BUSINESS RESEARCH METHOD (BMB 203)

UNIT - III
SCALING AND MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

SCALE & MEASUREMENT

Measurement and Scale in Research Methodology. Measurement is the process of

describing some property of a phenomenon under study and assigning a numerical
value to it. Measurement is considered as the foundation of scientific inquiry. In our daily
life, many things are measured continuously in different ways for different purposes.
We can not only measure physical objects but abstract objects also, that means we can
measure quantitatively and qualitatively. We can measure height, weight, length, width,
income etc., (quantitative measurement) and at the same time, we can measure
attitude, personality, perception, intelligence, preference (qualitative measurement) etc.
A measurement can give us different kinds of information about a theoretical concept
under study.

A more contemporary definition of measurement is “the estimation or the discovery of

the ratio of some magnitude of a quantitative attribute to a unit of the same attribute”
(Michell, 1997).

According to Warren S Torgerson “The assignment of numbers to objects to represent

amounts or degrees of a property possessed by all of the objects.” To understand the
nature of the data, we must know at which level the data is measured. So the
measurement can occur at different levels, and the relationship among the values
assigned determines the level of measurement. There are four hierarchical levels of
measurement identified by Stevens (1946); they are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.
Levels of Measurements

There are four different scales of measurement. The data can be defined as being one
of the four scales. The four types of scales are:

●​ Nominal Scale
●​ Ordinal Scale
●​ Interval Scale
●​ Ratio Scale

Nominal Scale

A nominal scale is the 1st level of measurement scale in which the numbers serve as
“tags” or “labels” to classify or identify the objects. A nominal scale usually deals with
the non-numeric variables or the numbers that do not have any value.

Characteristics of Nominal Scale

●​ A nominal scale variable is classified into two or more categories. In this

measurement mechanism, the answer should fall into either of the classes.
 ●​ It is qualitative. The numbers are used here to identify the objects.
●​ The numbers don’t define the object characteristics. The only permissible aspect
of numbers in the nominal scale is “counting.”

Example:

An example of a nominal scale measurement is given below:

What is your gender?

M- Male

F- Female

Here, the variables are used as tags, and the answer to this question should be either M
or F.

Ordinal Scale

The ordinal scale is the 2nd level of measurement that reports the ordering and ranking
of data without establishing the degree of variation between them. Ordinal represents
the “order.” Ordinal data is known as qualitative data or categorical data. It can be
grouped, named and also ranked.

Characteristics of the Ordinal Scale

●​ The ordinal scale shows the relative ranking of the variables

●​ It identifies and describes the magnitude of a variable
●​ Along with the information provided by the nominal scale, ordinal scales give the
rankings of those variables
●​ The interval properties are not known
●​ The surveyors can quickly analyse the degree of agreement concerning the
identified order of variables

Example:

●​ Ranking of school students – 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.

●​ Ratings in restaurants
●​ Evaluating the frequency of occurrences
 ●​ Very often
●​ Often
●​ Not often
●​ Not at all
●​ Assessing the degree of agreement
●​ Totally agree
●​ Agree
●​ Neutral
●​ Disagree
●​ Totally disagree

Interval Scale

The interval scale is the 3rd level of the measurement scale. It is defined as a
quantitative measurement scale in which the difference between the two variables is
meaningful. In other words, the variables are measured in an exact manner, not as in a
relative way in which the presence of zero is arbitrary.

Characteristics of Interval Scale:

●​ The interval scale is quantitative as it can quantify the difference between the
values
●​ It allows calculating the mean and median of the variables
●​ To understand the difference between the variables, you can subtract the values
between the variables
●​ The interval scale is the preferred scale in Statistics as it helps to assign any
numerical values to arbitrary assessment such as feelings, calendar types, etc.

Example:

●​ Likert Scale
●​ Net Promoter Score (NPS)
●​ Bipolar Matrix Table

Ratio Scale

The ratio scale is the 4th level of measurement scale, which is quantitative. It is a type
of variable measurement scale. It allows researchers to compare the differences or
intervals. The ratio scale has a unique feature. It possesses the character of the origin
or zero points.

Characteristics of Ratio Scale:

●​ Ratio scale has a feature of absolute zero

●​ It doesn’t have negative numbers, because of its zero-point feature
●​ It affords unique opportunities for statistical analysis. The variables can be
orderly added, subtracted, multiplied, divided. Mean, median, and mode can be
calculated using the ratio scale.
●​ Ratio scale has unique and useful properties. One such feature is that it allows
unit conversions like kilogram – calories, gram – calories, etc.

Example:

An example of a ratio scale is:

What is your weight in Kgs?

●​ Less than 55 kgs

●​ 55 – 75 kgs
●​ 76 – 85 kgs
●​ 86 – 95 kgs
●​ More than 95 kgs

NEED OF MEASUREMENT :

Measurement is crucial in research because it allows for the quantification of

variables, enabling researchers to make objective observations and draw reliable
conclusions. By assigning numbers to objects or events according to specific rules,
measurement transforms qualitative observations into quantitative data, facilitating
comparison, analysis, and the testing of hypotheses. This process is fundamental to
scientific inquiry, ensuring that research findings are accurate, consistent, and can be
replicated by others
Here's a more detailed breakdown of the need for measurement in research:

1. Quantifying Variables and Enabling Comparison:

Measurement allows researchers to assign numerical values to characteristics or

attributes (variables) of interest.These numerical values enable comparisons between
different individuals, groups, or conditions being studied.For instance, in a study on the
impact of a new teaching method, measurement would be used to quantify student
performance using test scores, allowing for comparisons of the effectiveness of the new
method against the traditional approach.

2. Objective Data Collection and Analysis:

Measurement provides a standardized and objective way to collect data.

●​ By using pre-defined scales and instruments, researchers minimize the influence

of subjective interpretations, ensuring that data is more reliable and less prone to
bias.
●​ For example, using a standardized survey instrument to measure attitudes or
opinions allows for the collection of data that can be statistically analyzed to draw
meaningful conclusions.

3. Testing Hypotheses and Drawing Conclusions:

●​ Measurement is essential for testing research hypotheses and drawing valid

conclusions.
●​ By quantifying the variables under investigation, researchers can use statistical
methods to determine if observed differences or relationships are statistically
significant or due to random chance.
●​ For example, in a study on the effectiveness of a new medication, measurement
of drug levels in the bloodstream and patient outcomes would be used to
determine if the medication has a beneficial effect.

4. Ensuring Accuracy and Reliability:

●​ Accurate measurement ensures that research findings are reliable and can be
replicated by other researchers.
●​ Reliable measurements provide consistent results when repeated under similar
conditions, increasing confidence in the validity of the research.
●​ For example, using calibrated scales to measure the weight of objects ensures
that the measurements are accurate and reliable.

5. Communication and Sharing of Research Findings:

●​ Measurement provides a common language for communicating research findings

to others.
●​ By using standardized units and scales, researchers can effectively share their
data and analysis with other scientists, practitioners, and policymakers.
 ●​ For example, using the metric system for measuring length, weight, and time
allows researchers to communicate their findings internationally, ensuring that the
data is easily understand.
●​ In summary, measurement is an indispensable part of research, enabling
researchers to quantify variables, collect objective data, test hypotheses, ensure
accuracy, and communicate findings effectively. Without measurement, scientific
inquiry would be limited to qualitative observations and lack the ability to make
objective and reliable observations.

PROBLEM IN MEASUREMENT IN MANAGEMENT RESEARCH :

In management research, several problems can arise when measuring concepts,

including issues with question wording, respondent biases, and the reliability and
validity of measurement tools. These problems can lead to inaccurate or misleading
results, impacting the credibility and usefulness of research findings. [1, 2, 3]

1. Question Issues:

●​ Vague or poorly worded questions: Ambiguity in questions can lead to varied

interpretations and responses, affecting the validity of the measurement.
●​ Double-barreled questions: Asking two questions in one can confuse
respondents and make it difficult to obtain meaningful data.
●​ Leading or biased questions: Questions that suggest a particular answer can
distort responses and undermine the objectivity of the measurement, according
to The Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab.
●​ Overlapping categories in response options: Providing response options that
overlap can lead to respondents choosing the most convenient option rather than
the one that best reflects their actual response, according to The Abdul Latif
Jameel Poverty Action Lab.

2. Respondent Issues:

●​ Respondent biases: Respondents may unconsciously distort their responses due

to various factors, such as social desirability bias, recall bias, or anchoring.
●​ Lack of motivation or engagement: If respondents are not motivated or engaged,
they may not pay sufficient attention to the questions, leading to incomplete or
inaccurate responses.
●​ Difficulties with comprehension: If questions are too complex or use jargon,
respondents may not be able to understand them, leading to misunderstandings
and inaccurate responses.
3. Measurement Tool Issues:

●​ Low reliability: A reliable measure consistently yields similar results under the
same conditions. If a measure is unreliable, its findings may be inconsistent and
unreliable.
●​ Low validity: A valid measure accurately reflects the concept it is intended to
measure. If a measure is not valid, its findings may not be meaningful or
applicable.
●​ Inappropriate measurement scales: Using an inappropriate scale (e.g., a nominal
scale when a continuous scale is needed) can lead to inaccurate or misleading
results.
●​ Sample bias: If the sample does not accurately represent the target population,
the results may not be generalizable.

Addressing these problems:

●​ Carefully design questions: Use clear, concise, and unbiased language to ensure
respondents understand the questions and can provide accurate responses.
●​ Pilot test questionnaires: Conduct pilot tests to identify any problems with
question wording or respondent comprehension before implementing the main
study.
●​ Use validated measures: Utilize established and validated measurement tools to
increase the reliability and validity of the research.
●​ Address respondent biases: Be aware of potential respondent biases and take
steps to minimize their impact, such as providing assurances of confidentiality or
using incentives to encourage participation.
●​ Ensure a representative sample: Use sampling methods that ensure the sample
accurately reflects the characteristics of the target population.
●​ Consider qualitative methods: In some cases, qualitative research methods may
be more appropriate for exploring complex issues and understanding diverse
perspectives.
VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY :

Attitude Scaling: Concept and Types:

Attitude Scaling refers to the process of measuring and quantifying attitudes. Attitudes
are evaluative judgments about objects, people, or situations, often categorized as
positive, negative, or neutral. Attitude scales help researchers and psychologists assess
these judgments in a structured and systematic way. These scales use various
techniques to measure the intensity and direction of an individual’s attitude toward an
object or subject.

Types of Attitude Scales:

Attitude Scaling Techniques: Concepts and Applications

Attitude scaling techniques are methods used to measure and quantify attitudes,
preferences, or perceptions about a particular object, event, or person. These
techniques help researchers gather structured data to understand the intensity,
direction, and nature of attitudes.

Here are some common attitude scaling techniques and their concepts:

1. Likert Scale

●​ Concept:​
The Likert scale is a popular method used to measure attitudes or opinions. It
asks respondents to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with a set
of statements. The scale typically uses a 5-point or 7-point scale (e.g., Strongly
Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Strongly Disagree). Each point on the scale is
given a numerical value, and respondents’ scores are summed to determine their
overall attitude toward the subject.​

●​ Application:​
It is widely used in surveys and questionnaires for assessing general attitudes,
such as customer satisfaction, political views, or organizational climate.​
​
Example:​

○​ "I enjoy working in a team."​

■​ Strongly Agree | Agree | Neutral | Disagree | Strongly Disagree​

2. Semantic Differential Scale

 ●​ Concept:​
Developed by Charles Osgood, the Semantic Differential Scale measures the
connotative meaning of a concept or object. It uses a series of bipolar adjectives
(e.g., "Good-Bad," "Strong-Weak") and asks respondents to rate an object along
a continuum, usually with 7 points. It helps understand how people perceive
various attributes of an object or concept.​

●​ Application:​
This scale is commonly used in marketing, brand perception studies, and
product evaluations to measure how people feel about a product, company, or
service.​
​
Example:​

○​ Rate the following brand on the scale of:​

■​ Unreliable – Reliable​

■​ Unattractive – Attractive​

■​ Unfriendly – Friendly​

3. Constant Sum Scale

●​ Concept:​
The Constant Sum Scale asks respondents to allocate a fixed sum of points
(often 100) across a set of items according to their importance or preference.
This method forces a trade-off between items and gives a precise measure of the
relative importance of different attributes or items.​

●​ Application:​
It is often used in market research to prioritize features or attributes of a product,
service, or brand. It’s also helpful in understanding consumer preferences when
there are several competing options.​
​
Example:​
 ○​ Distribute 100 points across the following features of a car:​

■​ Price: ____​

■​ Fuel Efficiency: ____​

■​ Safety: ____​

■​ Design: ____​

4. Graphic Rating Scale

●​ Concept:​
The Graphic Rating Scale is a visual scale that presents a continuum along
which respondents mark their attitude toward an object. The scale often has a
graphical representation (e.g., a line or bar) with labeled endpoints, and
respondents indicate their response by placing a mark on the continuum.​

●​ Application:​
It’s useful in surveys that require subjective ratings or evaluations of
performance, such as employee performance reviews, customer satisfaction
surveys, or product feedback.​
​
Example:​

○​ Rate the customer service you received:​

(Poor) ---------------------------- (Excellent)​
[Respondent places a mark on the continuum]​

5. Ranking Scale

●​ Concept:​
The Ranking Scale requires respondents to rank a set of items in order of
preference or importance. The items are typically ranked from the most preferred
to the least preferred. This method helps in identifying preferences, priorities, or
 relative importance between multiple options.​

●​ Application:​
Ranking scales are useful when you need to understand a person’s preferences
or priorities. They are commonly used in product preference studies, service
evaluations, and consumer choice experiments.​
​
Example:​

○​ Rank the following pizza toppings in order of preference:​

■​ Pepperoni​

■​ Mushrooms​

■​ Onions​

■​ Sausage​

6. Paired Comparison Scale

●​ Concept:​
The Paired Comparison Scale involves comparing two items at a time and
asking respondents to choose which one they prefer. This method can be used to
compare several items in pairs, and by aggregating responses, one can identify
which item is most preferred.​

●​ Application:​
It is used when there are multiple options, and a clear comparison is needed to
identify the strongest preference. It’s commonly used in consumer preference
studies and brand comparison.​
​
Example:​

○​ Which do you prefer:​

■​ Coffee vs. Tea​

 ■​ Coca-Cola vs. Pepsi​

■​ iPhone vs. Android​

7. Comparison and Forced Ranking

●​ Concept:​
Forced Ranking is a method where respondents are asked to rank a set of items
or individuals without leaving any ties (i.e., they must rank all items or individuals
distinctly). It helps avoid ambiguity and forces clear decision-making. In
comparison, respondents have to directly compare each item to identify the most
or least preferred.​

●​ Application:​
This method is useful in organizational settings (e.g., employee performance
rankings) or product evaluations where decision-making clarity is essential.​
​
Example:​

○​ Rank the following employees based on their performance:​

■​ John​

■​ Mary​

■​ Jane​

■​ Paul​

Applications of the Various Scales:

●​ Marketing Research: These scales are used to understand consumer attitudes,

brand perceptions, product preferences, and customer satisfaction.​

●​ Human Resource Management: Ranking, paired comparison, and forced

ranking scales are used to assess employee performance, potential, and
 development needs.​

●​ Social Science Research: Likert and Thurstone scales are popular for
measuring political attitudes, social opinions, and psychological traits.​

●​ Public Opinion Surveys: Semantic differential and graphic rating scales help
capture public attitudes toward policies, leaders, or societal issues.​

Comparison of Attitude Scaling Techniques:

Technique Strengths Limitations Typical

Application

Likert Scale Easy to use, widely Can lead to central Opinion

applicable, captures tendency bias, surveys, political
agreement/disagreement doesn’t capture views
intensity well

Semantic Measures connotative May be difficult to Brand

Differential meaning, intuitive ratings interpret results; perception,
Scale requires valid bipolar attitude
adjectives research

Constant Forces prioritization, Can be confusing, Market

Sum Scale captures relative respondents may research,
importance struggle with product feature
allocation preferences

Graphic Intuitive, visual, easy to May lack precision, Satisfaction

Rating Scale understand subjective surveys,
interpretation of employee
scale ratings
 Ranking Clear preference order, Can be Preference
Scale easy to use time-consuming, studies, product
may lead to forced evaluation
choices

Paired Clear comparison, Time-consuming Brand

Comparison eliminates ambiguity with many items to comparison,
Scale compare consumer
preference

Forced Forces clear May cause Employee

Ranking decision-making, easy to dissatisfaction if all performance,
rank items are close in product ranking
preference

Understanding the 5 Point Likert Scale

The 5 point Likert scale is a rating system that provides five possible responses to survey
questions, representing a range from one extreme attitude to its opposite. It is used in surveys to
measure opinions with greater nuance than a simple “yes” or “no”. The typical response options
include:

●​ Strongly Disagree
●​ Disagree
●​ Neither Disagree Nor Agree
●​ Agree
●​ Strongly Agree

This allows respondents to convey their level of agreement with a given statement.
The Basics of 5 Point Likert Scale

The 5 point Likert scale is made up of two extreme response options, two intermediate options,
and one neutral option, offering a comprehensive range of Likert scale options for survey
participants to express their attitudes accurately. It is user-friendly, as they simply select the level
of agreement or disagreement with a provided statement.

It’s important to note a distinction – a 5 point Likert-type scale involves individual questions
answered on the scale, whereas a full-blown Likert scale assesses various subject dimensions
through a series of scaled statements.

The story of Likert scales starts with Rensis Likert, who came up with this method way back in
the 1930s. He realized there was a need for a better way to capture the shades of grey in people’s
opinions, not just black-and-white answers. Since then, Likert scales have become a go-to
method in surveys.

Measuring Attitudes with Precision

Unlike binary scales that offer two options (yes/no or true/false), the 5 point Likert scale allows a
more nuanced expression of viewpoints. It lets you capture the intensity of people’s feelings
about a certain topic, not just whether they lean a certain way. By providing a range of options, it
captures varying degrees of opinion from:

●​ Strong agreement
●​ Agreement
●​ Neutral
●​ Disagreement
●​ Strong disagreement
This can give you a much clearer picture of what your audience really thinks and feels, being
beneficial for sentiment analysis.

For instance, it’s one thing to know if your employees are generally happy; it’s another to
understand how strong their feelings are about their work environment. This deeper insight is
what makes Likert scales such a valuable tool in surveys.

Moreover, the optimal number of scale points on a Likert scale is recognized as 5 to 7, balancing
the need for precision and avoiding respondent confusion while maintaining clarity between
different sentiment levels.

Types of Likert Scales

While the 5-point scale is what most people think of when they hear “Likert scale”, there are
actually several types to choose from, depending on what you need for your survey. Here’s a
quick rundown:

●​ 5-point scale: This is the classic model, offering five choices from “strongly disagree” to
“strongly agree”. It’s great for most general surveys and gives a clear midpoint for
neutrality.
●​ 7-point scale: This adds two additional options, allowing for more granularity in
responses. It’s useful when you think there are subtle nuances in opinion that a 5-point
scale might miss.
●​ Even-point scales, like 4-point or 6-point: These lack a neutral middle option, which can
be useful when you want to force a more definite opinion on a subject.