTC) Reverse Direct Open
Reverse Close
Push-Down Direct Direct Close
To-Open Reverse Open
(PDTO) Reverse Direct Open
Reverse Close
If additional instruments are used in combination with a transducer, note the
following:
• The addition of any number of direct-acting instruments will preserve the valve
action that is indicated in the table.
• The addition of an odd number of reverse-acting instruments will reverse the
valve action that is indicated in the table.
• The addition of an even number of reverse-acting instruments will preserve the
valve action that is indicated in the table.

Circle the appropriate selection on line 42. Also indicate in any

appropriate location on the ISS whether the specified transducer
is direct or reverse-acting. A reverse-acting construction may be
indicated by adding the suffix "R" to the transducer model
number, by indicating "reverse-action" on line 80, or by entering
the transducer output range with the highest value first; e.g., 18
to 0 psig.
Line 43: Supply Max.
Avail / Min. Req'd.

Supply Max. Avail - Enter the maximum supply pressure that is

available to the filter-regulator in the first box on line 43.

Supply Min. Req'd. - The minimum required supply pressure is an

estimated value. For proper regulator operation, this value is
approximately 30 percent greater than the regulator set
pressure (see the instructions for line 75, below). Calculate this
value and enter it in the second box on line 43.

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Line 74: Air Filter

Regulator Type / Size

Air Filter Regulator Type - Refer to the appropriate manufacturer's

specification bulletin; e.g., the specification bulletin for a Fisher
Type 67AFR. Verify that the input and output pressure ranges
are suitable for the application. If the regulator that is being
evaluated is suitable, enter the regulator type number (e.g.,
Type 67AFR) in the first box on line 74.

Air Filter Regulator Size - Enter the inlet and outlet pressure
connection size; e.g., 1/4- inch.

Line 75: Air Req'd

Set Pressure

The regulator set pressure is the same as the transducer's

supply pressure requirement. Refer to the transducer
specification bulletin to determine the recommended supply
pressure for the selected transducer.

Line 80: Transducer

Type and Model Number

Transducer Type - Enter the transducer type; i.e., I/P, in the first
box on line 80.

Transducer Model Number - Enter the transducer model number, or

type number; i.e., Fisher 546, in the second box on line 80.

Line 81: Transducer

Input mA / Output

Transducer Input mA - Enter the transducer input signal range in

the first box on line 81; e.g., 4 to 20 mA dc.

Transducer Output - Enter the transducer output signal range in

the second box on line 81. The appropriate units should be
noted; e.g., 3 to 15 psig.

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WORK AID 3: PROCEDURAL STEPS THAT ARE USED TO SPECIFY

PNEUMATIC BOOSTERS

The following procedural steps provide guidance for specifying

pneumatic boosters on the Saudi Aramco ISS.

Line 42: Valve Action

On Increase In Signal

When one knows whether the valve is to open or close on an

increase in the signal, one may determine whether the selected
instrument should be a direct-acting type or a reverse-acting
type. The valve action on increase in signal is a function of the
following:

• Whether the instruments between the control signal and

the actuator are direct-acting or reverse-acting.

• Whether the actuator is a direct-acting type or a reverse-

acting type.

• Whether the valve is a push-down-to-open (PDTO) type or

a push-down-to-close (PDTC) type.

To determine the booster action that is required to ensure the

appropriate valve action, refer to the following table:

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Valve Type Actuator Type Booster Action Valve Action On

Increase In Signal
Push-Down Direct Direct Close
To-Close Reverse Open
(PDTC) Reverse Direct Open
Reverse Close
Push-Down Direct Direct Close
To-Open Reverse Open
(PDTO) Reverse Direct Open
Reverse Close
If additional instruments are used in combination with a booster, note the following:
• The addition of any number of direct-acting instruments will preserve the
valve action that is indicated in the table.
• The addition of an odd number of reverse-acting instruments will reverse the
valve action that is indicated in the table.
• The addition of an even number of reverse-acting instruments will preserve the
valve action that is indicated in the table.

Circle the appropriate selection on line 42. Also indicate in any

appropriate location on the ISS whether the specified booster is
direct-acting or reverse-acting. A reverse-acting construction
may be indicated by the booster model number, by indicating
"reverse-action" on line 80, or by entering the booster output
range with the highest value first; e.g., 15 to 33 psig.

Line 43: Supply Max.

Avail / Min. Req'd.

Supply Max. Avail - Enter the maximum supply pressure that is

available to the filter-regulator in the first box on line 43.

Supply Min. Req'd. - The minimum required supply pressure is an

estimated value. For proper regulator operation, this value is
approximately 30 percent greater than the regulator set
pressure (see the instructions for Line 75, below). Calculate this
value and enter it in the second box on line 43.

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Line 74: Air Filter

Regulator Type / Size

Air Filter Regulator Type - Refer to the appropriate manufacturer's

specification bulletin; e.g., the specification bulletin for a Fisher
Type 67AFR, and verify that the input and output pressure
ranges are suitable for the application. If the Type 67AFR is
suitable, enter "Type 67AFR" in the first box on line 74.

Air Filter Regulator Size - Enter the inlet and outlet pressure
connection size; e.g., 1/4- inch.

Line 75: Air Required

Set Pressure

The regulator set pressure is the same as the booster supply

pressure requirement. Refer to the product specification bulletin
to determine this value and enter it on line 75. If no specific
value is given for the supply pressure, a set pressure that is 5 to
10 percent higher than the maximum booster outlet pressure
should be sufficient for proper booster operation.

Line 80 Transducer
Type / Model No.

In the first box on line 80, enter the manufacturer's name and
designate a P/P transducer. Enter the model number of the
booster in the second box on line 80. Note: Either a Moore 61L
or a Moore 61H will provide the needed performance. Per the
description in the specification bulletin, the 61H is a dead band
booster and it provides more capacity than the 61L; however,
the 61L may be preferred because it is more accurate and there
is no specific requirement for a short stroking time.

Line 81: Transducer

Input mA / Output

Blacken "mA" as a units designator for the input and indicate

that the units for the input signal are "psig". Enter the booster
input pressure range in the first box on line 81. Enter the
booster output pressure range in the second box on line 81.

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WORK AID 4: PERTINENT SECTIONS OF SAES-J-700 AND APPLICABLE

PROCEDURAL STEPS THAT ARE USED TO SPECIFY CONTROL
VALVE POSITIONERS

Work Aid 4A: Pertinent Sections Of SAES-J-700 That Are Used To Specify
Control Valve Positioners

To guide the selection of a particular instrument, it may be

helpful to consult the pertinent sections of SAES-J-700.

The pertinent sections are as follows:

Section 7.1 Positioners And Boosters

Section 7.2 Electro-Pneumatic Transducers

Work Aid 4B: Procedural Steps That Are Used To Specify Control Valve
Positioners

The following procedural steps provide guidance for specifying

control valve positioners on the Saudi Aramco ISS.

Line 5: Manufacturer

Enter the name of the positioner manufacturer on line 5.

Line 6: Model / Type Number

Enter the model number or type number of the positioner on line

6.

Line 9: Overall Valve /

Actuator Characteristic

If the positioner is characterized (see Line 45), the combined

valve and positioner characteristic is entered on line 9 instead of
the inherent valve characteristic.

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Line 38: Positioner Type /

Model Number

Enter the positioner type in the first box on line 38. The choices
for this box are pneumatic or electropneumatic. Because
Section 7.1.1 of SAES-J-700 disallows the use of
electropneumatic positioners, the entry for this box will always
be pneumatic. Enter the positioner model number in the second
box on line 38.

Line 39: Positioner

Bypass / Gauges

Refer to Section 7.1.4 of SAES-J-700 to determine if a bypass is

required. Enter "yes" in the first box on line 39 if a bypass is
required. Enter "no" in the first box on line 39 if a bypass is not
required.

Per Section 7.1.3 of SAES-J-700, enter "yes" in the second box

on line 39 to indicate that gauges are required.

Line 40: Positioner

Input and Output

Enter the pressure range of the input (control signal) to the

positioner in the first box on line 40.

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Enter the positioner output range in the second box on line 40

as follows:

• For any control valve positioner, the minimum value of the

output pressure range is 0 psig.

• The maximum value of the output pressure range could be

set to a value that is 5 to 10 percent greater than the
maximum actuator diaphragm pressure; e.g., the output
may be set to 35 psig for an actuator with a nominal
operating pressure range of 6 to 33 psig. To achieve
additional shutoff force, the maximum positioner output can
be set to a pressure value that is somewhat higher than the
normal actuator requirement. For example, the positioner
output pressure could be set to 40 psig for an actuator with
a nominal operating pressure range of 6 to 33 psig.

Line 41: Positioner Action

If the positioner output is to increase upon an increase in the

control signal, a direct-acting positioner is specified. If the
positioner output is to decrease upon an increase in the control
signal, a reverse-acting positioner is specified. Refer to the
information that is included in the directions for Line 42, below.

When the appropriate action has been determined, circle the

appropriate selection on line 41.

Line 42: Valve Action

On Increase In Signal

When one knows whether the valve is to open or close on an

increase in the signal, one may determine whether the selected
instrument should be a direct-acting type or a reverse-acting
type. The valve action on increase in signal is a function of the
following:

• Whether the instruments between the control signal and

the actuator are direct-acting or reverse-acting.

• Whether the actuator is a direct-acting type or a reverse-

acting type.

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• Whether the valve is a push-down-to-open (PDTO) type or

a push-down-to-close (PDTC) type.

To determine the positioner action that is required to ensure the

appropriate valve action, refer to the following table:

Valve Type Actuator Type Positioner Action(1) Valve Action On

Increase In Signal
Push-Down Direct Direct Close
To-Close Reverse Open
(PDTC) Reverse Direct Open
Reverse Close
Push-Down Direct Direct Close
To-Open Reverse Open
(PDTO) Reverse Direct Open
Reverse Close
If additional instruments are used with a positioner, note the following:

• The addition of any number of direct-acting instruments will preserve the valve
action that is indicated in the table.

• The addition of an odd number of reverse-acting instruments will reverse the

valve action that is indicated in the table.

• The addition of an even number of reverse-acting instruments will preserve

the valve action that is indicated in the table.

Circle the appropriate selection on line 42.

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Line 43: Supply Max.

Avail / Min. Req'd.

Supply Max. Avail - Enter the maximum supply pressure that is

available to the filter-regulator in the first box on line 43.

Supply Min. Req'd. - The minimum required supply pressure is an

estimated value. For proper regulator operation, this value is
approximately 30 percent greater than the regulator set
pressure (see the instructions for Line 75, below). Calculate this
value and enter it in the second box on line 43.

Line 74: Air Filter

Regulator Type / Size

Air Filter Regulator Type - Refer to the specification bulletin for a

Fisher Type 67AFR and verify that the input and output
pressure ranges are suitable for the application. If the Type
67AFR is suitable, enter "Type 67AFR" in the first box on line
74.

Air Filter Regulator Size - Enter the inlet and outlet pressure
connection size; e.g., 1/4- inch.

Line 75: Air Required

Set Pressure

The regulator set pressure is set to the recommended supply

pressure to the positioner. The specification bulletin for the
positioner will indicate that a supply pressure that is slightly
higher (e.g., 5 psig higher) than the maximum positioner output
pressure is required. For example, if the positioner output
pressure is set to 40 psig, the filter-regulator set pressure would
be set to 45 psig.

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GLOSSARY

actuator A device that supplies force or torque to the control valve

closure member.
amplifier A device that enables an input signal to control power from
a source that is independent of the signal and thus be
capable of delivering an output that bears some
relationship to, and is generally greater than, the input
signal.
beam The summing point of a control valve positioner.
bellows A deformable, pressure-measurement element that is
generally made of a metallic material, and that changes in
length as the pressure directed into it increases or
decreases.
booster (pneumatic) A device that uses an input pressure to modulate an
independent supply pressure to produce a pressure output
that is proportional, in a fixed ratio (e.g., 1:1, 1:2, or 1:3), to
the input pressure. Also referred to as a relay.
bypass In pneumatic devices, a valve that routes the instrument
input signal directly to the instrument output. As a result,
the output is not a function of the instrument action.
capacity Rate of flow under stated conditions.
cascade control Control in which the output of one controller is the set point
for another controller.
closed loop control Control in which a measured variable is compared to its
desired value to produce an actuating error signal which is
acted upon in such a way as to reduce the magnitude of
the error.
control signal The controller output, which may be in the form of a
pneumatic, electronic, or digital signal.
controller A device which operates automatically to regulate a
controlled variable.
dead band The range through which an input signal may be varied,
upon reversal may be varied, upon reversal of direction,
without initiating an observable change in output signal.

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diaphragm A flexible member that produces an output in force or

motion in response to changes in a pneumatic input
pressure.
direct-acting Referring to a device in which an increase in the input
signal produces an increase in the output.
double-acting A positioner that produces two independent but related
positioner outputs, typically for the purpose of operating springless
actuators and other double-acting pneumatic devices.

droop A specification for direct-operated pressure-reducing

regulators that describes how much the actual pressure
value of P2 can deviate from the set pressure as the flow
rate increases. Droop is typically expressed as the
percentage of deviation from the set pressure. Also
referred to as offset or proportional band.
electro-pneumatic A pneumatic positioner with an integral I/P transducer.
positioner
error The algebraic difference between the indication and the
ideal value of the measured signal.
gain, steady state The ratio of change of steady-state output to a step
or static change in input.
hysteresis The maximum deviation of the output from the ideal
output, measured as the input signal is continuously
increased from its minimum value to its maximum value,
and then continuously decreased from its maximum value
to its minimum value. The deviation may or may not
include dead band.
I/P transducer A transducer that converts an electrical current input (I)
into a proportional pneumatic pressure output (P). See
transducer.
input signal In process instrumentation, a physical variable, one or
more parameters of which carry information about another
variable which the signal represents.
limit cycle A repeating non-linearity in a control loop that is caused by
a friction-related dead band, distinct from the oscillations
that result from excessive loop gain, and typically in the
form of a clipped sine wave.
linear process A process in which the gain is constant regardless of load.

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manipulated variable A quantity or condition which is varied as a function of the

actuating error signal so as to change the value of the
directly controlled variable.
measured variable A quantity, property, or condition which is measured.
nozzle-flapper A pneumatic signal amplifier in which the position of the
amplifier flapper relative to the nozzle results in changes in an
output pressure.
output signal A particular process quantity that has been identified to be
the result of the values or actions of one or more other
process values defined as inputs.
positioner An instrument that compares the actual position of a final
control element (such as valve stem position) to the
desired (implied) position and that adjusts its output to a
higher or lower value to minimize the error.
pressure amplifier A pneumatic amplifier that produces a pressure output
span that is proportional to the input pressure span, and
that is in a fixed ratio that is greater than 1:1; e.g., 1:2, 1:3,
or 1:6, the ratio being expressed as the input to output
ratio.
pressure reducer A pneumatic amplifier that produces a pressure output
span that is proportional to the input span, and that is in a
fixed ratio that is less than 1:1; e.g., 2:1, 3:1, or 6:1, the
ratio being expressed as the input to output ratio
process gain (static) The ratio of the magnitude of a steady state sinusoidal
output relative to the causal input.
range The region between the limits within which a quantity is
measured, received, or transmitted, expressed by stating
the lower and upper range values.
rangeability, control The ratio of the maximum control valve Cv to the minimum
valve controllable control valve Cv.

relay, pneumatic see booster

reverse-acting Referring to a device in which the value of the output
signal decreases as the value of the input signal
increases.
set point An input value which sets the desired value of the
controlled variable.

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signal transducer A transducer which converts one standardized

transmission signal to another.
span The algebraic difference between the upper and lower
range values.
split range Action in which two or more signals are generated or two
or more final controlling elements are actuated by an input
signal, each one responding consecutively, with or without
overlap, to the magnitude of that input signal.
stroking time The time that is required for an actuator to move its stem
between two predetermined valve positions (generally
valve open and valve closed).
summing point Any point at which signals are added algebraically. In a
control valve positioner, summing is usually accomplished
with a beam.
supply pressure The pressure at the supply port of a device.
throttling The action of a control valve to regulate fluid flow through
its restricting orifice opening.
transducer An element or device which receives information in the
form of one quantify and converts it to information in the
form of the same or another quantity.
transient The behavior of a variable during transition between two
steady states.
volume booster A pneumatic amplifier, generally with a 1:1 output to input
ratio, that provides substantially increased output capacity
compared to the capacity of the input signal.

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