PAPILLOMATOSIS

Papillomatosis, also known as warts are the reaction of skin to infection. Papilloma virus which occurs in all species of
domestic animals but very common in many cattle particularly young stock.

Etiology
1. The etiological agent of wart is a Papilloma virus.
2. Bovine papilloma virus & other papilloma virus multiply only in epithelial cells.

Epidemiology
1. Bovine papilloma virus is worldwide in distribution & it occurs in cattle, sheep. goats. horse, rabbits, fish and
human.
2. The occurrence of wart is more common in cattle younger than 2 years of age.
3. The skin surface of the neck, legs, back & abdomen.
4. The infective virus concentrated in the outer keratinized epithelium of the papilloma.

Risk factors include:

1. Age
2. Milking
3. Immunosuppression

Bovine Papillomatosis
The recognized six types of bovine papillomaviruses are associated with particular Sites as follows:
Types:
BPV-1 & 2: head, neck and shoulders, penis and vaginal mucosa.
BPV-3: persistent papilloma's of the skin.
BPV-4: papilloma's in the alimentary tract, malignant transformation associated with concomitant bracken fern ingestion
has been reported.
BPV-5: "rice-grain types" papilloma's of the teat
BPV-6: flattened papilloma's of the teat.

Methods of spread
1. The virus gains entry through any skin abrasion.
2. The time taken for warts to develop after infection can be from one to twelve months.
3. The virus is transmitted by direct contact, contaminated objects (e.g. equipment).
4. Possibly by insects, with the virus gaining entry through skin abrasions or wounds.

Clinical finding
1. The incubation period for cutaneous warts produced by BPV is about 30
days.
2. Warts can occur anywhere of the body but are more commonly seen in
the head & neck area.
3. Less common but often more important sites include teats & scrotum.
4. Warts vary greatly in shape from almost flat pea-sized jumps to large
sized balls on stalks.
5. Affected animals are usually otherwise, & there are normally no systemic
effects.

Treatment
1. Simple surgical removal or if the wart has a significant stalk using a rubber ring.
2. Cryosurgery with liquid nitrogen has recently come into use and should be very effective when the cutaneous
papillomas are not too large.
3. Autohemotherapy.

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 4. Various wart ointments are available with varying effectiveness.

Autogenous Vaccine
1. Approximately 2g of wart tissue is collected from the affected animal after cleaning the site with a sharp knife.
2. The wart tissue is cut into small pieces using sterile scissors.
3. The pieces are made into a paste using a mortar and pestle with buffered glycerol (50% glycerol saline).
4. A 10% suspension is prepared in glycerol saline.
5. The suspension is centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 20 minutes.
6. The supernatant is collected.
7. The virulent virus is inactivated with 0.4% formalin (20 ml per suspension).
8. Antibiotic solutions (streptomycin and penicillin) are added to sterilize the vaccine.
9. The vaccine can be injected subcutaneously (5 ml), but intradermal injection provides better results.
10. Two injections are recommended, 1 to 2 weeks apart.

Diagnosis
1. History and clinical sign.
2. Histology.
3. DNA identification by PCR.
4. Biopsy or tissue scraping.
5. Immunohistochemical staining.

Prevention and Control

1. There are no commercially available vaccines for the prevention of warts.
2. Affected animals may be isolated from susceptible ones to reduce
the chance of spread.
3. The long incubation period, many are likely to have been exposed
before the problem is recognized.
4. Mustering yarding, dipping and other husbandry practices should
be kept to a minimum during any noticeable outbreak of warts to
avoid stress.
5. This virus is very infectious and infected animals should be kept
separate. if possible, from healthy stock.
6. Disinfection with formaldehyde of stalls, fence posts and other
environmental virus reservoirs can prevent transmission.
7. Tattoo or tagging can be disinfected between use on calves, with 2 to 4% Solution of formaldehyde.
8. Maintain two sets of the instruments and alternate them in use there by providing adequate time in the
formaldehyde to inactivate the virus.

BOVINE EPHEMERAL FEVER

Synonyms:
✓ Three-day sickness, or three-day fever.
✓ Bovine influenza.
✓ Bovine epizootic fever.
✓ Dengue of cattle.
✓ Three-day stiff sickness.
BEF is an arthropod-transmitted, viral disease of cattle & water buffalo, caused by rhabdovirus, characterized by sudden
fever, fever with short duration, depression, stiffness and lameness.
Rhabdoviridae → Ephemerovirus → Bovine ephemeral fever virus (BEFV).
BEFV can be transmitted from infected to susceptible cattle by IV inoculation; as little as 0.005 mL of blood collected
during the febrile stage is infective.

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Etiology
a) The BEF virus is a single-stranded RNA, either sensitive Rhabdovirus.
b) This is also Arbovirus cause spread by blood-sucking insects.

Epidemiology
a) The prevalence, geographic range, and severity of the disease vary from year to year, and epidemics occur
periodically.
b) Geographical distribution: Ephemeral fever was 1st described in South Africa in 1906. reported from Africa,
the Middle East, Australia and Asia. The disease exists in tropical, sub-tropical & temperate countries.
c) Transmission: No transmission by contact or fomites.
d) Morbidity may be as high as 80%. Overall mortality is usually 1-2%.
e) Incubation period: 2 and 3 days, even 9 days.

Why BEF is important?

1. Largely economic in nature.
2. Does not cause significant mortality (1-2%).
3. High case fatality rate in recent outbreaks.
4. Main impact is on productivity.
5. Decreased milk yield (at least 50%).
6. Rise in somatic cell count.
7. Loss of condition.
8. Reproductive losses (abortion, infertility).
9. Recovery is prolonged.
10. Culling.
11. Trade restrictions.

Clinical finding
1. Biphasic to polyphasic fever (40-42°C [104-107.6°F]),
2. Shivering, inappetence, lacrimation, serous nasal discharge, drooling.
3. Tachycardia, tachypnea or dyspnea, depression, stiffness and lameness (shifting lameness), and a sudden
decrease in milk yield.
4. Affected cattle may become recumbent and paralyzed for 8 hr to >1 week.
5. Post recovery, milk production often fails to return to normal levels until the next lactation.
6. Fever of short duration usually lasting only 1 to 3 days.
7. Stiffness with a shifting lameness affecting one or more legs.
8. Bull, fat cattle & well-conditioned pregnant & lactating cows are more severely affected.
9. The animals not are able to get up for 3 to 5 days which cause muscle damage.
10. Less severe cases include muscle shivering and weakness, increased respiratory rate and loss of appetite.

How to Diagnose?
1. Hematology/ Biochemistry
a) Absolute rise in leukocyte in acute cases.
b) A rapid fall in circulating lymphocytes.
c) A return to normal levels after 3-4 days.
d) Low total serum calcium, Zn, Fe.
e) Plasma fibrinogen elevated.
2. Laboratory tests
a) Most cases of BEF are confirmed by serology.
b) A rising titer should be demonstrated with ELISA.
c) CFT can also be used.
d) RT-PCR.
3. A presumptive diagnosis can be made on history of enzootic area & clinical signs hamster kidney cell cultures.
4. Differential diagnosis-Traumatic reticulitis, acute laminitis & parturient paresis.

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Treatment
1. Complete rest is the most effective treatment & recovering animals should not be stressed or worked because
relapse is likely.
2. Non-specific therapy aims at reducing fever & alleviating joint pain.
3. Acetylsalicylic acid 60 to 120 g/adult is given orally as a bolus or in a gelatine capsule to control fever.
4. Anti-inflammatory drugs like Diclofenac sodium, Ketoprofen etc.

Control Measures
1. Vector control
a) BEF virus spreads though biting flies, mosquitoes.
b) Fly repellents such as Cypermethrin mixed with liquid paraffin.
c) Apply on pour on method from head to tail. Repeat after every 7 days.
d) Spray of Seguvon/ Neguvon @ 0.1% on breeding places of vectors (floors, walls, manure etc.)
e) Remove stagnant water from the dairy farm.
f) Proper disposal of manure.
2. Control of Ticks
a) Weekly spray of cypermethrin on farm.
b) Application of lime on dry floors.
c) Filling of crevices (Breeding sites) on floor/walls etc.
d) Elimination of wooden structures on floors.

Control
1. A vaccine is available commercially elsewhere & can be used to prevent outbreaks.
2. A live attenuated vaccine in freeze-dried suspension is available. An initial course of two doses, 2 to 4 weeks
apart in previously unvaccinated cattle will confer 12 months immunity from 6 months of age.
3. Annual boosters are required for all cattle to maintain immunity. A dose of 2 ml is given under the skin in the
neck.

FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE (FMD)

FMD (Latin name 'Aphtae') is a highly contagious acute disease of all cloven-footed animals, caused by Aphthovirus &
characterized by fever & vesicular eruption in the mouth & on the feet.

Etiology
Group: Group IV (+) ss RNA, Family Picornaviridae Genus Aphthovirus,
Virus: FMDV.
Serotype
1. Europe (historically): A (5), O (1), C (1).
2. Asia-
a) Near East: A (22), O (1)
b) Middle East: A (22), O (1), C, Asia-1
c) Far East: A, O (1), C, Asia-1
3. Africa-
a) Central East to West: A.O
b) Northeast Central & South: SATI, SAT2
c) South: SAT3
4. South America: A (24), (27), O (1).C (3)

Epidemiology
A. Geographical distribution
1. FMD is epidemic in part of Asia, Africa, the Middle East, South America and parts of Europe.
2. Currently, the OIE recognizes countries to be in one of three disease states with regards to FMD.
a) FMD present with or without vaccination,
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 b) FMD free with vaccination &
c) FMD free without vaccination.
3. Countries that are designated FMD free vaccination including, Canada, North & Central America, Australia,
New Zeeland, Japan, British Isles.
B. Host range
a) Susceptible species: Of the domestic species, cattle, buffaloes, pigs, sheep, goats and deer are susceptible.
b) Horses are not affected.
c) Camelidae have low susceptibility.
d) Cloven-hoofed animals (ungulates) are susceptible to FMD.

The Epidemiologic Triad

Problem Management Triad Risk Mitigations

Mitigations:
a. Veterinary services.
b. Vaccinations.
c. Surveillance systems.
d. Test systems.
At processing:
a. Ante/post mortem exams.
b. Removal of nodes, bones.
c. Maturation (pH of 5.8).

Survival
Survives in lymph nodes and bone marrow
at neutral pH, but destroyed in muscle
when is pH <6.0 i.e. after rigor mortis.
Can persist in contaminated fodder and the
environment for up to 1 month, depending
on the temperature and pH conditions.

List of FMD free countries

According to OIE (Office International des
Epizooties) The Director General publish
the following list of Member Countries
recognised as FMD free countries where
vaccination is not practised, according to
the provisions of Chapter 2.2.10. of the
Terrestrial Code.
Source of virus
1. Incubating and clinically affected animals.
2. Breathe, saliva, feces & urine, milk & semen.
3. Meat & bio-products in which pH has remained above 6.0
4. Carriers: particularly cattle & water buffalo.
5. African cape buffalo are the major maintenance host of SAT serotype.
6. Large amount of virus is excreted by infected animals before clinical signs are evident, & winds may spread the
virus over long distances.
7. Recovered cattle may be carries for 18 to 24 months, sheep for 1 to 2 months & pig are not carriers.

Transmission
The transmission of Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) occurs through direct or indirect contact, including animate vectors
such as humans and inanimate carriers like vehicles or tools. Airborne spread is also significant, particularly in temperate
zones, where the virus can travel up to 60 km overland and 300 km across water.
Cattle are primarily infected through inhalation, often originating from pigs, while pigs are typically infected via
ingestion of contaminated or infected materials, products, or objects. FMD can enter disease-free areas through several
pathways:
a. Direct or indirect exposure to infected animals.
b. Aerosol spread from infected animals.
c. Feeding garbage containing contaminated meat, milk, blood, bones, or dairy products.
d. Contact with contaminated surfaces, including hands, footwear, or clothing.
e. Use of artificial insemination or biologics, such as hormones, if extraction processes fail to inactivate the
virus.
Pigs play a pivotal role in FMD transmission due to their ability to generate 30 to 100 times more viral aerosols compared
to cattle or sheep, with a single infected pig capable of producing billions of infectious doses daily.

Clinical finding
1. The incubation period for FMD is 2 to 21 days (average 3-8 days).
2. Initial signs are fever of 103 to 105°F (39.5-40°C), dullness, anorexia, shivering & reduction in milk production
for 2 to 3 days.
3. Blisters appear on the buccal & nasal mucous membranes including mouth, tongue, lips etc.
4. After 24 hrs, rupture of vesicles leaving erosion & sticky, foamy, stringy saliva drips from an animal's mouth.
5. Painful tongue and mouth lesions cause a decrease in animal appetites, results in weight loss.
6. Recovery generally occurs within 2 to 3 weeks but secondary infection may delay recovery.
7. The morbidity rate is essentially 100% in susceptible population of domestic animals.
8. Mortality is usually less than 1% but young animals due to myocarditis and with certain isolates mortality can
be high.
9. Mouth lesion, feet lesion, cardiac lesions (myocarditis).

On-Farm Disease Recognition

Cattle
1. High temperature
2. Lack of appetite
3. Shivering
4. Reduced milk production for 2-3 days
5. Smacking of the lips
6. Teeth grinding
7. Drooling
8. Lameness
9. Stomping or kicking
10. Vesicles (blisters) in mouth and nose, between hooves, at coronary band - Rupture typically after 24 hours
Diagnosis
1. FMD should be considered wherever salivation and lameness occur simultaneously and a vesicular lesion is seen or
suspected.
Confirmatory diagnosis (ELISA, CFI).
2. (Collection of sample/specimens: Oral, nasal, foot lesions are good sources of specimens.
The following sample should be collected from each of two or 3 animals.
a. Vesicular fluid.
b. Epithelium covering a vesicle.
c. Flaps of epithelial tissue will attach.
d. About 5 ml of blood with anticoagulant.
e. Esophageal-pharyngeal fluid from convalescent cattle, sheep or goat.
f. Blood serum.
g. From dead animals, collect samples of epithelial lesions, lymph nodes, adrenal glands, kidneys and heart (10g).
h. Full set of tissues in formalin.

Treatment
a. Treatment with mild disinfectant and protective dressing to inflamed areas to prevent secondary infection is
recommended. The most commonly used disinfectants are 2% caustic soda, 4% soda ash and 2% acetic acid.
b. Sulfadimidine or broad-spectrum antibiotics inj. are useful to the secondary bacterial infection.
c. A good systemic response is reported to the administration of flunixin meglumine.

Prevention and control

The degree of control of FMD varies as follows:
1. Virtually no control in some Asian & African countries where FMD is enzootic.
2. Protection of valuable or accessible animals or vaccination along a border to provide a buffer zone.
3. Large scale vaccination and quarantine with or without slaughter of infected animals.
4. Regulatory measures to prevent entry to FMD and quarantine and implementation of an eradication program.
5. Stop movement of animals and animal products.

Disinfectants for FMD

These products can be used effectively to disinfect for FMD:
a. Sodium hydroxide (lye) solution (2%). Mix a 13- ounce can in five gallons of water.
b. Sodium carbonate (soda ash) solution (4%). Mix one pound in three gallons of water.
c. Citric acid 0.2% solution.
d. Acetic acid (vinegar) 2% solution. Mix one gallon of vinegar (4%) in a gallon of water.
e. Virkon S (Antec International) at a 1:200 dilution.
f. Sodium Hypochlorite (household bleach). Mix three parts bleach to two parts waters.

Eradication program for FMD free countries

1. Slaughter infected animals.
2. Destroy carcasses.
3. Disinfectant vehicles leaving the infected area.
4. Perform vaccination.
5. Inform and educate community.

Vaccination
a. Double emulsion oil vaccines (protect for up to 1year) have been shown to produce and immunity of longer
duration than Aluminium hydroxide-saponin vaccine.
b. Protection induced by a good Aluminium hydroxide vaccine decreases rapidly in 4 to 6 months.