Introduction

n spite of the fact that women in the 21st century are educationally

I qualified and show equal participation in employment with men, the

matter of the fact remain that social implications, traditional beliefs and
cultural restrictions still control the life of the women either in a direct or
indirect manner. Generally speaking women all over the world have been
assigned a lower status in comparison to that of men. In traditional times it was
believed that women are to be married off and need to settle down in life. The
men were given every right of the power, position and authority over women
(Waghamode., 2013).
As a result of socio economic and external conditions, established in the
ancient times, being not favorable for free movement of women, they mostly
used to play a very subservient role and status. It is a serious problem that
women in India are facing violence. In general about 33% women, in the age
group of 15-49 years have suffered from physical violence and about 10% have
faced sexual violence. Violence against women is the most omnipresent yet,
less recognized human rights in the world. Violence is a discerning health
problem that feeds on the women’s energy, deteriorates their physical,
reproductive and mental health and disintegrates their self esteem. In addition
to leading to injury, violence also tends to increase the chances of a woman to
develop a long term risk of different health problems, including chronic pain,
physical disability, drug and alcohol abuse and depression (WHO, 2002; Heise
., 1999). There are increased chances for a woman to have unintentional
pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases and miscarriage (Campbell et al.,
2004; Campbell JC, 2002; Gazmararian et al., 1996).

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 Introduction

Social institutions in almost every society in the world, legislate, abstruse and
deny abuse towards women, in spite of the fact that there is high cost of
violence happening against women all over the world. The act that would be
penalized if happened to an employer, a neighbor or an acquaintance, are often
seen to go unchallenged when males direct them at females, in particular within
the families.
Men and women can be both victims as well as inflictors of violence, but in
general, the components of violence most commonly committed against
women usually vary in critical terms from the violence commonly happened
against the men. Being killed or injured in wars or other related forms of
violence has been found to be more common among men than in women. They
are also more susceptible to being killed or assaulted on the streets by a
stranger. There are more chances for men to be the committers of violence,
regardless of the sex of the victim (WHO, 2002). Comparatively, women have
more chances of being physically assaulted or killed by someone, who is
familiar, most often a family member or an intimate partner (IP) (Heise., 1999).
At every stage of life, whether childhood, adolescence or as adults, women are
always prone to be sexually assaulted or exploited. Thus they are vulnerable to
all types of violence throughout their lifespan (see figure 1). In spite of all this,
there still is no universally accepted terminology for referring to violence
against women.
Domestic violence is also referred to as “wife beating" “wife battering"
intimate “partner abuse" (Heise 2000). In most of the traditional societies of
Kashmir, wife beating is largely regarded as a consequence of a man's right to
inflict physical punishment on his wife. In many settings like ours women are
expected to look after their homes and children, show obedience and respect to
their husband. If a man feels that his wife has failed to play her role or
overstepped her limits, for instance, asking for husband expenses or stressing
the need of their children then violence may be his response.

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 Introduction

Forms of Domestic Violence

As a rule, domestic violence is not a one-time incident. On the contrary, it is a
complex system of abuse. It is the perpetrators' aim to gain power and control
over their victims' mind, actions and body. Basically, four kinds of violence
can be distinguished:
Physical violence
Physical or bodily violence is the most obvious kind and causes the most
visible evidence. It comprises physical violations such as: slapping, jostling,
shoving, kicking, biting, choking, battering with fists or objects, arm twisting,
holding against one's will, burning, cutting with a knife or other objects,
afflicting wounds or locking in.
Psychological violence
Particularly in intimate relations potential victims are susceptible to physical
and emotional violence which can have many forms such as direct attacks in
which the perpetrator constantly insults, degrades, berates or threatens his
victim or reacts accordingly in conflicts. Other possible forms are indirect
assaults when persons closely connected to the victim, like children, relatives
or friends, are insulted or property is damaged. Psychological violence is subtle
(penetrating). It systematically undermines the victims' self-confidence,
independence and scope of action. Here it is frequently rather difficult to take
legal action as there are no hard facts.
Sexual violence
Sexual violence is the case when someone takes advantage of another person
forcing her/him against this person's will to perform sexual acts. It includes
coerced sex through threats, intimidation or physical force, forcing unwanted
sexual acts or forcing sex with others
Economic violence
Economic violence causes or exploits financial dependencies. This includes the
refusal of basic necessities such as food or medicine, but also depriving the
partner of his/her income or controlling it. (UNICEF 2000).

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 Introduction

Typology of violence against women and other typologies of violence

against women

Figure 1.1: Typology: Violence against Women over Time.

Violence organized or perpetrated by states (e.g., rape in war)

Forced prostitution, trafficking for sex

Others

Acid throwing

Non-partner coerced sex/rape/harassment (including child sexual abuse)

Abuse of widows/elder abuse

Dowry deaths/honour killings

Differential access to food/medical care

Psychological abuse by family members

Family members

Coerced sex/rape/harassment (including child sexual abuse) by family members

Perpetrators

Perpetrators
Physical violence by family members

FGM

Violence in pregnancy

Female
Infanticide
Sex- Selective
Abortion
Differential access to food/medical care
Intimate partner

Violence in pregnancy
Psychological abuse by intimate partner
Physical violence (by current or former partner)
Sexual violence (by current or former partner)

Pre-birth Infancy Girlhood/adolescence Reproductive age Elderly

Age span

FGM=female genital mutilation.

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 Introduction

Figure1. 2: Violence against Women throughout the Life Cycle

Infancy
Pre-birth Female infanticide; physical,
Sex selective abortion effects sexual and psychological
of battering during pregnancy abuse
on birth outcomes

Violence and its types in different

stages of life

Girlhood
Child Marriage, female genital
mutilation; physical, sexual
Elderly and psychological abuse,
Forced “suicide” of homicide incest; child prostitution and
of widows for economic
pronography
reasons; sexual, physical and
psychological abuse

Adolescents and
Adulthood
Dating & Courtship
Violence (e.g: acid throwing & date rape);
economically coerced sex (e.g: school girls
having sex with “sugar daddies” in return
for school fee); incest; sexual abuse in the
workplace in the workplace; rape; sexual
harassment; forced prostitution and
pornography; trafficking in women; partner
violence; marital rape; dowry abuse and
murder; partner homicide; psychological
abuse of women with disabilities and forced
pregnancy.

(WHO 2013)

The word violence against women covers an wide range of ill treatment and
exploitation and abuses intended at women and girls (figure 1.1 &1. 2); ranging
from sex- selective abortion to the abuse of elder women. The term includes
geographically or ethnically specific forms of abuse e.g. FGM ( female genital

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 Introduction

mutilation), acid throwing, dowry deaths, honor killings,( the assignation of

women who have presumably brought disgrace/ shame to their family/ kin)
including the most common forms that are widely prevalent globally -
domestic violence and rape. The most probable inflictor or effectuate include
spouse and partners parents, other family members, neighbors, teachers,
employees, police men, soldiers and other state employees. Ferocity against
women is not only a sign of gender disparity but, at the same time it also
retains this disproportionate equilibrium of dominance. At times inflictors
intentionally exercise violence as a mechanism for subordination. For instance,
violence by intimate partner is frequently used to exhibit and impose a man’s
position as head of the family unit/ circle and affinity.
Violence actually leads to subordination of women, which may not be an overt
motivation of the inflictor but on the other hand may instigate a consequence of
his actions. Women’s unequal position facilitates to form their susceptibility to
violence which in turn stimulates the violence committed against them (Watts
and Zimmerman, 2002).
Dimensions of Violence:
Brutality is hauled off on women not only outside her home but also within.
Conjugal violence includes compulsion and discord which pushes women to
come out of patriarchal culture wherein she was taught to remain silent
(Poonacha et al., 1999). In Indian milieu women in her intimate relationship
may experience looming acts by the family members (both men and women) of
her nuptial family. Frequently such types of violence were overlooked in our
societies, which inflict gender disparity by limiting a woman’s liberty and right
to self- determination. On the other hand violence against women outside the
home can take place in form of eve teasing, rape, murder (after rape its quite
common), trafficking etc, both at their place of work and outside. Saran et al
(2002) reported between 5,000- 7,000 girls are trafficked into India from Nepal
and since mostly in underprivileged milieu to abusive corporal and social
stipulations. In addition to above girls are trafficked from Bangladesh to India

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 Introduction

from poorer states to prosperous ones; and juvenile girls of 13 years of age are
trafficked from Asia as “mail order brides”. The most popular itineraries which
are followed are from Nepal to Indian states to Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar and West Bengal to Indian states of West Bengal. They are immobilized
to remonstrate, hence at peril of violence. Finally, in case of extensive violence,
most awful victims are women. However if they are not physically injured
through such violence, they suffer from significant trauma because of many
reasons e.g. losing their family members by being killed or harmed or their
property might be damaged, ransacked or set at fire. Conjugal violence against
women escort to various physical (corporal) and psychological culminations
associated with some lethal or mortal consequences. The UN State Department
of Justice has accounted that woman who required health checkups in hospital
emergency unit for violence related injuries were mostly injured by current or
former spouse or partner. Battering culminate into injuries ranging from bruises
and fractures to chronic disabilities e.g. fractional or complete loss of hearing
or vision and burns may lead to mutilation and in some cases severe medical
complications which might emerge from FGM (female genital mutilation) and
may even range from hemorrhage and sterility to rigorous psychological
trauma. Several studies revealed high intensity of violence during pregnancy
ensuing risk to health of both the mother and the unborn fetus and in most
terrible cases of domestic violence can lead to the death of a women (Rajani
et al. 2001).

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 Introduction

Cycle of Violence
Figure 1.3: Cycle of violence

Tension
Manipulation Building Stage
Stage

Battering
Incident

Walker’s cycle of abuse (Gerhard 2000) describes the pattern of violence, which is
composed of three phases. Family violence is most often a relationship between a
man and a woman in which the male partner seeks to assert power and control over
the female partner. The abuser may use many different types of abuse to assert this
power and the overall framework in which the abuse occurs may follow a pattern
called the cycle of violence. There are three phases in the cycle -the woman may
experience ongoing, nonstop abuse, or the abuse may stop and start. One pattern of
abuse often seen in a violent relationship begins with a tension-building phase,
followed by the battering incident and then calm, making-up phase often called the
manipulation stage.
Tension Building Stage- This stage is often characterized by slamming doors,
throwing objects, verbal or minor physical abuse, and a general building up of stress
for both the abuser and victim. The battered woman may feel as if she is "walking on
eggshells", doing everything she can to stop the cycle from continuing.
Battering Incident- The tension from the first stage builds after a battering incident
occurs. This is often a time of destructiveness and may include hitting, slapping,
punching, burning, sexual abuse and other types of abuse.
Manipulation Stage- This stage is characterized by apologies and promises that the
abuse will never happen again, blaming the abuse on other factors (i.e. "It was the
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 Introduction

alcohol" or "If you hadn't provoked me to hit you it wouldn't have happened"). The
victim often believes the apologies and promises and may even take responsibility for
the abuse.
Everywhere and in all ages, women have been victims of violence. They are and often
have been raped, mutilated, battered and murdered. In most societies, gender-based
violence has long been tolerated, letting the perpetrators go unpunished, their crime
tactically promoted/ supported. Based on the popular view that wife is the property of
her husband and that therefore he may do with her whatever he thinks fit. "Wife
beating is an accepted custom.
Domestic Violence as a major public health concern:
There is a lot of evidence which documents the intense and prolonged impact of
domestic violence on human health. These impacts may include, but are not limited
to:
i. Fatal outcomes.
ii. Acute and chronic physical injuries and disabilities.
iii. Serious mental health problems and behavioral deviations increasing the risk
of subsequent victimization.
iv. Gynecological disorders.
v. Unwanted pregnancies.
vi. Obstetric complications and HIV/ AIDS.
DV (domestic violence) has a very destructive impact not only on the victims or the
person who experience it, but also those who witness it, especially children. It is often
seen that the prey’s of DV often have intense sense of guilt, are designated and
blamed by the family, friends and society. This oftenly aggregates to the
consequences of DV (WHO, 2002). DV debilitates the dignity, autonomy and security
of victim and in general, the social and economic development of the entire society.
Thus it often ensures gender inequality.
Causes of Domestic Violence
There is no factor in particular that would score for violence executed against them.
Progressively research has focused on intercomplexity of the problems within
different cultural context. Women have always had tendency to suffer from violence,
because of the various interrelated, complex and institutionalized social and cultural
factors. These have been manifested in the historically unequal power relation

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 Introduction

between men and women. There are different factors which contribute to these
unequal power relations e.g. socio economic forces, family institutions, where the
relations are enforced, fear of or control over female sexuality. Because of the
inherent superiority by men and legislation and cultural sanctions, women and
children have traditionally been denied an independent and legal status.
Figure1. 4: Factors That Perpetuate Domestic Violence.

•Gender specific socialization

•Cultural interpatations of suitable sexRoles
•Expectation of roles with relationship
Ethical/ Racial •Faith /conviction in the inherent superioty of males
•Value that give propriatery rights over womens and girls
•Concept of the family as the private sphere and under male control
•Custom of marriage (bride price / dowry)
•Suscepbility of violence as a means to resolve conflict

•women's economic relance on men

•limited assess to cash and credit
•biased laws regarding legacy, propertyrights, use of communal land and
Fiscal/Monetary mantenancxe after divorce and widowhood
•limited access to employment informal and formal sector
•limitee access to education and training for women

•lesser legal status of women either by written law and /or by practice
•laws regarding divorce, child custudy
•maintenance and inhetance
Legal
•legal definition of rape and domestic abose
•low level of legal literacy among women
•intensive treatment of women and girls by police and judiciar

•under representation of women in power, politics the media and in the

legal and medical profession
•domestic violence noit taken seriously
Political •philosophy of family being private
•risk of challange to status quo/ religious laws
•inadequate group of women as a ploitical force
•limited contribution of women in structured politica system.

(UNICEF, 2000)

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 Introduction

Health Consequences of violence against women

There are a vast number and far reaching consequences, (both physical and
psychological) of DV against women and some of these at times prove to be fatal
(Figure 4). Physical injury tends to be the most visible form of violence although it
represents only a part of intense health impacts on women. It has been reported by the
U.S Department of Justice that about 37% of all the women who come to seek
medical intervention in the hospital emergency rooms for violence related injuries had
been battered by a current or a former spouse or a partner. The assaults ultimately led
to injuries which ranged from minor bruises and fractures to chronic disabilities such
as partial or complete loss of hearing, visions. In addition burns can lead to
disfigurement of the victim. The medical complications as a consequence of FGM can
range from hemorrhage and sterility to severe psychological trauma. Various studies
carried out throughout the world, have documented the fact that high levels of
violence during pregnancy result in the risk to the health of both the mother and
unborn child. In the worst cases, one or all of the consequence of DV can result in
death of the women.

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 Introduction

Figure1. 5: Health Outcomes of Violence against Women

Gender-Based Victimization

Nonfatal Fatal Outcomes

Outcomes Direct & Indirect

Physical Health Mental Health  Femicide

 Injury
 Functional  Post traumatic stress  Suicide
Impairment  Depression  Maternal
 Suicide  Anxiety  AIDS-related
 Physical Symptoms  Phobias/panic
 Permanent Disability disorders
 Poor Subjective  Eating disorders
Health  Sexual dysfunction
 AIDS-related  Mental distress
 Maternal Mortality  Substance abuse
 disorders

Injurious Health
Behaviors
 Smoking
 Alcohol and drug use
 Overeating
 Physical inactivity
 Sexual risk-taking

Functional Disorders
 Chronic pain syndromes
 Irritable bowel syndrome
 Gastrointestinal disorders
 Somatic complaints
 Fibromyalgia

Reproductive Health
 Unwanted pregnancy
 STIs/HIV
 Gynecological disorders
 Unsafe abortion
 Pregnancy complications
 Miscarriage/low birth weight
 Pelvic inflammatory disease

(Heise et al., 1999)

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 Introduction

Effects (Paraphernalia) of Domestic Violence against Women

Effect on Children
It has lately been supported view, that a child who is exposed to domestic abuse
during his upbringing has more chances to suffer in terms of development and
psychological welfare (Dodd, 2009).The various emotional and behavioral
disturbances that can be a consequence of DV include hyper anxiety, excessive
aggressiveness and the changes in the pattern of socialization of a child with
his friends, family and authority. Certain developmental lags can be commonly
seen among children e.g. problems with attitude and cognition in school can be
present in the start and can later show a lack of skills such as problem solving.
There has been found a positive correlation between the experience of abuse
and neglect in childhood and executing DV and physical and / sexual abuse in
adulthood (Sadeler, 1994). At times there is seen an intentional ripple effect by
the abuser who tries to hunt two victims simultaneously e.g. he will
intentionally abuse the mother in front of a child so that the child also shows
the same behavior as an adult. In addition to this, the symptoms of
posttraumatic stress disorders (PTSD) are more common in children who
witness mother assault (Lehman, 1995).
Physical Effect
There can be various acute consequences of a DV incident that calls for
medical intervention or at times hospitalization, e.g. bruises, lacerations,
broken bones, head injuries, internal bleeding and hemorrhages (Jones, 1997).
There are certain chronic health conditions of the victims that have been
correlated with the DV they tend to suffer from e.g. arthritis, IBS (irritable
bowel syndrome) (Berrios, 1991). Pregnant women who experience DV are
more prone to develop the incidents of miscarriage, preterm labor and injury to
or death of fetus (Jones, 1997).
Psychological Effect
High incidence of stress, fear and anxiety are more commonly reported among
victims who are still dwelling with the executors of violence. Since the victims

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 Introduction

are often made to feel guilty for initiating the abuse and are, generally
speaking, frequently put to intense criticism, there are more chances of them to
develop depression. Either during or after cessation of the relationship, 60% of
the victims are found to meet the diagnostic criteria for depression and have a
increased tendency to go for suicide (Barnett, 2001). The most frequently
diagnosed psychological effect of DV is PTSD. It often is experienced by
victims in the form of flashbacks, intrusive images, exaggerated startle
response, nightmares and avoidance of triggers that are affiliated with the abuse
(Vitanza, Vogal and Marshall, 1995). In spite of the fact that the victims have
left the threatening or dangerous situations, they tend to exhibit these
symptoms for a long span of time. PTSD has been documented by many
researchers as possibly the best diagnostic measure for people who suffer from
psychological effect of DV, since it leads to a variety of symptoms which a
victim of trauma can commonly experience.
Financial Effect
Even after the victims are away from their executors, they tend to be stunned
with the absoluteness of the extent to which the autonomy has been snatched
from them as a result of the abuse. Because of being isolated and economically
abused, the victims usually have very little money of their own. There are often
very few people from whom they can seek help or can rely on .This has shown
to be one of the greatest problem, which the victims can experience. Besides, it
can also be one of the strongest reason that would discourage them from
eloping their executors (Stop Violence against Women, 2010). The victims of
DV often are seen to experience a dearth of specialized skills, education,
training and financial resources above all, which are necessary to find a
generous employment. They may also have several children to take care of.
Long Term Effect
DV can provoke many different responses in the victim. All these tend to be
relevant for a professional, who is working with the victim. The major effect of
DV victimization comprised of psychological/ mental health problems. The

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 Introduction

astounding lack of resources on part of the victim, can lead to homelessness

and poverty.
Statement of the Problem
The family is often equated with sanctuary – a place where individuals seek
love, safety, security and shelter. But it is a place that imperils lives and breeds
some of the most drastic forms of violence perpetrated against women and
children. Domestic violence is the most common form of violence against
women. It affects women across the life span from sex selective abortion of
female fetuses to forced suicide and abuse and is evident, to some degree, in
every society in the world. Violence against women comes in different forms
and without help, the victims become lost in unhealthy cycles that affect
everybody. All violence against women has a negative influence on the lives of
the victims. Many victims become caught in a viscous cycle of continued abuse
and shattered self-worth. If help is not available to these women, the
devastating effects of abuse continue and create an impact on society. Violence
can cause low self-esteem in its victims, which leads to many other issues and
problems that can create a devastating cycle that is very difficult to escape
from, but with help, there is hope. There will be help and programs for victims
giving each community a chance to win this battle against abuse and violence.
If this problem is not brought to an end, the cycle will continue leading to
bigger and bigger problems down the road.
Violence against women is a major health and human rights concern. Violence
against women reaches beyond the immediate threat of bruises and broken
bones. Women experience physical or mental abuse throughout their life cycle,
in infancy, childhood and/ or adolescence, or during adulthood or older age.
While violence has severe health consequences for the affected, it is a social
problem that warrants an immediate coordinated response from multiple
sectors. Health workers alone cannot transform the cultural, social and legal
environment that gives rise to and condones widespread violence against
women. Ending physical and sexual violence requires long-term commitment

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 Introduction

and strategies involving all parts of society. Many government agencies have
committed themselves to overcoming violence against women by passing and
enforcing laws that ensure women’s legal rights and punish abusers. In
addition, community- based strategies can focus on empowering women,
reaching out to men and changing the beliefs and attitudes that permit abusive
behavior. Only when women gain their place as equal members of society will
violence against women no longer be an invisible norm but, instead, a shocking
aberration.
In the state of J&K in general, much work has not been done on domestic
violence against women. Therefore there is a need to study the domestic
violence on women and its related effects in the society. Towards this backdrop
the present study was undertaken to study “Impact of Domestic Violence on
Women – A Comparative study of Jammu and Srinagar Districts”.

Scope of the Study

Much of the research conducted till date has revealed a number of short
comings, which have underlined the need for more comprehensive surveys in
J&K. Despite the fact that domestic violence is widespread, phenomenon
appears to be a taboo subject; the importance of its impact upon the human
rights of women has generally been minimized or ignored by society at large
and by the relevant government authorities. There is an urgent need for the
creation of broad-based awareness-raising campaigns on domestic violence
which target policy-makers as well as the general public. Greater efforts must
be made to develop educational initiatives aimed at changing social attitudes
towards family-based violence and towards gender roles in the family. The
study is an effort to present preliminary data that could persuade a national
comprehensive study to properly assess the problem countrywide and to inform
the development of appropriate intervention strategies geared towards lessening
domestic violence.

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 Introduction

Objectives
The main goal of this exploratory study is to provide a comprehensive
understanding of domestic violence in District Srinagar and Jammu. The study
focuses on the psychological, physical, emotional and economic acts of abuse
that are directed towards women by intimate male partners. As a part of its
objective, the qualitative assessment of domestic violence in District Srinagar
and Jammu attempts to:
1. Identify various types of violence prevalent against women in Kashmir and
Jammu.
2. Assess the extent to which the various types of violence are used against
women.
3. To find out various issues and perspectives which lead to domestic
violence.
4. Find out the association between domestic violence and physical, mental
and reproductive health of women.
5. Identify strategies women use to end violence or reduce its consequences.

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