STRAND19.

0: CHILD GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT (CDP)

SUBSTRAND1.1: CONCEPTS IN CHILD GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

a. Terminologies related to child growth and development

 Growth-This is the increase in size, height, shape and mass depending on age
 Development- This is increase in complexity of functioning in a person
 Personality – This is the scientific study of the human mind, functions and behavior in
a given context
 Memory - Memory is today defined in psychology as the faculty of encoding, storing,
and retrieving information (Squire, 2009). Psychologists have found that memory
includes three important categories: sensory, short-term, and long-term
 Intelligence -The intelligence is the ability to learn, adjust and take a significant role at
right time in the overall growth and development of a child. It affects his social
behaviour, moral adjustment and emotional growth
 Attitude- In psychology, an attitude refers to a set of emotions, beliefs, and behaviors
toward a particular object, person, thing, or event. Attitudes are often the result of
experience or upbringing. They can have a powerful influence over behavior and affect
how people act in various situations
 Motivation- Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-
oriented behaviors. It is what helps you lose extra weight, for instance, or pushes you to
get that promotion at work. In short, motivation causes you to act in a way that gets you
closer to your goals
 Emotions- Emotions are distinct feelings or qualities of consciousness, such as joy or
sadness, that reflect the personal significance of emotion-arousing events. The major
types of emotions include fear, sadness, anger, surprise, excitement, guilt, shame,
disgust, interest, and happiness. These emotions develop in an orderly sequence over
the course of infancy and childhood
 Learning- Learning can be defined in many ways, but most psychologists would agree
that it is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from
experience.Learning is the process of acquiring
new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, attitudes, and preferences.
Human learning starts at birth it might even start before [ in terms of an embryo's need
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 for both interaction with, and freedom within its environment within the womb and
continues until death as a consequence of ongoing interactions between people and
their environment.

b. Differences between growth and development

The term Growth and Development are inseparable but different concepts. The terms growth &
Development are used interchangeably to refer to the changes that take place in the life of an
individual from his birth to maturity.
Growth
Growth refers to the increase in height, weight, and body size of a person. In biology, growth is
considered as the increase in the size of an organ or cell.

Development

On the other hand, development refers to the growth process where a person can develop in
terms of physical, mental, social, emotional, moral, etc. Development depend upon both
heredity and the environment.

Difference between Growth and Development

Growth Development

It is Quantitative in Nature It is both Quantitative & Qualitative in Nature

The term ‘Growth’ refers to physical Development refers to overall changes in a

changes of an individual like an increase in physical organ or the structure that results in
height, size, length, weight, etc. improved functioning of the physical organ

Development is overall, Physical, Mental,

Growth is Purely physical Sense
Emotional, Social, moral, or any other

Growth is only a part of the developmental Development is a complex and comprehensive

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 process process

Development is a continuous process starting

Growth is limited to a certain age it stops
from the time of conception and continuing until
when maturity has been attained
the end of life (Womb to Tomb)

Developmental changes that result in improved

Changes produced by growth can be
behavior or functioning cannot be measured
observed and measured directly
directly

Growth focuses only on one aspect i.e Development focuses on various aspects like
increase in a child’s body size interpersonal skills, and intelligence.

Growth is an external process Development is an internal process.

Growth is structural Development is considered a functional

Development is independent it does not depend

Growth is influenced by the development
upon growth

The growth and Development term is used comprehensively one cannot replace the other.
Growth and development are very important and a teacher must have proper knowledge about
child growth and development to achieve maximum growth and development of a child

c. Aspects of Growth and Development

These are also called areas/domains of growth and development. They include

1. Physical/Psychomotor development

Psychomotor learning is exhibited by the development of physical skills including movement,

coordination and strength. One area of psychomotor development demonstrates fine motor skills

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through hand-eye coordination which can include activities such as threading a needle, catching
a ball, and writing.

It is exhibited by the development of physical skills as the individual learns about the
environment around them. Growth and development can be physical, cognitive (mental),
communicative (language-based), and socio-emotional, which refers to the acquired ability to
understand and manage emotions in order to develop relationships with others

Physical growth refers to the increases in height and weight and other body changes that happen
as kids mature. Hair grows; teeth come in, come out, and come in again; and eventually puberty
hits. It's all part of the growth process.

Stages of Psychomotor Development

There are four stages of psychomotor development: infancy (0-1 years), childhood (1-10 years),
adolescence (11-21 years), and adulthood (above 21year). During each of these stages,
individuals will experience many changes, both physical and cognitive, that will allow them to
grow and develop in order to engage the world around them.

N/B. Psychomotor refers to how conscious mental activity creates physical movement.
Psychomotor development is the transformation of a person's physical, cognitive (mental),
emotional, and social capacities from the beginning of their life into adulthood.

2. Cognitive/mental Development

Cognitive or intellectual development means the growth of a child's ability to think and reason.
It's about how they organize their minds, ideas and thoughts to make sense of the world they live
in. It involves the ability of the brain or mind to take in and process information. Examples a
child recognizing that when they shake a rattle it will make noise

3. Social and emotional development means how children start to understand who they are,
what they are feeling and what to expect when interacting with others. It is the development of
being able to: Form and sustain positive relationships. Experience, manage and express
emotions.

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Social development is the process through which children learn to build relationships. It
involves learning the values, knowledge, and skills necessary to understand how to get along
with others. Everyday experiences at home support children’s developing social skills. Families
give children their first opportunities to communicate and build relationships. As an adult family
member, you also model for your child how to effectively and respectfully interact with the
people around you.

Social development in early childhood is an important part of a person’s overall health, well-
being, and happiness throughout his or her life. Social development is very closely linked to
cognitive and emotional development, and together these developmental markers and milestones
build the foundation for developing relationships with other people, coping with stressful
situations, and many other skills. Healthy social development is especially important as a child
enters school.

Social development involves children’s ability to interact with others and regulate their own
behavior. Identifying these milestones in young children can be difficult if you are unfamiliar
with them, so we’ve laid out some of these markers, as well as some red flags.

Milestones of Social Development in Early Childhood

Between the age of three and four, a child’s sense of confidence begins to develop as he or she
learns to do more activities without assistance.

At this stage, most children typically begin to:

 Share toys and take turns

 Begin engaging in pretend play
 Follow simple rules in games
 Sometimes become bossy and defiant
 Show more independence
 Might show attachment to one friend

Between the age of four and five, children start to gain a greater awareness of their own
individuality. A child’s sense of self in these early stages can set a pattern for the rest of his or
her life. At this stage, most children typically begin to:

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  Develop friendships with other kids
 Compare themselves to other children and adults
 Understand other people’s thoughts and feelings
 Initiate or join in play with other children and make up games
 Show an understanding of right and wrong

Red Flags for Social Development in Early Childhood

The following are indicators of possible dysfunctional social development.

 Shows no interest in playing with other children

 Is unable to share or take turns with other children
 Wants to be dependent on caregivers for everything
 Is extremely “rigid” about routines and becomes upset when things change
 Has extreme difficulty separating from parents or caregivers

Here are some great ways for you to promote Social Development at home:

Preschool age

 Model and encourage cooperative behavior when you play and interact with your child.

 Model the caring and empathetic behavior that you want your child to learn. For example,
hug someone if they are sad and talk about why this is a kind thing to do.

 Give your child words they can use when they want to join a group play activity. For
example, “I see you want to play tag with your cousins. You can go ask to join the
game.”

School Age:

 Encourage your child to be the first to greet a friend when they see them. Provide positive
feedback when your child exhibits this behavior.

 Talk to your child about their friends. Ask them questions about their friends’
personalities and interests. Emphasize that when you are friends with someone, it’s
important to learn about them and take part in their interests.

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  When your child has a conflict with a peer or sibling, allow them the opportunity to
resolve it on their own. If the problem persists, ask your child if you can help in any way

4. Emotional Development

Emotional development is the process in which an individual is able to experience, recognize,

and express varying emotions. Emotions are an individual's subjective responses or reactions to
various situations. Often, an individual is referred to as being emotional when expressing their
reaction to a situation. Emotional means than an individual is experiencing intense feelings, such
as happiness or sadness. The emotional description is often associated with a physical response,
such as laughing or crying.

Emotional development involves learning what feelings and emotions are, understanding how
and why they occur, recognizing your own feelings and those of others, and developing effective
ways for managing those feelings. Strong emotional development leads to five key skills: self-
awareness, social-awareness, emotional regulation, responsible decision making and relationship
building.

1.2 Human Reproduction and Parental Care

1.2.1 Male reproductive organs in human being

The male reproductive system is mostly located outside of the body. These external organs
include the penis, scrotum and testicles. Internal organs include the vas deferens, prostate and
urethra. The male reproductive system is responsible for sexual function, as well as urination.

The male reproductive organs do the following jobs within your body:

 They produce, maintain and transport sperm (the male reproductive cells) and semen (the
protective fluid around sperm).
 They discharge sperm into the female reproductive tract.
 They produce and secrete male sex hormones.

The male reproductive system is made up of internal (inside your body) and external (outside
your body) parts. Together, these organs help you urinate (rid your body of liquid waste
materials), have sexual intercourse and make children.

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How does the male reproductive system function?

The entire male reproductive system is dependent on hormones. These are chemicals that
stimulate or regulate the activity of your cells or organs. The primary hormones involved in the
functioning of the male reproductive system are follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing
hormone (LH) and testosterone.

FSH and LH are produced by the pituitary gland. It’s located at the base of your brain and it’s
responsible for many functions in your body. FSH is necessary for sperm production
(spermatogenesis). LH stimulates the production of testosterone, which is necessary to continue
the process of spermatogenesis. Testosterone is also important in the development of male
characteristics, including muscle mass and strength, fat distribution, bone mass and sex drive.

External male reproductive structures

Most of the male reproductive system is located outside of your abdominal cavity or pelvis. The
external parts of the male reproductive system include the penis, the scrotum and the testicles.

Penis

The penis is the male organ for sexual intercourse.

Scrotum

The scrotum is the loose pouch-like sac of skin that hangs behind the penis. It holds the testicles
(also called testes), as well as many nerves and blood vessels. The scrotum protects your testes,
as well as providing a sort of climate control system. For normal sperm development, the testes
must be at a temperature slightly cooler than the body temperature. Special muscles in the wall
of the scrotum allow it to contract (tighten) and relax, moving the testicles closer to the body for
warmth and protection or farther away from the body to cool the temperature.

Testicles (testes)

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The testes are oval organs about the size of very large olives that lie in the scrotum, secured at
either end by a structure called the spermatic cord. Most men have two testes. The testes are
responsible for making testosterone, the primary male sex hormone, and for producing sperm.
Within the testes are coiled masses of tubes called seminiferous tubules. These tubules are
responsible for producing the sperm cells through a process called spermatogenesis.

the internal male reproductive organs

These organs include:

 Vas deferens: The vas deferens is a long, muscular tube that travels from the epididymis
into the pelvic cavity, to just behind the bladder. The vas deferens transports mature
sperm to the urethra in preparation for ejaculation.
 Ejaculatory ducts: These ducts are formed by the fusion of the vas deferens and the
seminal vesicles. The ejaculatory ducts empty into the urethra.
 Urethra: The urethra is the tube that carries urine from the bladder to outside of your
body. In males, it has the additional function of expelling (ejaculating) semen when you
reach orgasm. When the penis is erect during sex, the flow of urine is blocked from the
urethra, allowing only semen to be ejaculated at orgasm.
 Seminal vesicles: The seminal vesicles are sac-like pouches that attach to the vas
deferens near the base of the bladder. The seminal vesicles make a sugar-rich fluid
(fructose) that provides sperm with a source of energy and helps with the sperms’ ability
to move (motility). The fluid of the seminal vesicles makes up most of the volume of
your ejaculatory fluid, or ejaculate.
 Prostate gland: The prostate gland is a walnut-sized structure that’s located below the
urinary bladder in front of the rectum. The prostate gland contributes additional fluid to
the ejaculate. Prostate fluids also help to nourish the sperm. The urethra, which carries
the ejaculate to be expelled during orgasm, runs through the center of the prostate gland.
 Bulbourethral glands: The bulbourethral glands, or Cowper’s glands, are pea-sized
structures located on the sides of the urethra, just below the prostate gland. These glands
produce a clear, slippery fluid that empties directly into the urethra. This fluid serves to

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 lubricate the urethra and to neutralize any acidity that may be present due to residual
drops of urine in the urethra.

1.2.2 Female reproductive organs

The female reproductive system is made up of the internal and external sex organs that function
in reproduction of new offspring. In humans, the female reproductive system is immature at birth
and develops to maturity at puberty to be able to produce gametes, and to carry a foetus to full
term.

The internal sex organs are the vagina, uterus, Fallopian tubes, and ovaries. The vagina
allows for sexual intercourse and birth, and is connected to the uterus at the cervix. The uterus or
womb accommodates the embryo which develops into the foetus. The uterus also produces
secretions which help the transit of sperm to the Fallopian tubes, where sperm fertilize ova (egg
cells) which are produced by the ovaries.

The external sex organs are also known as the genitals and these are the organs of
the vulva including the labia, clitoris, and vaginal opening

The vagina serves three purposes:

1. It's where the penis is inserted during sexual intercourse.

2. It's the pathway (the birth canal) through which a baby leaves a woman's body during
childbirth.

3. It's the route through which menstrual blood leaves the body during periods.
1.2.3 Fertilization in human beings
Fertilisation occurs when a sperm fuses with the female act during intercourse and further forms
an egg that gets implanted in uterus of the female. The sperm travels through the fallopian tube
and penetrates the zona pellucida layer of the ovum (female egg) and fuses with it which forms
zygote (fertilized egg). Thousand of sperms are produced in male body to compensate for the
ones unfit and non- motile ones. Once the zygote is formed, it gets implanted in the uterus and

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further growth takes place when cells start dividing and forming tissues and tissues form organ
which results in formation of an organ system, ultimately turning into an organism.

1.2.4 Factors that influence prenatal development in a human being

Prenatal care is the regular health care women should receive from an obstetrician or midwife
during pregnancy. Prenatal development is the growth of a single-celled zygote formed by the
combination of a sperm and an egg into a baby.

Factors influencing development

 Poverty.
 Mother's age
 Drug use
 Alcohol
 Tobacco use
 Infections
 Maternal nutrition
 Low birth weight
TASK: Explain how each factor influences child growth and development

1.2.4 Types and effects of teratogens on the foetus

A teratogen is something that can cause birth defects or abnormalities in a developing embryo or
fetus upon exposure. Teratogens include some medications, recreational drugs, tobacco
products, chemicals, alcohol, certain infections, and in some cases, health problems such as
uncontrolled diabetes in pregnant people. Exposure to a teratogen can occur through ingestion
or environmental exposure during pregnancy. Teratogens can begin affecting the developing
embryo as early as 10 to 14 days after conception. During embryonic development, there are
periods when the developing organ systems show more sensitivity to teratogens.

A teratogen is any agent that causes an abnormality following fetal exposure during pregnancy.
Teratogens are usually discovered after an increased prevalence of a particular birth defect
Teratogens can also be found at home or the workplace. The effect is related to type of agent,
dose and duration and time of exposure. The first half of pregnancy is the most vulnerable.
Teratogenic agents include infectious agents (herpes simplex, syphilis, etc.); physical agents

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(ionizing agents, hyperthermia); maternal health factors (diabetes); environmental chemicals
(organic mercury compounds, herbicides and industrial solvents); and drugs (prescription, over-
the-counter, or recreational).

Presentations: Discuss how to mitigate on issues that can lead to abnormalities in newborn
babies

1.3 Brain development in young children (1 hr)

 Analyze the process of brain development and brain lateralization in children in the first 5
years
 Examine factors which contribute to normal brain development in children
 Identify the responsibilities of care givers in enhancing normal brain lateralization
1. Process of brain development in children in the first 5 years

From birth to age 5, a child’s brain develops more, and more rapidly, than at any other time in
life. And while genetics plays a significant role, scientific research has made clear that the
quality of a child’s experiences in the first few years of life – positive or negative – helps shape
how their brain develops. And that these experiences have lasting impact on their health and
ability to learn and succeed in school and in life. 90% of a Child’s Brain Develops by Age 5.

The human brain, the command center of the entire body, is the only organ not fully developed at
birth. At birth, the average baby’s brain is about a quarter of the size of the average adult brain.
Incredibly, it doubles in size in the first year and keeps growing to about 80% of adult size by
age 3 and 90% – nearly full grown – by age 5.

A newborn baby has all of the brain cells (neurons) they’ll have for the rest of their life, but what
really makes the brain work – and enables us to move, think, communicate and just about
everything else – are the connections between those cells. And the early years of a child’s life are
a crucial time for making those connections – at least one million new neural connections
(synapses) every second, far more than at any other time in life.

Different areas of the brain – which are responsible for different abilities like movement,
language and emotion – develop at different rates. Eventually brain connections connect with

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each other in more complex ways, enabling the child to move and speak and think in more
complex ways.

Brain Development V/S Child Development

All children develop differently – some will walk or talk earlier than usual, while others may
take more time – but it’s clear that the early years are the best opportunity for a child’s brain to
develop the connections they need to be healthy, capable, successful adults.

Recent scientific research has shown that the connections needed for many important, higher-
level abilities – like motivation, self-regulation, problem solving, communication and self-
esteem – are formed in these early years. Or not formed. And it’s much harder for these essential
brain connections to be made later in life.

How Brain Connections Are Built

Starting from birth, brain connections are built through a child’s everyday experiences – by
positive interactions with their parents and caregivers, and by using their senses to interact with
the world around them. It’s a young child’s daily experiences – the amount and quality of care,
stimulation and interaction they receive in their first days, weeks, months and years – that
determines which brain connections develop and will last for a lifetime.

Caring, Responsive Relationships

The most important influences on a child’s development are their relationships with the adults in
their life. Loving relationships with warm, responsive, dependable adults are essential to a
child’s healthy development. These relationships begin at home, with parents and family, but
also include child care providers, teachers and other members of the community.

From birth, young children serve up invitations to engage with their parents and other adult
caregivers in their lives. Babies do it by cooing and smiling and crying; toddlers are able to
communicate their needs and interests more directly. Each of these little invitations is an
opportunity for the caregiver to either be responsive or unresponsive to the child’s needs. This
"serve and return" process is fundamental to the wiring of the brain. Parents and caregivers who

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give attention and respond and interact with their child are literally building the child’s brain.
That’s why it’s so important to talk, sing, read and play with young children from the day they’re
born, to give them opportunities to explore their physical world, and to provide safe, stable and
nurturing environments.

Brain lateralization in children in the first 5 years

Lateralization of brain function is the view that functions are performed by distinct regions of
the brain. For instance, it is believed that there are different areas of the brain that are responsible
for controlling language, formulating memories, and making movements.

If a certain area of the brain becomes damaged, the function associated with that area will also be
affected. It contrasts with the holistic theory of the brain, that all parts of the brain are involved
in the processing of thought and action.

The human brain is split into two hemispheres, right and left. They are both joined together by
the corpus callosum, a bundle of nerve fibres which is located in the middle of the brain.

Hemispheric lateralization is the idea that each hemisphere is responsible for different functions.
Each of these functions are localized to either the right or left side.

The left hemisphere is associated with language functions, such as formulating grammar and
vocabulary, and containing different language centres

The right hemisphere is associated with more visuospatial functions such as visualization,
depth perception, and spatial navigation. These left and right functions are the case in the
majority of people, especially those who are right-handed.

Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body. Left hemisphere controls the muscle
movements of the right arm and leg. Likewise, damage to the right occipital lobe (responsible for
vision) can result in loss of sight in the left field of vision.

2. factors which contribute to normal brain development in children

The early years of a child’s life are very important for later health and development. One of
the main reasons is how fast the brain grows starting before birth and continuing into early

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childhood. Although the brain continues to develop and change into adulthood, the first 8 years
can build a foundation for future learning, health and life success

How well a brain develops depends on many factors’

 genetics/ inheritance from parents

 Proper nutrition and exercise

 Exposure to toxins or infections
 The child’s experiences with other people and the world/Social Interactions with Caring
People.

Children also need this type of constructive, meaningful relationship with adults they can trust
and rely on for support and comfort. When children don’t feel they can rely on the people in their
life for those things, whether it be parents, teachers, aunts, uncles, babysitters, or really anyone
who spends a significant amount of time with them, they can feel isolated and alone, which
impacts how they think and view the world. Scientific studies have found that sometimes a
simple hug or understanding conversation can calm brain activity and bridge gaps in synapses.

A child's relationships with the adults in their life are the most important influences on their
brain development. Loving relationships with responsive, dependable adults are essential to a
child's healthy development.
 Structure and Consistency in Different Environments
Discipline is an important part of children’s upbringing in that it offers them structure and
consistency—a dependable model they can rely on for guidance while they’re figuring out the
world and themselves. Through healthy disciplinary techniques, and explaining in your child’s
language the reasons why we as adults must discipline them can ease your child’s anxiety and
help them connect logical brain processes with emotional development in a healthy way.
 Talking Through Tough Emotions
Perhaps one of the most important aspects of your child’s brain development is teaching them
how to identify, express, and regulate their own emotions. Most parents don’t realize that brain
development plays such a critical role in emotions, that it’s easy for them to become angry,
frustrated, or fed up with children’s egocentrism and “bad behavior.” Children often struggle

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with making sense of how they’re feeling, and it’s our job to help them understand themselves
better—especially when it relates to others. Talking through tough emotions and engaging with
your child will help them feel safe to explore their emotions and learn ways of identifying them
and coping with them as they grow into healthy adults.

3. Responsibilities of caregivers in enhancing normal brain lateralization

Positive caregiver-child interaction is crucial to healthy attachment. Even though interaction is a

mutual process, adults in an infant’s life are primarily responsible for shaping the attachment
relationship.

Children depend upon the adults in their life to provide a consistent, loving environment that
promotes healthy attachment. The environment must be predictable and nurturing and must
support exploration.

In positive caregiver-child interactions, caregivers:

 are emotionally and physically available

 are sensitive and responsive to each individual child’s needs
 respond promptly and appropriately
 provide opportunities for exploration
 gently guide children’s behavior
 provide a secure base of love and protection

Consistent and positive early interactions — such as holding, gazing, smiling, kissing, singing
and laughing — cause specific neurochemical activities in the brain. These neurochemical
activities lead to organization and wiring of brain systems that are responsible for attachment.

The brain’s earliest wiring for relationships occurs in the limbic system. The amygdala receives
and integrates the emotional information that comes in from interactions with caregivers. The
hippocampus stores those emotional experiences. Emotional memories stay in the limbic system.
Even when infants cannot actively remember or discuss an emotional memory, that memory has
an ongoing effect on that infant’s behavior and development.

1.4 Physical, Cognitive, Social and Emotional Development (1hour)

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  Discuss the physical, cognitive, social and emotional changes in children from
infancy to adolescence (infants (0-2), toddlers (2-3) Pre-schoolers (3-5/2-6) , school age
(6-10) and adolescents-10-19)
1. infancy (0-2 yrs)
This stage is characterized by rapid physical, cognitive psychosocial development.

-Physical Development

o The infants exhibit reflexes e.g. feeding, blinking to protect the eye objects or
coughing. They later develop motor skills more advance than mere reflexes.
o they start crawling by 6th month and walking by 13th month
o the develop ability to manipulate objects and move about and development
depends on nutrition
o muscular control and coordination progresses from head to foot proportionally
o the baby develops milk teeth
Factors affecting infant physical growth

Primary factors

 hereditary
 condition of the mother during pregnancy
 nutrition
 illness
 physical environment
 social factors in the early stages
 psychological factors in early years
Secondary factors

 social economic class

 parental literacy
 child’s position in the family
 spacing of children

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 Psychological or development needs of infants include

 warmth
 sleep
 excretion
 food and water
 need for air
 physical things to encourage muscular and mental development
-Social Development

A child is expected to behave according to societal expectations

The way a child interacts and socializes with people around him during the formative years
influences his/her future life

 Social interaction of the infant is basically between the mother and child
 As the child grows it develops to include interaction with other people e.g. the peers
 They rely on imitation than speech to coordinate play
 Children are affected by relationships with friends, siblings, and their parents
 Few children develop friendship before the age of 3 and if it does then is with members
of the same sex
 Child birth order also affects social development, firstborns are less socially because they
interact more with adults than siblings while lastborns are more social because they
interact more with siblings and adults

-Cognitive Developmental infants

2 months

 Pays attention to faces

 Begins to follow things with eyes and recognize people at a distance
 Begins to act bored (cries, fussy) if activity does not change

6 months

 Looks around at things nearby

 Brings things to mouth
 Shows curiosity about things and tries to get things that are out of reach

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  Begins to pass things from one hand to another

12 months

 Explores things in different ways, like shaking, banging, throwing

 Finds hidden things easily
 Looks at the right picture or thing when it is named
 Copies gestures
 Starts to use things correctly (like drinks from a cup, brushes hair)
 Bangs two things together
 Puts things in a container, takes things out of a container
 Lets things go without help
 Pokes with index (pointer) finger
 Follows simple directions like "pick up the toy"

Piaget’s theory of mental development

Jean Piaget is the most noted theorist when it comes to children’s cognitive development. He
believed that children’s cognition develops in stages. He explained this growth in the following
stages:

 Sensory Motor Stage (Birth through 2 years old)

 Preoperational Stage (2-7 years old)
 Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years old)
 Formal Operational Stage (12 years old- adulthood)

-Sensorimotor Stage (Birth through 2 years old)

In this stage, an infant’s knowledge of the world is limited to their sensory perceptions and motor
activities.

-Preoperational stage (2-6)

Language develops but the child can’t mentally manipulate information

-Concrete operational stage (7-11)

The child gains a better understanding of mental operations

-Formal operational stage (12 years and beyond)

The child develops the ability to think about abstract concepts

-Emotional Development during Infancy

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Infants express the emotions of fear, surprise, and happiness through reflex action. Emotional
development depend on learning which in turn is affected by the objects in the environment.
Before the end of the first 2 years children express the emotions of anger, sadness, excitement
and uneasiness.

ii. Toddlers (2-3)

-Physical Development of Toddlers

Toddlers will quickly master walking and move on to running, jumping and climbing.
Around age two, most toddlers will be able to navigate stairs, kick or throw a ball and draw
simple lines. During this time, children may still stumble frequently and be accident prone

Some of the physical developments you’re likely to see during this action packed year
include:

 faster running, and changing direction quickly without falling over,

 jumping and hopping,
 walking downstairs one foot at a time, without holding your hand or the banister,
 balancing on low walls,
 exploring and swinging from climbing frames

-Social and Emotional Development of Toddlers

 are aware of their gender identity

 be quite assertive and say no to adults' demands or instructions

 starts to evaluate their behaviours as bad, good etc

 begins to share and take turns

 may be possessive about their toys

 still need parents or familiar adult nearby for security and support

 are aware of their feelings and of other people’s feelings

 enjoys playing games with other children

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  watches other children playing and then join in the play for short periods of time

 enjoys group activities such as singing and dancing

 begins to mimic real life scenarios with dress ups or imaginative play

 shows a variety of emotions

 knows how to share and take turns

 becomes interested in playing with other children around their age

 uses imaginative play e.g. pretends to be at a restaurant

 plays with other children

 simple make believe play

 may prefer same sex playmates and toys

 unlikely to share toys without protest

 learn to resolve conflicts with peers and adults

 childhood fears may emerge (monster under the bed)

 begins to understand other people's points of view

 shows empathy

 play simple group games

 interacts acceptably with other's

 separates easily from parents

 expresses a wide range of emotions

 objects to major changes in routine

Toddlers are developing a sense of their identity and increase for independence makes them
increasingly determined to challenge rules. All it takes is a small disappointment for a toddler's
self-confidence to fail, sending them in need for a reassuring cuddle. Toddlers will begin to
become more sociable, although contact with other children may begin in fighting over toys,
before developing the social skills to learn to take turns and share.

2.0 factors influencing child growth and development

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2.1 Biological factors (1 hr)
a. Analyze how biological factors influence child growth and development

-Biological factors include genetic influences, brain chemistry, hormone levels, nutrition, and
gender.

Nature and nurture both contribute to the growth and development of children. Although what’s
endowed by nature is constant, nurture tends to make a big difference too. Here are a few factors
affecting children’s growth and development.

-Heredity

Heredity is the transmission of physical characteristics from parents to children through their
genes. It influences all aspects of physical appearance such as height, weight, body structure, the
colour of the eye, the texture of the hair, and even intelligence and aptitudes. Diseases and
conditions such as heart disease, diabetes, obesity, etc., can also be passed through genes,
thereby affecting the growth and development of the child adversely. However, environmental
factors and nurturing can bring the best out of the already present qualities in the genes.

Genetics/Hereditary, also known as inheritance or biological inheritance is the transmission of

physical characteristics from you to your children through your genes (the basic physical and
functional unit of inheritance). Genes have an effect on most of the physical characteristics of
your child such as height, weight, body structure, the colour of their eye, the texture of their hair,
and even intelligence and aptitudes. For example, if you are tall, it is most likely that your child
will also inherit this trait and be tall.

The genes that a person have inherited are referred to as a genotype; while a phenotype refers to
how the genes are actually expressed. For instances, phenotypes include physical traits like
height and eyes colour, as well as non-physical traits like personality traits, such as extroversion
(Ludlow & Gutierrez, 2014). Genetic Interaction refers to a phenomenon where two or more
genes affects the expression of each other in various ways in the development of a single
character of an organism (Shinde, 2015). In other words, genes can sometimes contain

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conflicting information, and in most cases, one gene will win the battle for dominance (Cherry,
2020).

Not only this, various disorders and health conditions such as heart disease, diabetes, obesity,
etc., may also be passed on to your child through your genes, thereby affecting the growth and
development of your child.

3. Sex

The sex of the child is another major factor affecting the physical growth and development of a
child. Boys and girls grow in different ways, especially nearing puberty. Boys tend to be taller
and physically stronger than girls. However, girls tend to mature faster during adolescence, while
boys mature over a longer period of time. The physical structure of their bodies also has
differences which make boys more athletic and suited for activities that require physical rigour.
Their temperaments also vary, making them show interest in different things.

-Hormones

Hormones belong to the endocrine system and influence the various functions of our bodies.
They are produced by different glands that are situated in specific parts of the body to secrete
hormones that control body functions. Their timely functioning is critical for normal physical
growth and development in children. Imbalances in the functioning of hormone-secreting glands
can result in growth defects, obesity, behavioural problems and other diseases. During puberty,
the gonads produce sex hormones which control the development of the sex organs and the
appearance of secondary sexual characteristics in boys and girls.
N/B heredity influences
-Physical characters i.e. genes transtmitted to a child from the parent determines the child’s
physical traits such as height, resemblance, colour
-Intelligence i.e. I.Q. levels are passed from a parent to the offsring mental abilities are thus
inheritable

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-Character traits such as moral values are passed from parent to children

2.0 factors influencing child growth and development

2.1 maternal, child and nutrition (1 HR)

a. analyze the importance of maternal health and nutrition in enhancing good health

b. distinguish the health and nutritional needs of both the mother and child in order to promote
good health

-The importance of maternal health and nutrition in enhancing good health

 Maternal and newborn nutrition saves lives and supports development and greater
economic prosperity. Maternal and newborn health are connected. Good nutrition in the
first 1,000 days supports a healthy start for children, while pregnant women need good
nutrition for their own and their babies' health.
 Good maternal nutrition during pregnancy promotes healthy weight of the newborn.
Good weight at birth means increased chances for healthy growth.
 Good maternal nutrition during breastfeeding promotes baby's healthy growth.
 Good nutrition from birth to three years is the most important foundation for baby to
grow healthy and bright. After the age of two or three years, the effects of chronic
malnutrition in your baby will be irreversible.
 A nutrient-rich maternal diet before and during pregnancy is associated with improved
fetal health, more appropriate birth weight, and increased rates of maternal and infant
survival. Physicians need a better understanding of the role of diet in shaping fetal
outcomes
 Lack of adequate maternal nutrition during pregnancy can cause health problems for both
the mother and baby. For the woman, malnutrition increases the risk of gestational
anaemia, high blood pressure, miscarriage, preterm delivery and maternal mortality. Poor
maternal nutrition during pregnancy has an increased risk of having a baby with a low
birth weight.

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  A healthy maternal diet should include an adequate amount of protein, calcium, iron,
zinc, sodium, iodine, magnesium, folic acid, and vitamins. Taking care of maternal health
is important to deliver a healthy baby as well as reduce maternal mortality rates.

-Health and nutritional needs of both the mother and child

More than half of all child deaths are associated with malnutrition, which weakens the body's
resistance to illness. Poor diet, frequent illness, and inadequate or inattentive care of young
children can lead to malnutrition.

If a woman is malnourished during pregnancy, or if her child is malnourished during the first two
years of life, the child's physical and mental growth and development may be slowed. This
cannot be made up when the child is older – it will affect the child for the rest of his or her life.

Children have the right to a caring, protective environment and to nutritious food and basic
health care to protect them from illness and promote growth and development.

To maintain a healthy pregnancy, approximately 300 extra calories are needed each day. These
calories should come from a balanced diet of protein, fruits, vegetables and whole grains. Sweets
and fats should be kept to a minimum. A healthy, well-balanced diet can also help to reduce
some pregnancy symptoms, such as nausea and constipation.

Fluid intake is also an important part of pregnancy nutrition. Follow these recommendations for
fluid intake during pregnancy:

 You can take in enough fluids by drinking several glasses of water each day, in addition
to the fluids in juices and soups. Talk to your health care provider or midwife about
restricting your intake of caffeine and artificial sweeteners.
 Avoid all forms of alcohol.

The following foods are beneficial to your health and fetal development during pregnancy:

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  Vegetables: carrots, sweet potatoes, pumpkin, spinach, cooked greens, tomatoes and red
sweet peppers (for vitamin A and potassium)
 Fruits: cantaloupe, honeydew, mangoes, prunes, bananas, apricots, oranges, and red or
pink grapefruit (for potassium)
 Dairy: fat-free or low-fat yogurt, skim or 1% milk, soymilk (for calcium, potassium,
vitamins A and D)
 Grains: ready-to-eat cereals/cooked cereals (for iron and folic acid)
 Proteins: beans and peas; nuts and seeds; lean beef, lamb and pork; salmon, trout, herring,

-Avoid eating the following foods during pregnancy:

 Unpasteurized milk and foods made with unpasteurized milk (soft cheeses)
 Hot dogs and luncheon meats (unless they are heated until steaming hot before serving)
 Raw and undercooked seafood, eggs and meat. Do not eat sushi made with raw fish
(cooked sushi is safe).
 Refrigerated pâté and meat spreads
 Refrigerated smoked seafood

children: They should receive a lot of high-energy foods, such as carbohydrates in the form of
whole-grain cereals, full-fat dairy or soy milk, vegetable oils, fruits (two servings) and
vegetables in boiled, baked, steamed or sautéed form (three servings). A little butter is also
helpful in adding energy for their needs

How do you promote good health and nutrition in child development?

Plenty of fresh or frozen fruits and vegetables and whole- grain products should be offered to
children. The addition of fat, sugar and sources of sodium should be minimized. Food
preparation and service should be consistent with best practices for food safety and sanitation.

2.0 factors influencing child growth and development

2.3 environmental factors (1 hr)

-Environmental Factors Affecting Child Growth and Development

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-The environment plays a critical role in the development of children and it represents the sum
total of physical and psychological stimulation the child receives. Some of the environmental
factors influencing early childhood development involve the physical surroundings and
geographical conditions of the place the child lives in, as well his social environment and
relationships with family and peers. It is easy to understand that a well-nurtured child does better
than a deprived one; the environment children are constantly immersed in contributes to this. A
good school and a loving family builds in children strong social and interpersonal skills, which
will enable them to excel in other areas such as academics and extracurricular activities. This
will, of course, be different for children who are raised in stressful environments.

-The family, school, or general environment a child lives and interacts with generally affects
their growth and development. In the early formative years, children pick up things from their
environment, learn how to solve problems, habits, and behaviors, socialize, and general
functioning. Consequently, studying the main environmental factors affecting the growth and
development of a child is necessary. These include the social, emotional, economic, and
physical environment.

-The physical environment is the space and location in which the child grows, affecting their
health, learning, and behavior. In addition, research shows that effects of the physical
environment, such as housing, exposure to pollution, and neighborhood quality, all affect the
psychosocial aspect of the child. For example, assume a child with disabilities getting access to a
ramp to help them access various areas of their home quickly. This example depicts the impact
of the physical environment on growth.

-Social Environment

The social environment influences on child development are those that affect the social
relationships that children will form throughout their lives and the quality of said relationships,
whether with their families, or the neighborhood where they reside.

Some examples of a child's social environment include educational facilities, housing,

recreational facilities, and the places they spend most of their interactive social time. During the
preschool stage, children largely imitate the social behaviors around them, mostly what they see
people do in their daily environment. Exposure to their peers will also enable them to handle

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school better, once they join. These observations affect how they form relationships and interact
with their peers.

-Emotional Environment

The emotional environment in child development refers to how well their interpersonal and
relational needs are being met at home. This factor may include learning what emotions are,
understanding and communicating their feelings, learning empathy, and developing appropriate
ways to manage and handle their feelings and those of others.

Children who grow up in less than ideal emotional environments tend to struggle in the future
and are unable to form meaningful relationships as they grow up and, in extreme cases, get
involved in crime. Studies have also linked poor emotional environments to later mental health
issues such as anxiety.

-Economic Environment

The economic environment in child development essentially refers to the financial situation in
which a child grows up. Economic factors primarily affect child development since child rearing
is an expensive endeavor. Research asserts that the most preventable negative impact on a child's
development is a direct result of the economic environment. There are claims that children from
low-income families have poorer health, and are more likely to perform poorly in school than
their wealthier counterparts.

2.0 factors that impact child growth and development

2.4 social cultural issues (1 hr)

 DIscuss social cultural issues that influence child growth and development
 Analyze gender issues that that influence child growth and development

i-Social cultural issues that influence child growth and development

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Socio-cultural factors include language, law, aesthetics (appearance), religion, values,
attitudes, social organization, family, community a person's role or status among others.

-Culture of the society: Culture is very important in the society for child development. Children
are the future of every nation and people have always strived for helping them to reach the most
of their potential in the life span. The present days have more complex needs which should be
fulfilled for their proper level of development. Child development is a dynamic process,
interactive process of physical development, behavioural development, cognitive development,
personality development, emotional growth and change. It describes the development of children
throughout the life span, from birth to death. A lot of changes take place at various stages of life;
Infancy, childhood, adolescence and adulthood. Child development is the basic fact of human
existence and each person develops uniquely. Socio-cultural factors are the larger scale forces
within societies and culture that affect the thoughts behaviour and feeling of child development
of those societies and cultures. Socio-cultural factors include language, law, aesthetics
(appearance), religion, values, attitudes, social organization, family, community a person’s role
or status among others.

-The home/family background:

The family is the foundation from which learning activities of any child take off. The type of
family environment a child is born sets the limit for life’s adjustment (Isangedigi 2011). In this
discussion aspect of family background are limited to family socio-economic status, parent’s
educational status and parental discipline, adult predominance, difference in language and the
culture of community where the child comes. Many studies the find out that family characteristic
can significant affect in child development.

-Culture of the society

Culture is very important in the society for child development. Some sub-culture regard
aggressive behaviour as acts of self-defence and toughness (child militancy). Parents train their
children to be tough and aggressive in order to survive in the midst of violent ethnic group. In the
midst of plural marriages where there are more children than food supply, children must learn to
eat at a speed that will give them an adage over the weak and slow eaters when all of them have

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to eat from a common fund of food supply. So cultural differences in interactions between adults
and children also influence how a child behaves socially.

-Religion

Religion played a significant role in creating a sense of fatalism about child development that
shaped the illness and caring experience. Any mother explained that life and death is in God
control. Religion has been a controversial issue in the society. And Children who are socialized
within religious families and communities often have beliefs and behaviours that conflict with
those of the school. Religious fundamentalists often challenge the scientific theories taught by
schools about the origin of man.

-Language:

Language is one of the many ways through which culture affects in child development. As early
as infancy, mothers from different cultures talk to their babies differently. German mothers tend
to focus on their infants’ needs, wishes or them as a person. Mothers of the African tribal group
Nso, on the other hand, focus more on social context. This is the child interaction with other
people. So, children develop receptive language abilities before their verbal or expressive
language development.

ii. Gender issues that that influence child growth and development
-Gender also affects physical growth in infancy. Weight, length, and head circumference are
greater in boys than in girls throughout the first year of life (Geary, Pringle, Rodeck, Kingdom,
& Hindmarsh, 2003). These growth differences are related to hormonal differences between boys
and girls. In many communities, gender inequality is one important root cause of children's poor
development in the early years. ... Gender discrimination together with son preference mean that
young girls receive less nutrition, opportunities to play and access early learning than young
boys

-Boys were around 10% more likely to show what we call “externalising behaviours” such as
destructiveness and aggressiveness. Girls, on the other hand, were more likely to have
“internalising problems” such as anxiety.

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-Gender roles influence adolescents' self-esteem. While self-confidence is a stereotypical male
feature, the presentation of self-confidence by girls is considered a breach of traditional gender
roles. Therefore, it is not surprising that boys report higher self-esteem than girls
-Children learn at a young age that there are distinct expectations for boys and girls. Cross-
cultural studies reveal that children are aware of gender roles by age two or three. At four or five,
most children are firmly entrenched in culturally appropriate gender roles (Kane 1996). Children
acquire these roles through socialization, a process in which people learn to behave in a
particular way as dictated by societal values, beliefs, and attitudes.
-Children may also use gender stereotyping readily. Gender stereotyping involves
overgeneralizing about the attitudes, traits, or behavior patterns of women or men
-Children who are allowed to explore different toys, who are exposed to non-traditional gender
roles, and whose parents and caregivers are open to allowing the child to take part in non-
traditional play (allowing a boy to nurture a doll, or allowing a girl to play doctor) tend to have
broader definitions of what is gender appropriate, and may do less gender stereotyping.

2.0 factors that impact child growth and development ( end of term one).

2.5. Role of play (1 hr)

- Explain the role of play in child growth and development

-Discuss types of play and materials needed for stimulation of young people
-Analyze the importance of play for children’s growth and development
i. Role of play in child’s growth and development

-Play improves the cognitive, physical, social, and emotional well-being of children and
young people. Through play, children learn about the world and themselves. They also learn
skills they need for study, work and relationships such as: confidence.

-Through play, children learn about the world and themselves.

-They also learn skills they need for study, work and relationships such as:

 confidence

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  self-esteem
 resilience
 interaction
 social skills
 independence
 curiosity
 coping with challenging situations

-Physical play such as running, skipping and riding a bicycle helps children develop:

 good physical fitness

 agility
 stamina
 co-ordination
 balance

P-laying can help children develop their social skills with others. By listening, paying attention
and sharing play experiences, this helps a child:

 explore their feelings

 develop self-discipline
 learn how to express themselves
 work out emotional aspects of life

-Through play, parents can connect fully with their children and have fun.

 A parent or caregiver can support and take part in their child’s play activities but they
shouldn’t direct what happens.
 It’s important they give their children time, freedom and choice to play. If an adult makes
all the decisions about how, what and when their child plays, the child won’t enjoy their
play experiences.

ii. Types of play and materials needed for stimulation of young people

Types of play of young children

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Children love to play because it's fun—but it's also vital to healthy development. During
different types of play, children learn and practice key social, thinking, physical, and emotional
skills, including creativity, imagination, and problem-solving.The benefits of play are
progressive, meaning that the skills kids develop during their fun and games build upon each
other.

Types of Play include:

 Unoccupied play
 Independent play
 Onlooker play
 Parallel play
 Associative play
 Cooperative play
 Competitive play
 Constructive play
 Dramatic play
 Physical play
 Symbolic play

1. Unoccupied Play

The first stage of play is unoccupied play. primarily from birth to three months. This type of play
likely doesn't look like play at all. However, when babies observe their surroundings or make
random movements that don't seem to have an objective, this is actually unoccupied play. It sets
the stage for future play exploration.

Parents don't need to do anything special to foster this type of play. Babies do it instinctively.
However, it's important to allow babies to explore, even if it's just wiggling their hands and feet
in the air.

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 2. Solitary (Independent) Play

Solitary play is just what it sounds like—your child playing alone. This type of play teaches
children how to keep themselves entertained, one of the steps on the path to being self-
sufficient.3 Once your baby can interact with toys, such as by grasping a rattle, they are starting
to move into the independent play stage.

Any child can play independently, but this type of play is most common in children between two
and three years old. At that age, children are still pretty self-focused and lack good
communication and sharing skills.

Preschoolers and older kids may continue to choose independent play even after learning to play
well with others as it provides unique opportunities to explore their own interests on their own
terms.

3. Onlooker Play

In onlooker play, a child simply observes other children playing and doesn't partake in the action.
They may watch what you or other adults are doing as well. Onlooker play is typical for children
between two and three years old and is especially common for younger children whose
vocabulary is developing.

Don't dismiss the importance of this type of play. It's a healthy form of learning and part of your
child's play journey. It could be that the child feels tentative, needs to learn the rules, or just
prefers to watch before joining in play with others. Watching helps kids gain confidence and
prepare for future stages of play.

During onlooker play, by observing and possibly mimicking the play of others, your child is
building their own skills.

Your child may be using their own toys while engaging in onlooker play, but this type of play is
about observing rather than playing alongside others, which is called parallel play. However,
children in onlooker play may comment on what they're seeing. They are learning about how
other kids play and interact.

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 4. Parallel Play

Put two three-year-kids in a room together and you are likely to see them having fun, playing
side by side in their own little worlds. It doesn't mean that they don't like one another; they are
just engaging in parallel play. This type of play begins around age two and differs from playing
together in that neither child tries to influence the play of the other.

Despite having little overt contact with each other, children in parallel play learn quite a bit from
one another.5 Even though it appears that they aren't paying attention to each other, they truly are
and often mimic their playmate's behavior.

Like each of the other stages, this type of play is a bridge to the later stages of play. Many types
of activities, from drawing to playing with toy cars, can occur during parallel play.

5. Associative Play

Associative play commonly begins around age three or four. Like parallel play, it features
children playing separately. But in this type of play, children are involved with what others are
doing.

Think of a small group of kids building a city with blocks. As they build their individual
buildings, they talk to one another, but they primarily work on their own.

This stage of play helps little ones develop a whole host of skills, such as socialization (what
should we build now?), taking turns (can I have the blue one now?), problem-solving (how can
we make this city bigger?), cooperation, and language development.6

Associative play is how many children begin to make real friendships. Typically, this form of
play phases out by age five.

6. Cooperative Play

Cooperative play is where all the stages come together and children truly start playing together.
Typically starting between four and five years of age, this is the predominant type of play in

35
groups of kids this age and up, or in younger preschoolers who have older siblings or have been
around a lot of children.

Cooperative play uses all of the social skills your child has been working on and puts them into
action.

This stage of play can encompass many different types of play activities. Whether they
are building a puzzle together, playing a board game, or enjoying an outdoor group
activity, cooperative play sets the stage for future interactions as your child matures. However,
kids will still return to the earlier stages of play from time to time as well.

7. Competitive Play

The stages of play are vital to your child's social development. Once a child reaches the
cooperative play stage, you may see them trying out other types of play. These also contribute to
development of social, thinking, and physical skills.

When your child is playing Chutes and Ladders or joins a sports team, they are engaging in
competitive play. This helps them learn about rules, turn-taking, functioning as part of a team,
and the realities of winning and losing.

Competitive play can also help kids develop motional regulation, sportsmanship, and the ability
to cope with defeat.

8. Constructive Play

Constructive play teaches kids about manipulation, building, and fitting things together.
Examples include building with blocks, , making a road for toy cars, or constructing a fort out of
couch pillows.

During constructive play, kids use cognitive skills to figure out how to make something work,
whether it is a block tower that won't stand up or a sandcastle that keeps collapsing. This type of
play also teaches the power of trying again.

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 9. Dramatic Play

When your child plays dress-up, school, or restaurant, it's dramatic or fantasy play. Through this
type of play, your child's imagination gets a workout. Plus they learn how to take turns,
cooperate, and share, and they work on language development.

Role play also helps teach kids about functioning in the greater community.

10. Physical Play

Physical play includes activities such as throwing a ball, climbing a play structure, riding a bike,
or playing a game like tag. This type of play builds gross and fine motor skills. Physical play
encourages kids to develop fitness skills and to enjoy physical activity, which provides lifelong
benefits.

Physical play can include dancing or ball games. This will help your child build their muscles,
bones and physical skills.

You should encourage your child to move as much as possible.

11. Symbolic Play

This type of play can include vocal activities (singing, jokes, or rhymes), graphic arts (drawing,
coloring, or working with clay), counting, or making music. Symbolic play helps children learn
to express themselves and explore and process their experiences, ideas, and emotions.

-Social play

By playing with others, children learn how to take turns, cooperate and share. This also helps them
to develop their language skills.

You can encourage social play by taking your child to playgrounds. Parent and toddler groups can
also help them meet other children.

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-Constructive play

Constructive play allows children to experiment with drawing, music and building things.

This helps them to develop their movement skills and become less clumsy. Constructive play also
helps children to understand distance and size. An example of this could be if objects are small or
far away.

You should encourage your child to do arts and crafts and play with building blocks.

Let your child work problems out for themselves during constructive play. This is important. It is
better than trying to show them the “right way” to do something.

-Fantasy play

Using their imagination during play is good for your child’s communication skills. It is good for
them to create their own games.

You can encourage your child to develop their imagination by giving them props. These could be
things such as a whisk and bowl if they are pretending to be a baker.

Dress up costumes also encourage fantasy play.

-Materials needed for stimulation of young people

Things to play pretend with—baby dolls, puppets, plastic and wood vehicles with wheels, and
water toys. Things to drop and take out—plastic bowls, large beads, balls, and nesting toys.
Things to build with—large soft blocks and wooden cubes.

iii. The importance of play for children’s growth and development

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Play improves the cognitive, physical, social, and emotional well-being of children and
young people. Through play, children learn about the world and themselves. They also learn
skills they need for study, work and relationships such as: confidence.

1. stimulate early brain development

Child play can promote brain development in many ways, including providing the child with a
better understanding of the world and setting the groundwork for later brain growth1.

2. improve intelligence

Early playing also has an important role in a child’s intellectual development.

3. spark creative thinking

Perhaps the most obvious benefit of playing is that it increases a child’s creativity.

Creativity is closely tied to divergent thinking, which is the thought process that explores many
possible solutions and generates new ideas. Many studies have found that playing is highly
associated with divergent thinking.

4. improve communication, vocabulary, and language

The link between early play and later communication skills is evident in research, too.

5. promote impulse control and emotion regulation

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Self-regulation is one of the most important skills for school readiness. Well-regulated children
can wait for a turn, resist the temptation to grab objects from other children, control negative
emotions, and persist through challenging activities.

6. grow social competence and empathy

Playing is crucial in enhancing social development in children. Unstructured active play with
others – including parents, siblings, and peers – is a significant opportunity to cultivate social
skills. While playing, the act of pretending as well as negotiating with peers enhances children’s
social skills

Playing also provides opportunities for children to learn social interaction. While playing
together, children learn to cooperate, follow the rules, develop self-control, and generally get
along with other people.

7. better physical and mental health

We already know that play promotes a child’s emotional development. Emotional intelligence is
vital for a child’s resilience and mental health.

Playing that involves physical activities also promotes gross motor skills, strength, endurance,
and physical health.

8. teach life lessons

Play helps children develop problem solving skills.

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When children act out life’s problems in pretend-playing, it helps them cope with the struggles in
their own ways. It also provides a safe opportunity for children to rehearse skills and future
social roles.

When children try out various roles, they learn to take on different perspectives, which will
further assist them in abstract thinking

9. strengthen relationship with caretakers and peers

Parents who play with their children form a stronger bond with them. Even simple games like
scavenger hunts can become a special bonding moment for both parents and children. These
interactions provide positive life experiences that stimulate children’s brain development.

TERM 2

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 2.6 CARE OF CHILDREN ( 1 hr)

 Discuss different ways of caring children at different stages of development

 Evaluate the roles of care givers to children in promoting holistic development
i. Different ways of caring children at different stages of development

Parenting

Introduction
Parents and caregivers make sure children are healthy and safe, equip them with the skills and
resources to succeed as adults, and transmit basic cultural values to them. Parents and caregivers
offer their children love, acceptance, appreciation, encouragement, and guidance. They provide
the most intimate context for the nurturing and protection of children as they develop their
personalities and identities and also as they mature physically, cognitively, emotionally, and
socially

-Infancy and Childhood

Babies whose needs are met quickly and warmly (e.g., feeding, changing, holding/cradling, and
soothing them) achieve a crucial developmental task – attachment. This bond of affection
between parents and children is necessary for a healthy parent-child relationship, and also
extends to relationships between children, their siblings, and other family members (e.g.,
grandparents, aunts/uncles, etc) and caregivers. When infants attach successfully to their parents
and caregivers, they learn to trust that the outside world is a welcoming place and are more likely
to explore and interact with their environment. This lays the groundwork for further social,
emotional, and cognitive development.
Research has found that relationships between parents and caregivers and youth that:
 Are warm, open, and communicative;
 Include appropriate limits, and
 Provide reasoning for rules for behavior are associated with higher self-esteem, better
performance in school, and fewer negative outcomes such as depression or drug use in children
and teenagers.

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Adolescence

As children reach adolescence, parents and caregivers face a whole new set of tasks that require
new approaches to deal with the changing needs of children. Children are changing on a physical
as well as cognitive and social basis.

Parents and caregivers must prepare for the upcoming changes in the parent-child relationship;
teens will begin to detach to a greater degree from existing family bonds and focus more on their
peers and the outside world. This quest for greater independence and autonomy is a natural part
of the developmental process in adolescence.

Parents and caregivers must find the delicate balance between maintaining the familial bond and
allowing teens increasing autonomy as they mature. Teenagers who feel connected to yet not
constrained by their families tend to flourish.

Research has found that parents and caregivers that maintain a warm, communicative and
reasoned style of parenting raise teenagers who have higher rates of socially competent behavior,
take fewer drugs, and exhibit less anxiety or depression.

ii. Role of caregivers in promoting holistic children development

The term “caregivers” is used to mean anyone taking care of or responsible for young children,
in any setting, and can include people such as: parents, teachers, early care educators, childcare
providers, nannies, grandmas, family friends, and coaches.

This key driver is about how caregivers behave towards and interact with children on a regular
basis, in all care settings. An important part of caregiver behavior is knowledge and awareness,
including accurate information about child development and appropriate expectations for
children’s behavior at every age. Such knowledge can help caregivers see their children in a
positive light and promote their healthy development.

Caregivers are influenced by information from many sources, including family members as well
as parent education classes and surfing the internet. Studies show that information is most
effective when it comes at the precise time caregivers need it to understand their own children or

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children in their care. Caregivers who experienced harsh discipline or other negative childhood
experiences may need extra help to change the parenting patterns they learned as children.

Parents and caregivers make sure children are healthy and safe, equip them with the skills and
resources to succeed as adults, and transmit basic cultural values to them.

Parents and caregivers offer their children love, acceptance, appreciation, encouragement, and
guidance. They provide the most intimate context for the nurturing and protection of children as
they develop their personalities and identities and also as they mature physically, cognitively,

-Challenges faced by caregivers in providing childcare services

Caregiving is a complex task with many moving parts. Caregivers often find they have less time
for activities like chores, spending time with family & friends, hobbies, or running errands.
Those who maintain full or even part-time employment may have difficulty in keeping a healthy
work-life balance.

In all, the challenges caregivers face can be daunting. They’ll quickly become overwhelmed if
precautions, plans, and proactive measures are not in place to combat the many issues that
emerge.

Time Management

Caregivers often sacrifice much of their schedule to care for their loved one, even if it means a
lesser quality of life for themselves. It’s important, then, to understand that there are ways to
provide care without sacrificing your own mental and physical health. This starts with effective
time management skills.

Most people who claim they don’t have enough time for themselves are unaware of how much
time they waste intermittently throughout the day. Therefore, the single best time management
tactic starts with keeping a daily diary.

Lack of Privacy

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To provide adequate care, close proximity is somewhat of necessity, sometimes as close as living
with a loved one. In that case, it may seem difficult to find time alone for any extended period of
time. Depending on how advanced an illness or ailment may be, some patients need round-the-
clock care. Eating, bathing, light exercise, medication–these tasks can take up large chunks of a
caregiver’s day.

A general lack of privacy can lead caregivers to feeling depressed, lonely even. The world feels
small when you’re only interacting with your loved one everyday. Although it may be difficult to
ask for help, caregivers should understand that they are not alone. There are plenty of
organizations and groups available for caregivers to participate in..

Strains on Relationships

Caring for a loved one can take away time from relationships with others, just as much as it can
take away time from self. Dinner dates, hobbies, and other activities with friends and family may
seem difficult to attend.

Conflicts about Care

If you split responsibilities with a sibling, friend, or another family member, you may find from
time to time–perhaps often–arguments about caregiving duties getting in the way. This is
common, as conflicts can emerge regarding scheduling, level of care, medication, and more.

Conflicts with Loved One

When you’re inside all day with the same person–no matter the situation or dynamic–there is
going to be tension at times. Human beings are complex creatures with a plethora of wants and
needs. Sometimes these wants and needs are drastically different from other individuals, and this
is where conflict emerges.

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This can be even more difficult to handle when dealing with a loved one whose needs are
immediate and necessary. The relationship between caregiver and patient can also become toxic
if a patient begins to take the caregiver for granted, taking advantage of their kindness and asking
for more than they need.

Stress

Caregivers should covet stress management. Routinely, they may find their days not going
according to plan. Problems will arise when you least expect it. Something as simple as car
issues can snowball into a mess of missed appointments and dropped responsibilities.

Physical Stress

Dealing with a loved one can induce various kinds of stress that physically manifests. Pain,
anxiety, even hair loss, is your body’s way of signaling that you’re overloaded with stress and
need a break.

Emotional Stress

Managing expectations goes hand in hand with stress management. Be careful in expecting
things to go exactly as planned, and certainly do not expect other people will have your best
interests in mind. Just this small change in perspective can help you manage your mood better.

Isolation

The daily drudgery of menial tasks associated with caregiving can leave caregivers feeling
isolated. You’re normally dealing with the same person and problems day in and day out with
seemingly no end in sight.

Depression

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Many of the aforementioned issues are not singular issues existing in a vacuum. These problems
usually come with more problems, and those problems domino down the line until caregivers are
neck deep in depression, feeling completely defeated.

Guilt

Guilt can spring up from time to time in the caregiving journey, although it may not be as
obvious as other emotions. Caregiver guilt normally arises during caregiving in three specific
ways:

 Guilt over inadequate care (even if only perceived)

 Guilt over neglected relationships
 Guilt over negative feelings towards your loved one

Fatigue

When an individual takes on the caregiving challenge, they are essentially committing to two
schedules: their own and their loved one’s. Without help, many caregivers run around frantically,
cramming tasks while haphazardly finishing others. At the end of the day, they feel drained with
little energy to offer.

Sleep Loss

It’s important that a caregiver has energy in order to take care of themselves first and their loved
one second. Sleep loss or lack of deep sleep can wreak havoc on a caregiver’s life, leading to
poor energy levels throughout the day. This, in turn, leads to half completed tasks, unscheduled
daytime naps, falling asleep at work, and even dangerous behavior like falling asleep while
driving.

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Finances

Caregiving can be extremely expensive, almost too much for one person to manage. Medication,
medical devices, transportation, and surgical procedures are costly. Many caregivers have to get
more than one job in order to make ends meet.

Health Risks

Health risks associated with caregiving include (but are not limited to) stress, sleep issues, a
weakened immune system, depression, and anxiety. These risks are normally attributed to a
confluence of factors like lack of help, lack of rest, finance troubles, poor self-care and more.

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3.0 Theories of child growth and development

3.1 Personality development theories (2 hrs)

 Examine personality development theories on child development

 Apply psychoanalytic theory of development in learning process of young children
 Suggest personality development challenges experienced by learners
 Suggest ways in which personality theories can be used to develop young leaners
personality

i. personality development theories on child development (psychoanalytic, humanistic and

behavioristic theories)

 examine personality development theories in relation to child growth and development

 Apply psychoanalytic theory of development in learning process of young children
 Personality development challenges experienced by learners
 Ways in which personality theories can be used to develop young leaner’s personality

Some of these theories focus on the developmental milestones or specific achievements children
reach by a certain age. Others focus on specific aspects of child development such as
personality, cognition, and moral growth.

i. Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory

According to Sigmund Freud, development is primarily unconscious and behavior is motivated

by unconscious/inner forces, memories, and conflicts over which a person has little control or
awareness. Although much of his theory is considered outdated, Freud made a revolutionary
contribution to the field of human development by emphasizing the idea that early childhood
experiences affect our experiences as adults.

In order to understand Freud's theoretical perspective, we must first consider what Freud
believed about the structure of personality.
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-Structure of Personality

Freud believed our personality comprised three parts: the id, the ego, and the superego, which
become integrated as we grow and develop. Each component adds its own unique contribution to
personality and the three interact in ways that have a powerful influence on an individual. Each
element of personality emerges at different points in life.

According to Freud's theory, certain aspects of your personality are more primal and might
pressure you to act upon your most basic urges. Other parts of your personality work to
counteract these urges and strive to make you conform to the demands of reality.
Here's a closer look at each of these key parts of the personality, how they work individually, and
how they interact.

-The Id

According to Freud, the id is the source of all psychic energy, making it the primary component
of personality. The id is the only component of personality that is present from birth. This aspect
of personality is entirely unconscious and includes instinctive and primitive behaviors.

The id is driven by the pleasure principle, which strives for immediate gratification of all
desires, wants, and needs. If these needs are not satisfied immediately, the result is a state of
anxiety or tension. For example, an increase in hunger or thirst should produce an immediate
attempt to eat or drink.

The id is very important early in life because it ensures that an infant's needs are met. If the
infant is hungry or uncomfortable, they will cry until the demands of the id are satisfied. Young
infants are ruled entirely by the id; there is no reasoning with them when these needs demand
satisfaction.

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-Examples of the Id

Imagine trying to convince a baby to wait until lunchtime to eat their meal. The id requires
immediate satisfaction, and because the other components of personality are not yet present, the
infant will cry until these needs are fulfilled.

However, immediately fulfilling these needs is not always realistic or even possible. If we were
ruled entirely by the pleasure principle, we might find ourselves grabbing the things that we want
out of other people's hands to satisfy our cravings.

This behavior would be both disruptive and socially unacceptable. According to Freud, the id
tries to resolve the tension created by the pleasure principle through the use of primary process
thinking, which involves forming a mental image of the desired object to satisfy the need.

N/B Although people eventually learn to control the id, this part of personality remains the same
infantile, primal force throughout life. It is the development of the ego and the superego that
allows people to control the id's basic instincts and act in ways that are both realistic and socially
acceptable.

-The Ego

According to Freud, the ego develops from the id and ensures that the impulses of the id can be
expressed in a manner acceptable in the real world. The ego functions in
the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind. The ego is the personality component
responsible for dealing with reality.

Everyone has an ego. The term ego is sometimes used to describe your cohesive awareness of
your personality, but personality and ego are not the same. The ego represents just one
component of your full personality.

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The ego operates based on the reality principle, which strives to satisfy the id's desires in
realistic and socially appropriate ways. The reality principle weighs the costs and benefits of an
action before deciding to act upon or abandon impulses.
In many cases, the id's impulses can be satisfied through a process of delayed gratification—the
ego will eventually allow the behavior, but only in the appropriate time and place. 1

The term ego is often used informally to suggest that someone has an inflated sense of self.
However, the ego in personality has a positive effect. It is the part of your personality that keeps
you grounded in reality and prevents the id and superego from pulling you too far toward your
most basic urges or moralistic virtues. Having a strong ego means having a strong sense of self-
awareness.
Freud compared the id to a horse and the ego to the horse's rider. The horse provides power and
motion, while the rider provides direction and guidance. Without its rider, the horse would
wander wherever it wished and do whatever it pleased. The rider gives the horse directions and
commands to get it where it wants it to go.
The ego also discharges tension created by unmet impulses through secondary process thinking,
in which the ego tries to find an object in the real world that matches the mental image created
by the id's primary process.

-Examples of the Ego

Imagine that you are stuck in a long meeting at work. You find yourself growing increasingly
hungry as the meeting drags on. While the id might compel you to jump up from your seat and
rush to the break room for a snack, the ego guides you to sit quietly and wait for the meeting to
end.

Instead of acting upon the primal urges of the id, you spend the rest of the meeting imagining
yourself eating a cheeseburger. Once the meeting is finally over, you can seek out the object you
were imagining and satisfy the demands of the id realistically and appropriately.

=The Superego

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The last component of personality to develop is the superego.

 According to Freud, the superego begins to emerge at around age five.

 The superego holds the internalized moral standards and ideals that we acquire from our
parents and society (our sense of right and wrong).
 The superego provides guidelines for making judgments.

-The superego has two parts:

1. The conscience includes information about things that are viewed as bad by parents and
society. These behaviors are often forbidden and lead to bad consequences, punishments,
or feelings of guilt and remorse.
2. The ego ideal includes the rules and standards for behaviors that the ego aspires to.

The superego tries to perfect and civilize our behavior. It suppresses all id's unacceptable urges
and struggles to make the ego act upon idealistic standards rather than on realistic principles. The
superego is present in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious.

Examples of the Superego

For example, if you give in to the urges of the id, the superego is what will cause you to feel a
sense of guilt or even shame about your actions. The superego may help you feel good about
your behavior when you suppress your most primal urges.

Other examples of the superego include:

 A woman feels an urge to steal office supplies from work. However, her superego
counteracts this urge by focusing on the fact that such behaviors are wrong.
 A man realizes that the cashier at the store forgot to charge him for one of the items he
had in his cart. He returns to the store to pay for the item because his internalized sense of
right and wrong urge him to do so.
 A student forgot to study for a history test and feels an urge to cheat off of a student
sitting nearby. Even though he feels like the chances of getting caught are low, he knows
that cheating is wrong, so he suppresses the urge.

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-How is Psychoanalysis applied in Education?

 Psycho-analysis has given rise to many movements and practices which have provided a
stimulus to new education. It has changed the conception of education and intended its
aim. Education is no longer considered as restraint to be achieved by external regulatory
means such as punishment and rewards.

 The aim of education is the development of the whole personality – the development of
intellect as well as emotions for socially desirable purposes.

 Psychoanalysis has laid stress on such psychological incentives as love, use of instincts,
permissiveness and leniency and the child’s own will or interest. It has thrown light on
and explained the variations that we find in the assimilation of various subjects among
different children. This means that specific disabilities may be due to affective inhibition
among other causes.

 Psychoanalysis has explained the child’s resistance to learning in terms of unfavourable

environmental conditions, unsympathetic and critical teachers and parents, lack of
preparations and emotional blocking caused by anxiety and aggression in the form of
phobias or due to inharmonious parent-child or intra-parental relationships.

 Psychoanalysis, thus, brings out the importance or proper environment for the education
of children. The environment in the school and in the home should be such as to reduce
the chances of repression and increase the chances of sublimation. It should provide
opportunities for spontaneous and creative activities and for all sublimations.

 Psychoanalysis has stressed the significance of play in the education of children. Play
along with other natural interests of children should determine the various curricular and
cocurricular activities in the school. This emphasis play has given rise to play therapy and
play-way as important techniques in the treatment of scholastic and emotional problems.

 The success of educational efforts much depends upon the personal relationship
between the teacher and the pupil. This point should not be neglected either by the
practical teacher or the education theorist. The teacher is prone to the influence of

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 parental complexes, because for the pupil, he is in the psychological situation of the
father or mother.
 The teacher is in a position of authority which may provide a favorable opportunity for
the gratification of such powerful impulses as self- esteem, self love, and pleasure in
inflicting pain. These impulses work in such a disguised form that consciousness cannot
easily recognize their true nature.

 The pupils, too, can resort to narcissism and exhibitionism if the teacher is not able to
handle them in a psychological manner. All this requires that the teacher must be able to
understand his own psyche so that he may take due precautions against his special
tendencies and complexes. He should also be able to get into contact with the pupil’s
psychic life.

Psychoanalytic theory & children's classroom activities

-Psychoanalytic theories seek to understand how and why humans think and behave in certain
patterns from infancy. Psychoanalytic theories seek to understand how and why humans think
and behave in certain patterns from infancy.

When applying psychoanalytic theories to children in the classroom, activities are typically
categorised into either behaviorism or cognitivism.

-Behaviorism focuses on tangible behaviours, such as a child who will share her toys versus a
child of the same age who refuses to share.

- Behaviorism also looks at conditioning and social learning to understand where a child picks up
his personality traits and habits.
-Cognitivism looks at mental processes and events rather than tangible behaviours. Cognitive
structure, or the structure and function of the brain, is of particular concern here. In cognitive
science, psychologists are concerned with whether behaviours can be justified chemically or
structurally in biological differences between people.

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- When behaviorism and cognitivism are understood, teachers, parents and psychologists can
attempt to answer behavioural disorders from a social conditioning and chemical perspective. A
behavioural problem may be rooted in either or both areas of psychoanalysis.

Examples
An example of a classic activity used for psychoanalysis in the classroom is role playing. During
a role play, the teacher exercises control over the basic set-up of the scenario.
Students then act within those boundaries to produce original decisions and actions. In each
scenario, a student knows there are things she should or should not do. For example, if the
scenario involves seeing another child break a rule, the actor in the role play must decide what to
do. Should he tell the teacher, attempt to punish or correct the child himself or let the child get
away with it?

Classroom activities around psychoanalytic theory can be public or anonymous. An example of

an anonymous psychoanalytic activity is the question and answer game. Students write
anonymous questions about social situations on a piece of paper and submit them to the teacher.
The teacher will pass the questions back out to students, making sure each student gets a
question he did not write. Students take the questions home and answer them overnight, and
resubmit them anonymously. The teacher then reads them aloud for class discussion.

 An example of a classic activity used for psychoanalysis in the classroom is role playing.
 During a role play, the teacher exercises control over the basic set-up of the scenario.

ii. Humanistic Theory by Carl Rogers

One pioneering humanistic theorist was Carl Rogers. He was an

influential humanistic psychologist who developed a personality theory that emphasized the
importance of the self-actualizing tendency in shaping human personalities. He also believed
that humans are constantly reacting to stimuli with their subjective reality (phenomenal field),
which changes continuously. Over time, a person develops a self-concept based on the feedback
from this field of reality.

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Figure 1. The phenomenal field refers to a person’s subjective reality, which includes external
objects and people as well as internal thoughts and emotions. The person’s motivations and
environments both act on their phenomenal field.

One of Rogers’s main ideas about personality regards self-concept, our thoughts and feelings
about ourselves.

Rogers further divided the self into two categories: the ideal self and the real self. The ideal
self is the person that you would like to be; the real self is the person you actually are.
Rogers focused on the idea that we need to achieve consistency between these two selves.

-Unconditional Positive Regard/Love

Human beings develop an ideal self and a real self, based on the conditional status of positive
regard. How closely one’s real self matches up with their ideal self is called congruence. We
experience congruence when our thoughts about our real self and ideal self are very similar—in
other words when our self-concept is accurate. High congruence leads to a greater sense of self-
worth and a healthy, productive life. Conversely, when there is a great discrepancy between our

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ideal and actual selves, we experience a state Rogers called incongruence, which can lead to
maladjustment.

According to Rogers, parents can help their children achieve their ideal self by giving them
unconditional positive regard, or unconditional love. In the development of self-concept,
positive regard is key. Unconditional positive regard is an environment that is free of
preconceived notions of value. Conditional positive regard is full of conditions of worth that
must be achieved to be considered successful. Rogers (1980) explained it this way: “As persons
are accepted and prized, they tend to develop a more caring attitude towards themselves” (p.
116).

-The Good Life

Rogers described life in terms of principles rather than stages of development. These principles
exist in fluid processes rather than static states. He claimed that a fully functioning person would
continually aim to fulfill their potential in each of these processes, achieving what he called “the
good life.“ These people would allow personality and self-concept to emanate from experience.
He found that fully functioning individuals had several traits or tendencies in common:

1. A growing openness to experience–they move away from defensiveness.

2. An increasingly existential lifestyle–living each moment fully, rather than distorting the
moment to fit personality or self-concept.

3. Increasing organismic trust–they trust their own judgment and their ability to choose
behavior that is appropriate for each moment.

4. Freedom of choice–they are not restricted by incongruence and are able to make a wide
range of choices more fluently. They believe that they play a role in determining their own
behavior and so feel responsible for their own behavior.

5. Higher levels of creativity–they will be more creative in the way they adapt to their own
circumstances without feeling a need to conform.

6. Reliability and constructiveness–they can be trusted to act constructively. Even aggressive

needs will be matched and balanced by intrinsic goodness in congruent individuals.

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 7. A rich full life–they will experience joy and pain, love and heartbreak, fear and courage
more intensely.

-Application of humanistic theory in learning

Good teachers are always looking for ways to improve their methods to help students thrive in
their classroom. Different learning theories and techniques help teachers connect with different
students based on their learning style and abilities. Teaching strategies that are student-centered
often have great success in helping students learn and grow better. Learner-centered approaches
place the student as the authority in the educational setting, helping ensure that they are the focus
of education and are in control of their learning to an extent.

-The idea of student-centered learning is an example of the humanistic learning theory in action.
It’s valuable for current and aspiring educators alike to learn about student-centered education
and other humanistic approaches to use in their classroom. These approaches can be vital in
helping students truly learn and succeed in their education.

-there are several important principles involved in the humanistic learning theory that all lead to
self-actualization. Self-actualization is when all your needs are met, you’ve become the best
you’ve can, and you are fulfilled.

-Student Choice is central to the humanistic learning theory and humanistic psychology.
Humanistic learning is student-centered, so students are encouraged to take control over their
education. They make choices that can range from daily activities to future goals. Students are
encouraged to focus on a specific subject area of interest for a reasonable amount of time that
they choose. Teachers who utilize humanistic learning believe that it’s crucial for students to find
motivation and engagement in their learning, and that is more likely to happen when students are
choosing to learn about something that they really want to know.

-Fostering engagement to inspire students to become self-motivated to learn. The effectiveness

of this psychology approach is based on learners feeling engaged and self-motivated so they
want to learn. So humanistic learning relies on educators working to engage students,
encouraging them to find things they are passionate about so they are excited about learning.

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 The importance of self-evaluation. For most humanistic teachers, grades don’t really matter.
Self-evaluation is the most meaningful way to evaluate how learning is going. Grading students
encourages students to work for the grade, instead of doing things based on their own satisfaction
and excitement of learning. Routine testing and rote memorization don’t lead to meaningful
learning in this theory, and thus aren’t encouraged by humanistic teachers. Humanistic educators
help students perform self-evaluations so they can see how students feel about their progress.

 Feelings and knowledge are both important to the learning process and should not be separated
according to humanistic psychology. Humanistic teachers believe that knowledge and feelings go
hand-in-hand in the learning process. Cognitive and affective learning are both important to
humanistic learning. Lessons and activities should focus on the whole student and their intellect
and feelings, not one or the other.

 A safe learning environment. Because humanistic learning focuses on the entire student,
humanistic educators understand that they need to create a safe environment so students can have
as many as their needs met as possible. They need to feel safe physically, mentally, and
emotionally in order to be able to focus on learning. So humanistic educators are passionate
about the idea of helping students meet as many of their needs as possible.

The role of teacher and student in humanistic learning theory.

In the humanistic learning theory, teachers and students have specific roles for success. The
overall role of a teacher is to be a facilitator and role model, not necessarily to be the one doing
the teacher. The role of the teacher includes:

 Teach learning skills. Good teachers in humanistic learning theory focus on helping students
develop learning skills. Students are responsible for learning choices, so helping them understand
the best ways to learn is key to their success.

 Provide motivation for classroom tasks. Humanistic learning focuses on engagement, so teachers
need to provide motivation and exciting activities to help students feel engaged about learning.

 Provide choices to students in task/subject selection. Choice is central to humanistic learning, so

teachers have a role in helping work with students to make choices about what to learn. They
may offer options, help students evaluate what they’re excited about, and more.

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 Create opportunities for group work with peers. As a facilitator in the classroom, teachers create
group opportunities to help students explore, observe, and self evaluate. They can do this better
as they interact with other students who are learning at the same time that they are.

Humanistic approach examples in education.

Some examples of humanistic education in action include:

 Teachers can help students set learning goals at the beginning of the year, and then help design
pathways for students to reach their goals. Students are in charge of their learning, and teachers
can help steer them in the right direction.

 Teachers can create exciting and engaging learning opportunities. For example, teachers trying to
help students understand government can allow students to create their own government in the
classroom. Students will be excited about learning, as well as be in-charge of how everything
runs.

 Teachers can create a safe learning environment for students by having snacks, encouraging
students to use the bathroom and get water, and creating good relationships with students so they
will trust speaking to their teacher if there is an issue.

 Teachers can utilize journaling to help students focus on self-evaluation and their feelings as part
of learning. Using prompt questions can help students better understand their feelings and
progress in learning.

Best practices from humanistic theory to bring to your classroom.

A teaching degree is a crucial step for those who want to be teachers. A degree can help them
learn about current practices and trends in teaching, learning theories, and how to apply them to
the classroom. Established teachers can also greatly benefit from continuing education and
continuously expanding their techniques.

When considering their own teaching practices, teachers can work to incorporate humanistic
theory into their classroom by:

 Making time to collaborate with other educators

 Co-planning lessons with other teachers

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 Evaluating student needs and wants regularly

 Connecting with parents to help meet specific student needs

 Preparing to try new things with students regularly

iii. Behaviorism Theory

The behavior perspective, or behaviorism, is the belief that personality is the result of an
individual’s interactions with their environment, including the decisions they make and the
actions they take. Psychologists can pinpoint and connect habits and behavior to predict how a
person’s personality was shaped.

The interactions that may form the path of your life and the shape of your personality include:

 Traumatic life experiences

 Lessons from your parents and teachers
 Lessons from movies, TV, and other forms of media
 Relationships
Behaviourist Theories of Personality

Our behaviors are reflections of our personality. Behaviorists such as Skinner and Rotter have
formulated their respective theorists of personality.

i.Personality and Skinner

B.F. Skinner proposed that our differences in our learning experiences are the main reason
behind our individual differences in our behavior. And we learn these patterns of behavior either
directly (reward as positive reinforcement of good behavior or punishment as a negative
reinforcement of behavior). Skinner believed that it is simply human nature that we behave in
such a way that we would receive rewards or favorable things. If we want to experience
reinforcement, then we should develop personality traits that are positive, such as those attributes
included in the "agreeableness" category of the Big Five (e.g. being understanding,
compassionate, empathetic, and a positive thinker). In this sense, Skinner argued that we respond
to every kind of reinforcement, and that our behavior and personality traits can be shaped and

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controlled by the society. In addition to this, Skinner implied that if we want our negative traits
to be changed into positive ones, we must change our environment first. This strict behaviorist
point of view tries to refute other psychologists belief that we must alter our inner self first (that
is, our own personality traits) before we can fully experience the change that we want.ad
behavior) or indirectly (through observational learning or modeling).

ii. Personality and Rotter

When Julian Rotter started developing his social learning theory, he refused to embrace the
ideologies of Freudian Psychoanalysis, which was the dominating viewpoint of the circle of
psychologists during his time. Instead, he utilized the law of effect, wherein people are being
driven to pursue positive reinforcement and to avert negative reinforcement. According to
his theory, personality and behaviorism are not connected by our physiological instincts and
drives.

The main viewpoint in the social learning theory of Rotter is that personality is a representation
of the contact between the person and his environment. Therefore, his theory posits that we must
consider both the individual and his environment before having a full understanding of his
behavior. In line with this, Rotter believed that personality is a set of potentials that man uses to
respond in certain circumstances.

For Rotter, personality and behavior can always be altered. According to him, changing the
environment the individual is in and changing his way of thinking would lead to a change in his
behavior, and therefore in his personality traits also change according to that specific situation. In
contrast with psychoanalytical theories and strict behavioral theories, Rotter argues that humans
do not just behave to avoid punishment; rather, we are motivated to act by our life goals and our
vision to maximize the rewards we would receive. Now that's a more optimistic way to view
personality and behavior, isn't it?

Personality and behavior are no doubt connected with each other. Our behavior provides us hints
on who we truly are, and our personality traits are given meaning by the way we behave.

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-Factors Affecting Personality Development of Children

Personality development for kids depends on various internal factors such as heredity and
hormone levels which could affect the physical and emotional characteristics of an individual.
The factors that can be controlled though are external factors, so we are going to look at them in
detail.

1. Parental Influence

A child’s personality development depends on how their parents behave with them, the
allowances they give the child, the atmosphere that they create at home, and even the way they
behave with others. Children often mimic their parents' mannerisms, so it is very critical that
parents behave well with and around their kids and become good role models for them.

2. Home Environment

A home with a peaceful and loving environment is the backbone of a child’s mental health and
stability. The child should feel relaxed and free to express themself at home. Over discipline and
overprotection can make your child either rebellious or dependent. Therefore, to foster good
personality development of your child, ensure that you create a friendly environment at home
where the child feels adored and encouraged.

3. School Environment

Children spend most of their time in school, hence parents need to understand how the school
environment is affecting their personality development. An ideal school must not burden the kids
with a lengthy syllabus and curriculum, rather it should have a good mix of extracurricular
activities like sports, dramatics, dance, hiking trips, and soft skills development.

Pay attention to the kind of friends your child has and do so without being too intrusive. You can
also ask the teachers to help in grooming your child well.

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4. Culture

The social behaviour and norms of the society that you and your child live in have a major effect
on your child's knowledge, beliefs, thoughts, and habits. A child subconsciously absorbs the
values of the culture they grow up in. For example, if a child grows up in a community that is
very religious and devoted to praying; that is a habit the child might adopt as well. Or if a child
belongs to a country where art and other intellectual things are pursued heavily, their interests
will be influenced by that kind of culture.

5. Family Treatment

Some personality traits are based on the position of the kid in the family, but they can be
modified if needed. For example, an only child is overprotected by the family, hence they might
pick up some negative traits like selfishness. Also, they might not be able to mingle well in a
group. So, it becomes vital to ensure that such children participate in various group games and
activities and are taught how to share and care.

6. Mass Media and Social Media

It’s the 21st century – the era of entertainment platforms like YouTube, television, movies,
Instagram, etc. where even kids are not isolated from watching celebrity and influencer stories.
They try to imitate their favourite stars by following related news and social media accounts.
While it is nice to acquire some good qualities through media, we need to be careful about not
developing any bad traits. Therefore, as a parent, make sure that the media is influencing your
child’s behaviour in a positive way only.

A child goes through various phases in life from toddlerhood to school age. Each phase comes
with different challenges, experiences, and learnings. It is important to help your child make the
most of these years to develop themself into a well-rounded individual.

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3.2 Cognitive Development Theories. 2 hrs

 analyze cognitive development theories in relation to growth and development

 apply the principles of cognitive development theories to enhance learning in children
i. Cognitive development theories in relation to growth and development

-Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory

Cognitive theory is concerned with the development of a person's thought processes. It also looks
at how these thought processes influence how we understand and interact with the world.

Piaget proposed an idea that seems obvious now, but helped revolutionize how we think about
child development: Children think differently than adults

His cognitive theory seeks to describe and explain the development of thought processes and
mental states. It also looks at how these thought processes influence the way we understand and
interact with the world.

Piaget then proposed a theory of cognitive development to account for the steps and sequence of
children's intellectual development.

 Sensorimotor Stage: A period of time between birth and age two during which an
infant's knowledge of the world is limited to his or her sensory perceptions and motor
activities. Behaviors are limited to simple motor responses caused by sensory stimuli.

in this stage, infants progressively construct knowledge and understanding of the world
by coordinating experiences (such as vision and hearing) with physical interactions with

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 objects (such as grasping, sucking, and stepping). Infants gain knowledge of the world
from the physical actions they perform within it. They progress from reflexive, instinctual
action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward the end of the stage.

Children learn that they are separated from the environment. They have aspect of
environment, even though they may be outside the reach of a child's senses. In this stage,
according to Piaget, the development of object permanence is one of the most important
accomplishments. Object permanence is a child’s understanding that objects continue to
exist even though he or she cannot be seen or heard. By the end of the sensorimotor
period, children develop a permanent sense of self and object.

 Pre-Operational Stage: A period between ages 2 and 6 during which a child learns to
use language. During this stage, children do not yet understand concrete logic, cannot
mentally manipulate information and are unable to take the point of view of other people.
 Concrete Operational Stage: A period between ages 7 and 11 during which children
gain a better understanding of mental operations. Children begin thinking logically about
concrete events but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts.
 Formal Operational Stage: A period between age 12 to adulthood when people develop
the ability to think about abstract concepts. Skills such as logical thought, deductive
reasoning, and systematic planning also emerge during this stage.

Using Cognitive Learning Principles in learning

Cognitive learning principles focus on what you know rather than your response to stimuli and
can be used to modify behavior and produce better results in everyday interactions. Explore
cognitive learning principles, principles in the classroom, and examples of behavior
modification.

Cognitive Learning Principles

When you think about something and then decide to do it, you're probably using what
psychologists call cognitive functions, meaning conscious functions and thought processes in
your brain. However, there is another part of your mind that is more mystical called the

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unconscious by Sigmund Freud and the subconscious by Pierre Janet. We'll stick with the
term subconscious for the sake of simplicity, but, in short, it's the part of your mind that's
affected by everything that has happened to you and is filled with emotional content, needs,
drives, desires, etc., and is often quite hidden from your conscious mind. The subconscious can
have as much or more control over what you do as your cognitive mind.

In the classroom, it's often the subconscious that causes students to ''act up'' or be unproductive.
Students (like everyone else) are driven by subconscious motivations they don't completely
understand, and those inner pains, needs, and feelings can cause them to do useless, distracting,
or destructive things. If the teacher can get the students to consciously evaluate their own
behavior against a reasonable reward/consequence system, then the result is typically a more
orderly and successful classroom. In this lesson, we'll discuss the use of cognitive learning
principles to modify behavior.

-Principles in the Classroom

In a classroom environment, the teacher may be tired, frustrated with her job, or even be having
trouble in her marriage, and although she wants to make each class as profitable for her students
as possible, her subconscious has many other needs (such as the desire to express her rage or
frustration) that will tend to affect her behavior. Her desire for love or acceptance may make her
too lenient, or her frustration may cause her to express inappropriate levels of anger or hostility
toward her students in the classroom even though they, of course, may have had nothing to do
with the event that caused the feelings.

The students, of course, bring their own subconscious needs to the room. For example, they may
want attention, hold hidden angers, or bring unconscious fears to the room. These emotional
undercurrents can cause difficulties in the classroom, where their subconscious forces cause
ineffective behavior. John or Mary get sent to the principal's office, missing out on the key
presentations that were an important part of their ongoing education. Meanwhile, Mrs. Terra
decides to skip an important presentation and give her class a worksheet to do because she
doesn't feel like doing the presentation. Everyone loses.

-How children develop intellectual abilities at various stages

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Intellectual development refers here to the changes that occur, as a result of growth and
experience, in a person’s capacities for thinking, reasoning, relating, judging, conceptualizing,
etc. In particular it concerns such changes in children.

It is important that parents and caregivers understand their child’s current intellectual stage so
they can offer activities to support their child’s cognitive or intellectual growth. Creative and
artistic play helps with learning and development by letting children engage in problem solving
where there are no right answers. With creative activity, the process is more important than the
end product.

Cognitive or intellectual development means the growth of a child’s ability to think and reason.
It's about how they organize their minds, ideas and thoughts to make sense of the world they live
in.

Some intellectual development milestones you may notice in five and six-year-olds include:

 Vocabulary increasing to 2,000 words, sentences of five or more words.

 Can count up to 10 objects at one time, can copy complex shapes.
 Begin to reason and argue, uses words like why and because.
 Understand concepts like yesterday, today and tomorrow.
 Are able to sit at a desk, follow teacher instructions and do simple assignments
independently.

Some intellectual development milestones you may notice in seven to 11-year-olds include:

 A longer attention span and willing to take on more responsibility such as chores.
 Understand fractions, money and the concept of space.
 Can tell time and name months and days of week in order.
 Enjoy reading a book on their own.

Adolescents aged 12 to 18 are capable of complex thinking. This includes the ability to:

 Think abstractly about possibilities.

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  Reason from known principles, forming own new ideas or questions.
 Consider many points of view, comparing or debating ideas or opinions.
 Thinking about the process of thinking, being aware of the act of thought processes.

What kinds of intellectual growth occur in adolescence?

A child in early adolescence:

 Uses more complex thinking focused on personal decision-making in school and at home.
 Begins to show use of formal logical operations in schoolwork.
 Begins to question authority and society standards.
 Begins to form and speak own thoughts and views on a variety of topics. You may hear
your child talk about which sports or groups they prefer and what parental rules should be
changed.

A child in middle adolescence:

 Expands thinking to include more complex, philosophical and futuristic concerns.

 Often questions more extensively, analyzes more extensively.
 Thinks about and begins to form his or her own code of ethics (What do I think is right?).
 Thinks about different possibilities and begins to develop own identity (Who am I?).
 Begins to systematically consider possible future goals (What do I want?).

A child in late adolescence:

 Uses complex thinking to focus on less self-centred concepts and personal decision-
making.
 Has increased thoughts about global concepts, such as justice, history, politics and
patriotism.
 Often develops idealistic views on topics, may debate and develop intolerance of
opposing views.
 Begins to focus thinking on making career decisions and their emerging role in adult
society.

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3.3 Language Development theories (1 hr)

 analyze language development in children

 apply the principles of language development to enhance acquisition of language in
children

i. language development in children

Humans, especially children, have an amazing ability to learn language. Within the first year of
life, children will have learned many of the necessary concepts to have functional language,
although it will still take years for their capabilities to develop fully. As we just explained, some
people learn two or more languages fluently and are bilingual or multilingual. Here is a recap of
the theorists and theories that have been proposed to explain the development of language, and
related brain structures, in children.

 kk
Language development is a slow process that starts during early childhood, allowing children to
grasp the spoken word and communicate.

Theories of Language Development

Skinner: Operant Conditioning

B. F. Skinner believed that children learn language through operant conditioning; in other
words, children receive “rewards” for using language in a functional manner. For example, a
child learns to say the word “drink” when she is thirsty; she receives something to drink, which
reinforces her use of the word for getting a drink, and thus she will continue to do so. This
follows the four-term contingency that Skinner believed was the basis of language development

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—motivating operations, discriminative stimuli, response, and reinforcing stimuli. Skinner also
suggested that children learn language through imitation of others, prompting, and shaping.

Chomsky: Language Acquisition Device

Noam Chomsky’s work discusses the biological basis for language and claims that children have
innate abilities to learn language. Chomsky terms this innate ability the “language acquisition
device.” He believes children instinctively learn language without any formal instruction. He
also believes children have a natural need to use language, and that in the absence of formal
language children will develop a system of communication to meet their needs. He has observed
that all children make the same type of language errors, regardless of the language they are
taught. Chomsky also believes in the existence of a “universal grammar,” which posits that there
are certain grammatical rules all human languages share. However, his research does not identify
areas of the brain or a genetic basis that enables humans’ innate ability for language.

Piaget: Assimilation and Accommodation

Jean Piaget’s theory of language development suggests that children use both assimilation and
accommodation to learn language. Assimilation is the process of changing one’s environment to
place information into an already-existing schema (or idea). Accommodation is the process of
changing one’s schema to adapt to the new environment. Piaget believed children need to first
develop mentally before language acquisition can occur. According to him, children first create
mental structures within the mind (schemas) and from these schemas, language development
happens.

Vygotsky: Zone of Proximal Development

Lev Vygotsky’s theory of language development focused on social learning and the zone of
proximal development (ZPD). The ZPD is a level of development obtained when children
engage in social interactions with others; it is the distance between a child’s potential to learn
and the actual learning that takes place. Vygotsky’s theory also demonstrated that Piaget
underestimated the importance of social interactions in the development of language. Piaget’s

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and Vygotsky’s theories are often compared with each other, and both have been used
successfully in the field of education.

What are the stages of language development

Here are the main stages of language development in children:

1. Pre-linguistic stage

Also known as the pre-linguistic stage, the first stage of language development often occurs
between zero and six months. Children in this phase don't have developed language skills, so
they communicate with sounds. They cry, make cooing sounds and utter nasal murmurs as their
vocal tracts develop. Infants can also recognize voices and sounds in addition to facial
expressions and voice tones.

2. Babbling stage

The second stage of a child's language development happens between the ages of 6 and 9
months. Children begin to babble, making noises and syllables that aren’t yet words. Mouth
muscles and teeth grow to prepare children for more advanced talking.

3. Holophrastic stage

The third phase of language development, also known as the holophrastic stage, usually happens
between the ages of 9 and 18 months. During this time, their language skills usually have
increased enough for them to say single words that describe objects or identify their basic needs.
For instance, a child in this stage might say "dada" as a way of getting their dad's attention.

4. Two-word stage

During this stage, the child can speak two-word sentences that usually have some meaning. They
group words together that they learned during the holophrastic stage. Some examples may
include:

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  Saying "more food" at the table
 Saying "doggy small" to describe a dog
 Saying "thank mom!" to show appreciation

5. Telegraphic stage

The telegraphic stage occurs between the ages of 24 and 30 months. Children can speak phrases
that are not only longer but also have more than two elements. For instance, a child might say
“The cat stand up on the table.” Correct grammar still isn’t prevalent in this stage, but the
sentence conveys that the cat is standing up in addition to being on the table. The child also
develops the ability to understand basic instructions, including two-part orders like "go to your
table and get your books."

6. Multi-word stage

Beyond 30 months, children enter the multi-word stage. They build increasingly complex
sentences that allow them to better communicate their ideas. They also start to incorporate
morphemes to make more semantically sound phrases. For instance, they know to use the word
“dogs” instead of “dog” when referring to more than one dog. The telegraphic stage occurs
between the ages of 24 and 30 months.

The Six Research-Based Principles of Language Development

Principle 1: Children Need to Hear Many Words Often

Language is a self-reinforcing system that is constantly evolving even your baby begins to
speak.
Principle 2: Children Learn Words When They Are Interested
Language learning occurs best when the conversation or book topic is based on objects or
actions of immediate interest to your child.

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Principle 3: Children Learn Best When Adults are Responsive to Them
There is no question that children learn best in an environment filled with responsive and
caring adults. We have learned that gesturally communicating with your infant contributes to
their language development even though they cannot talk yet.

Principle 4: Words are Learned When Meanings Are Made Clear

It goes without saying the importance of assuring your child understands the words you are
using during conversation and reading time. Help them grasp the meaning of novel words by
using some of these ideas:
 Giving a direct definition of the word in question.
 Pointing to an example of the word
 Using intonation or gestures to signal the word’s meaning.

Principle 5: Vocabulary and Grammar are Learning Together

Vocabulary and grammar are interconnected and develop in parallel with one another. When a
child subconsciously notes the linguistic context in which words appear, they gain
information about their parts of speech.

Principle 6: Keep Language Positive and Engaging

It is most beneficial to use affirmations rather than prohibitions while communicating with
your child. Prohibitions such as, “Don’t touch that,” or “That’s a no-no,” are considered to be
conversation closers. Rather than closing conversations, affirm your child’s interest in
whatever matter they are gravitating toward. Speak in full sentences and expand on your
thought process as well as theirs. When parents expand on their children’s language, it keeps
the conversation open and creates a space that fosters language growth!

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3.4 psychosocial development theories (1 hr)
 analyze the theories of psychosocial development in children
 apply the principles of psychosocial development theories to promote children
socialization and learning process

i. theories of psychosocial development in children-stages of psycho-social theory

Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of
psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the person experiences
a psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or negative outcome for personality
development.

For Erikson (1958, 1963), these crises are of a psychosocial nature because they involve
psychological needs of the individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e.,
social).

According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and
the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which the ego can use to
resolve subsequent crises.

Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages
and therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of self. These stages, however, can be
resolved successfully at a later time.

1. Trust vs. Mistrust

Trust vs. mistrust is the first stage in Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This
stage begins at birth continues to approximately 18 months of age. During this stage, the infant is
uncertain about the world in which they live, and looks towards their primary caregiver for
stability and consistency of care.

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If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, they will develop a sense of
trust which will carry with them to other relationships, and they will be able to feel secure even
when threatened.

If these needs are not consistently met, mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety may develop.

If the care has been inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable, then the infant may develop a
sense of mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety. In this situation the infant will not have confidence in
the world around them or in their abilities to influence events

Success and Failure in Stage One

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope. By developing a sense of trust, the infant can
have hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other people will be there as a
source of support.

Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the development of fear. This infant will carry
the basic sense of mistrust with them to other relationships. It may result in anxiety, heightened
insecurities, and an over feeling of mistrust in the world around them.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial
development. This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately 3 years.
According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing a sense of personal
control over physical skills and a sense of independence.

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will. If children in this stage are encouraged and
supported in their increased independence, they become more confident and secure in their own
ability to survive in the world.

If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves,
they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent
upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their abilities.

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What Happens During This Stage?

The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile, and discovering that he or she
has many skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes, playing with toys, etc. Such
skills illustrate the child's growing sense of independence and autonomy.

For example, during this stage children begin to assert their independence, by walking away
from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to
wear, to eat, etc.

What Can Parents Do to Encourage a Sense of Control?

Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities
within an encouraging environment which is tolerant of failure.

For example, rather than put on a child's clothes a supportive parent should have the patience to
allow the child to try until they succeed or ask for assistance.

So, the parents need to encourage the child to become more independent while at the same time
protecting the child so that constant failure is avoided.

A delicate balance is required from the parent. They must try not to do everything for the child,
but if the child fails at a particular task they must not criticize the child for failures and accidents
(particularly when toilet training).

3. Initiative vs. Guilt

Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.
During the initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more frequently through
directing play and other social interaction.

These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child’s life. According to Bee (1992), it
is a “time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive."

During this period the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting with other children
at school. Central to this stage is play, as it provides children with the opportunity to explore
their interpersonal skills through initiating activities.
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Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this
opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative and feel secure in their ability to lead others
and make decisions

Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a
sense of guilt. The child will often overstep the mark in his forcefulness, and the danger is that
the parents will tend to punish the child and restrict his initiatives too much.

It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for knowledge
grows. If the parents treat the child’s questions as trivial, a nuisance or embarrassing or other
aspects of their behavior as threatening then the child may have feelings of guilt for “being a
nuisance”.

Too much guilt can make the child slow to interact with others and may inhibit their creativity.
Some guilt is, of course, necessary; otherwise the child would not know how to exercise self-
control or have a conscience.

A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is important. Success in this stage will lead to the
virtue of purpose, while failure results in a sense of guilt.

4. Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson's fourth psychosocial crisis, involving industry (competence) vs. Inferiority occurs
during childhood between the ages of five and twelve.

Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, to do things
on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the child’s life as they teach the child
specific skills.

It is at this stage that the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and will become a
major source of the child’s self-esteem. The child now feels the need to win approval by
demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by society and begin to develop a sense of
pride in their accomplishments.

If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious
(competent) and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not

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encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or teacher, then the child begins to feel inferiour,
doubting his own abilities and therefore may not reach his or her potential.

If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel society is demanding (e.g., being athletic)
then they may develop a sense of Inferiority.

Some failure may be necessary so that the child can develop some modesty. Again, a balance
between competence and modesty is necessary. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue
of competence.

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion

The fifth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is identity vs. role
confusion, and it occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this stage,
adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity, through an intense exploration of
personal values, beliefs, and goals.

During adolescence, the transition from childhood to adulthood is most important. Children are
becoming more independent, and begin to look at the future in terms of career, relationships,
families, housing, etc. The individual wants to belong to a society and fit in.

This is a major stage of development where the child has to learn the roles he will occupy as an
adult. It is during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find out
exactly who he or she is. Erikson suggests that two identities are involved: the sexual and the
occupational.

According to Bee (1992), what should happen at the end of this stage is “a reintegrated sense of
self, of what one wants to do or be, and of one’s appropriate sex role”. During this stage the body
image of the adolescent changes.

Erikson claims that the adolescent may feel uncomfortable about their body for a while until they
can adapt and “grow into” the changes. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity.

Fidelity involves being able to commit one's self to others on the basis of accepting others, even
when there may be ideological differences.

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During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon the
outcome of their explorations. Failure to establish a sense of identity within society ("I don’t
know what I want to be when I grow up") can lead to role confusion. Role confusion involves the
individual not being sure about themselves or their place in society.

In response to role confusion or identity crisis, an adolescent may begin to experiment with
different lifestyles (e.g., work, education or political activities).

Also pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion in the form of establishing a
negative identity, and in addition to this feeling of unhappiness.

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.
This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 18 to 40 yrs.
During this stage, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other
people.

During this stage, we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We explore
relationships leading toward longer-term commitments with someone other than a family
member.

Successful completion of this stage can result in happy relationships and a sense of commitment,
safety, and care within a relationship.

Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and
sometimes depression. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love.

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation

Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh of eight stages of Erik Erikson's theory of
psychosocial development. This stage takes place during during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65
yrs).

Psychologically, generativity refers to "making your mark" on the world through creating or
nurturing things that will outlast an individual. During middle age individuals experience a need

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to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often having mentees or creating positive
changes that will benefit other people.

We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and becoming
involved in community activities and organizations. Through generativity we develop a sense of
being a part of the bigger picture.

Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow
involvement in the world.

By failing to find a way to contribute, we become stagnant and feel unproductive. These
individuals may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their community and with society as a
whole. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of care.

8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Ego integrity versus despair is the eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson’s stage theory of
psychosocial development. This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at death. It is
during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and can develop integrity if we see
ourselves as leading a successful life.

Individuals who reflect on their life and regret not achieving their goals will experience feelings
of bitterness and despair.

Erikson described ego integrity as “the acceptance of one’s one and only life cycle as something
that had to be” (1950, p. 268) and later as “a sense of coherence and wholeness” (1982, p. 65).

As we grow older (65+ yrs) and become seniour citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity
and explore life as a retired person.

Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that
we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often
leading to depression and hopelessness.

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back on
their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear.

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Wise people are not characterized by a continuous state of ego integrity, but they experience both
ego integrity and despair. Thus, late life is characterized by both integrity and despair as
alternating states that need to be balanced.Apply Psychosocial

-Application of psychosocial development on learning

i. how to apply psychosocial theory in learning

According to Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, each individual's psyche is

shaped through a series of conflicts called developmental crises. Three of these crises occur
during childhood and adolescence, which means that teachers who believe in Erikson's theory
should focus on these crises to ensure that students develop healthy, fully realized identities.
According to Erikson, the key crisis for children between the ages of three and six is "initiative
vs. guilt." From six to twelve, the crisis is "industry vs. inferiority," and for teenagers, "identity
vs. role confusion."

Initiative vs. Guilt

Give children the opportunity to make choices and act upon those choices. Because the crisis of
initiative vs. guilt determines whether a child learns to plan activities on her own or comes to
associate self-directed behavior with punishment, she must have the opportunity to make
decisions. Provide a portion of the day when children can choose their own activities. Have a
classroom library where children can pick their own books during reading time. This allows
children the opportunity to learn how to make decisions for themselves.

Break instruction and activities down into small steps. This makes it easier for children to
succeed and encourages them to take risks. Without this framework, children may become
frustrated by activities and sense that they are doomed to complete them poorly.

Ensure that any competitive games or activities have well-balanced teams. If children
consistently lose at math games, they may believe they are bad at math. Conversely, even a

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struggling student may feel confident in her mathematical abilities if her team performs well
overall.

Accept mistakes that result from students attempting activities on their own. If a student damages
something or makes a serious error, show him how to fix, clean or redo it instead of simply
punishing him. This will make students feel more confident in their abilities to attempt activities
on their own.

Industry vs. Inferiority

Allow students the opportunity to set realistic goals. Have them create academic and personal
goals for each quarter and revisit those goals every few weeks to monitor their own progress.
Break down each assignment into parts so the students can learn how to set time management
goals. For instance, instead of collecting all parts of a project at once, collect a brainstorming
worksheet on a certain date, a rough draft two weeks later and a final draft the next week. If a
child successfully navigates the crisis of industry vs. inferiority, he will enter adolescence with a
sense that hard work and perseverance will pay off. If not, he will feel that he is a helpless
observer of his life.

Assign jobs to the students. Let them stack chairs, feed class pets, hand out and collect papers,
take attendance sheets to the office and so on. Rotate these jobs regularly so all students have a
chance to participate. This will give the students a sense of accomplishment.

Teach children study skills. Explain how to budget time and keep notebooks, binders and folders
organized. If students fail at these organizational skills, their grades will suffer and they may feel
that they are stupid or doomed to failure.

Provide regular feedback to students, particularly those who seem discouraged. Praise them for
what they are doing right and give constructive criticism of what they are doing wrong. If your
school has a program such as Student of the Month, choose students who have academic or
behavioral issues but are making strong efforts at improvement as well as high achievers. This
will show them that their efforts are paying off even if they are not making straight A's.

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Identity vs. Role Confusion

Provide a variety of positive role models for students. Adolescence is a time of discovering one's
own identity. A teenager who successfully navigates the crisis of identity vs. role confusion will
be able to answer the question, "Who am I?" with confidence. Provide a series of role models to
give students a potential identity model. Teach students about women and minorities who
succeeded at a variety of careers, so all students have a role model to whom they can relate.
Mention individuals who made lesser-known contributions to your academic discipline. A
budding poet may feel more kinship with Eavan Boland than Emily Dickinson.

Provide models of exemplary work so students know what an excellent project looks like and
can compare their own work to the model. This will show them how to incorporate academic
success into their identities, essentially providing role models for their work instead of their
career goals.

Provide opportunities for students to bring their own interests into projects and assessments, as
they may feel these interests are vital parts of their identities. Allow students to choose between a
variety of final projects -- skits, essays, art projects, music compositions, etc. -- so they can either
choose a project that appeals to their interests or explore new aspects of their identities.

Criticize behaviors rather than making personal condemnations of the students themselves.
Students are "trying on" roles at this point, and negative feedback for a behavior may encourage
them to drop it and try another.

Explain the long-term consequences of misbehavior or poor performance so students will know
how it affects themselves and others. This may encourage them to adopt a more responsible
identity.

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Encourage and support student interests. Attend school plays, concerts and games to affirm
students' identities as actors, musicians and athletes.

ii. Application of psychosocial development theory on learning

Social interaction shapes personality development, according to Danish psychoanalyst Erik

Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. From birth, a child creates an emotional
repertoire tied to her perceptions of her world’s safety. Fear of new experiences battles with
exploratory instincts, and the winner depends on whether a child feels safe. Teachers who know
how to apply psychosocial development in the classroom create a safe environment where each
child feels appreciated and comfortable exploring new knowledge and relationships rather than
letting fear inhibit learning.

Preschool: Hardy Personality

Step 1

Create projects that allow children to take charge of their learning process. Incorporate
children’s' interests and ideas into classroom activities to send the message that their input
matters to you.

Step 2

Give children many small choices within acceptable limits. Compliment good choices within
earshot of peers and parents, keeping it simple and authentic.

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Step 3

Talk with a child privately about poor choices. Ask questions to encourage cause-and-effect
thinking about the problem, alternate choices, and how she can solve the problem now. Focus on
guiding her to a solution, not on criticizing her as a person.

Step 4

Know the difference between misbehavior and an exploratory misfire. A child learns by
experimenting, so do not punish a child for trying something that did not go as planned. A
simple, "Oops! That didn't work out like you planned, huh? How can you fix it?" teaches a child
that there is life beyond a mistake.

Elementary: Achievement and Peer Relationships

Step 1

Include children in setting classroom rules and discuss what it looks and sounds like when
everyone is following those rules. Make a list of classroom duties, and let students take charge of
these jobs to help the classroom run smoothly.

Step 2

Model empathy to teach children to be sensitive to the needs of others. Role-play different
situations with children, and discuss how they want to be treated when they are in like
circumstances. This encourages them to think beyond themselves.

Step 3

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Demonstrate frequently that learning from mistakes and moving forward is more important than
perfection. Teach children that they should never laugh at, ridicule, demean or ignore someone
who is having trouble socially or academically, but rather offer help and encouragement.

Step 4

Focus on recognizing successes. Leave the mistakes of the past in a vat of oblivion, and help
children build confidence in what they do best.

Step 5

Provide choices rather than one static assignment, which allow children to express their
understanding at the level and in the mode where they can best shine: art and music projects,
multimedia presentations, written reports, oral reports, etc.

Adolescence: Identity and Self-Esteem

Step 1

Monitor your teaching practices for unintentional bias. Teacher education professor Nancy P.
Gallavan asserts that higher expectations of students who most share similarity to the teacher’s
background and personality affects self-perception, self-esteem and confidence to become a self-
fulfilling prophecy. Notice whether you are grouping or favoring students by gender, race or
socioeconomic status, and take steps to correct any inequities.

Step 2

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Expose students to many career choices through reading in history and literature, guest speakers
and field trips or job shadows. Allow students to explore options, such as jobs, education and
family without reference to culturally-influenced gender expectations.

Step 3

Help students identify their own strengths and weaknesses. Marcus Buckingham's Strong Life
Test can help pinpoint these areas. Encourage students to develop confidence and focus goals on
their strengths. Be explicit about the strengths you see in their work and personality.

Step 4

Educate students in practical family living skills to increase confidence and self-sufficiency.
Training in basic cooking, finance management, hygiene, home care and simple auto repairs
(such as changing a tire) will greatly improve a student's preparation to handle the curves that life
throws at him.

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4.0 Child Growth and Human Development

4.1 Developmental Milestones in Children (1 hr)

-differentiate the requisite development milestones in children at infancy, toddler, pre-

schooler, school age and adolescent’s stages

- examine delays and unusual presentations of milestones in children

Learning experiences- write up on development milestones in children(physical, cognitive,

social, emotional and communication)

Developmental milestones are behaviors or physical skills seen in infants and children as they
grow and develop. Rolling over, crawling, walking, and talking are all considered milestones.
The milestones are different for each age range.

Developmental milestones are things most children can do by a certain age. Skills such as
taking a first step, smiling for the first time, and waving “bye-bye” are called developmental
milestones. Children reach milestones in how they play, learn, speak, act, and move. You see
children reach milestones every day.

1. infants (0-1 year)

Physical Milestones of Infancy (birth -1 year)

As infants and toddlers grow, their determination to master movement, balance, and fine- and
gross-motor skills remains strong. Rolling and crawling occur as infants develop skill in using

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large-muscle groups. Grasping and picking up objects with fingers are part of small-muscle
growth.

 Raise head and chest when lying on stomach.

 Support upper body with arms when lying on stomach.
 Stretch legs out and kick when lying on stomach or back.
 Push down on legs when feet are placed on a firm surface.
 Able to sit alone, without support
 Pulls self to standing position

Cognitive milestones of infancy

Cognitive development is critical to a child's growth. It describes how a child's brain develops,
and includes skills such as thinking, learning, exploring and problem solving. It also affects other
areas of a child's development, including language and social skills. Cognitive, or brain
development means the learning process of memory, language, thinking, and reasoning

In the first year, babies learn to focus their vision, reach out, explore, and learn about the things
that are around them.

Learning language is more than making sounds (“babble”), or saying “ma-ma” and “da-da”

From one to three months of age, your child should be able to move their eyes as objects move,
respond to startling and loud noises, follow objects such as rattle toys, recognize familiar people
from a distance, and cry when they are bored or want to communicate

Social milestones of infancy

Babies are born social creatures. From their earliest days, they begin to connect to and collect
information from their caregivers. In fact, even newborns are capable of imitating facial
expressions, demonstrating an understanding of how another's actions relate to their own.
Around 9-12 months, babies become more interested in exploration.

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 Show happiness when they see their parents' face, their toys, or a mirror. Know the difference
between strangers and their family, and cry when their parent goes away. Give affection and love

Communication Milestones of infancy

 0-3 Months. At this age, baby will make quiet coos and smile. ...
 4-6 Months. While baby still isn't forming words, they'll react more to your communication. ...
 7-9 Months. The variety of sounds baby can make will increase. ...
 10-12 Months. This is when baby typically begins using words in meaningful ways
2. Toddlers (1-3 years )

Physical Development Milestones

 Kicks a ball.
 Runs.
 Walks (not climbs) up a few stairs with or without help.
 Eats with a spoon.
 walking, climbing, jumping, running and bustling with energy
Cognitive developmental milestones of toddlers

Know their own name, age, and gender. Follow 2- to 3-step instructions, such as "pick up your
doll and put it on your bed next to the teddy bear." Grasp the concept of "two." For example,
they understand when they have two cookies rather than one.

Social Emotional milestones of toddlers

 Recognize themselves in pictures or the mirror and smile or make faces at themselves

 Show intense feelings for parents and show affection for other familiar people

 Play by themselves and initiate their own play

 Express negative feelings

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 Show pride and pleasure at new accomplishments

 Imitate adult behaviors in play

 Show a strong sense of self through assertiveness, directing others

 Begin to be helpful, such as by helping to put things away

By the end of 12 months, your child might:

 Try imitating speech sounds.

 Say a few words, such as "dada," "mama" and "uh-oh"
 Understand simple instructions, such as "Come here"
 Recognize words for common items, such as "shoe"
 Turn and look in the direction of sound

3. Developmental milestones of preschool (3-6)

-Physical developments

 Gains weight
 Grows in height
 Has all 20 primary teeth by age 3.
 Sleeps 11 to 13 hours at night
 Climbs well
 Runs easily.
 Pedals a tricycle.
 Walks up and down stairs, one foot on each step.
 Washes and dries hands
 Kicks and throws a small ball.
-Cognitive development
 Correctly names some colors.
 Understands the concept of counting and may know a few numbers.

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 Approaches problems from a single point of view.
 Begins to have a clearer sense of time.
 Recalls parts of a story.
 Understands the concept of same/different.
 Engages in fantasy play.
-Social -emotional development
 Copy adults and friends.
 Show affection for friends without prompting.
 Take turns in games.
 Show concern for a crying friend.
 Understand the idea of “mine” and “his” or “hers”
 Show a wide range of emotions.
 Separate easily from mom and dad.
 May get upset with major changes in routine
 Plays make-believe with dolls, animals, and people.
 Copies adults and friends.
 Notices other children and joins them in play.
 Shows affection for friends without prompting.
 Shows concern for crying friend.
 Shows a wide range of emotions.
- Language and Communication Developmental Milestones in Preschool

 Carries on a conversation using at least two or more back-and-forth exchanges.

 Asks “who”, “what”, “where,” or “why" questions.
 Says what action is happening in a picture book when asked like “eating” or “running”
 Says first name when asked
4. -Developmental milestones of school age ( 6-12 years)
-physical developments

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  School-age children will gain between four and seven pounds each year and continue to
have height increases. Increases in height will vary, and a three- to six-inch height
difference in an age group is typical.
 Growth spurts are common in school-age children, as are periods of slow growth.
Children in a growth spurt usually need an increase in calorie intake. Growth spurts can
also lead to body parts being out of proportion. For example, a child could stay at one
height while his or her feet keep growing. This can lead to school-age children feeling
awkward or clumsy. This feeling of awkwardness or clumsiness typically passes once
puberty is over.
 School-age children will begin to see an improvement in their motor skills. They will
have better control, coordination, and balance.
 Muscle mass increases in school-age children, making them stronger.

-cognitive development

 They begin to see things from other school-age children's perspectives and begin to
understand how their behavior affects others.
 They are developing their oral language skills, acquiring new vocabulary and sentence
structures.
 They can compose sentences with five or more words.
 They enjoy planning and building.
 They understand concepts of space, time, and dimension.
 They understand concepts like yesterday, today, and tomorrow. They know left and right.
 They begin to develop a sense of self-confidence and mastery of their learning.
 They are learning to read and write and can sound out simple words.
 They begin to reason and argue.
 They can perform simple addition and subtraction.
 They can distinguish fantasy from reality.
 They have increased memory, attention span, and impulse control.

-Early adolescence (ages 8-12)

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  They are capable of perspective taking and understand and consider other's perspectives.
 They begin to think hypothetically, considering several possibilities, and can think
logically.
 They begin using and manipulating symbols representationally.
 They become more goal oriented.
 They may develop special interests that are a source of motivation.
 Their cognitive development may be affected by school-age children's emotional state.
 They begin to understand facets of the adult world like money and telling time.
 They may enjoy reading a book. They can interpret the context of a paragraph and writes
stories.
 They appreciate humor and word games.
 They understand the conservation of objects.
 They understand fractions and the concept of space.
 They can count backwards.
 They know the date and can name the months and days of the week in order.

-Social development

During this period, children are advancing toward adolescence, and peer friendships start to
become very important in their social and emotional development. They have a growing sense of
independence, and with it, a growing confidence to solve problems and perhaps take risks.

At this stage, children will exhibit many of these characteristics:

 Learn to cooperate in group settings and group games; dislike playing alone
 Spend a lot of time talking with peers
 Develop lasting friendships and begin to handle peer pressure
 Enjoy group activities and group games that focus on a common interest
 Demonstrate growing independence, leading to concern with rules that can lead to bossiness
 Use problem-solving, negotiating and compromising skills with peers
 Develop interest in long-range projects
 Begin to develop sportsmanship and learn about winning and losing gracefully

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 Develop competence in competitive games and team sports
 Become sensitive to what others think of them and to adult approval
 Begin to consider clubs and groups important
 Become critical of their own performance and begin to evaluate themselves
 Become enthusiastic to tackle anything and will work hard to develop a skill
 Develop competitiveness—want to be first and best, and get things right
 re willing to play cooperatively, take turns, and share

-Emotion development

 Can express subtle emotions and experience moments of anger or frustration

 May be quite sensitive and overly dramatic
 Can change emotions quickly
 Can become discouraged, which may lead to being shy in public performances
 Show interest in being more grown-up and able to begin tackling more responsibilities and routines
 Begin to develop their own point of view, which is sometimes different from parents’ ideas
 Are able to use words to describe their own feelings
 Show empathy and offer to help when they see anot
 Show jealousy toward siblings
 Understand their own feeling

-Communication milestones at school age

 At 5-8 years, children understand more about sounds and how they make words. This
helps them with learning to read.
 By the time children are five, you can understand all of what they say.
 Children’s understanding and use of grammar is developing. Their sentences and stories
become more complex too.
 Children are learning more words all the time.

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5. Developmental Milestones of Adolescence

-Physical developments

Many young people will reach their full adult height by the end of puberty. Beyond the growth
spurts, other physical changes that happen in both males and females include body odor, acne,
and more body hair. Females will see changes in where fat appears on their body.

General Physical Changes Adolescents Experience

Although some of the physical changes that happen during adolescence are internal and not
visible, others can be seen easily by others. These obvious changes in the body can affect how
adults and peers of both sexes view and treat young people.

The changes that occur both inside and outside the body during adolescence happen through a
process called “puberty.” This process stems from the release of certain hormones (chemicals) in
the brain. These hormones released are the same in all adolescents, but differences in hormone
levels lead to different results in males and females. The physical changes in adolescents shift
them from their childhood bodies to their adult bodies and give them the ability to get pregnant
or cause pregnancy. This ability to get pregnant or cause pregnancy is called “fertility.”

Anyone who looks at an adolescent male and female side by side will see some clear differences.
Still, adolescents of both sexes exhibit many changes in common, most notably, growth spurts in
height and weight. During these growth spurts, bones and muscles get longer and stronger, which
allows adolescents to take on tasks they were likely not able to do as younger children, such as
lifting heavy objects and walking, running, or biking long distances. Many young people will
reach their full adult height by the end of puberty. Beyond the growth spurts, other physical
changes that happen in both males and females include body odor, acne, and more body hair.

As noted above, many of the physical changes in adolescence are related to fertility. Some
adolescents may be embarrassed by these changes at first, but they need to know that they
happen to everyone. Consider this short list:

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 Females will see changes in where fat appears on their body. For example, breasts become fuller
and hips grow wider. Females typically experience their first menstruation (or period) during
adolescence. Early on, periods can be irregular and affected by illness, stress, and even exercise.

Males’ shoulders become broader and their muscles get bigger. The penis and testicles also
grow, and males will begin to experience erections and ejaculations, both voluntary and
involuntary (sometimes happening while asleep). Males’ voices also deepen during this time and
may crack during the shift.

Around 10-11 years

 Breasts will start developing. This is the first visible sign that puberty is starting. ...
 A growth spurt occurs. Some parts of the body – like the head, face and hands – might grow
faster than limbs and torso. ...
 The body shape will change. ...
 The external genitals (vulva) and pubic hair will start to grow.
 Many biological changes take place during the adolescent years. Most obvious are the physical
changes, for example, increases in height, acquisition of muscle mass, the distribution of body fat
and the development of secondary sexual characteristics.
-Cognitive development

Adolescence marks the beginning development of more complex thinking processes (also called
formal logical operations). This time can include abstract thinking the ability to form their
own new ideas or questions. It can also include the ability to consider many points of view and
compare or debate ideas or opinions.

 Each child moves ahead at their own rate in their ability to think in more complex ways.
 Each child develops their own view of the world.
 Some children may be able to use logical operations in schoolwork long before they can use
them for personal problems.

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 When emotional issues come up, they can cause problems with a child’s ability to think in
complex ways.
 The ability to consider possibilities and facts may affect decision-making. This can happen in
either positive or negative ways
 Do abstract thinking. This means thinking about possibilities.
 Reason from known principles. This means forming own new ideas or questions.
 Consider many points of view. This means to compare or debate ideas or opinions.
 Think about the process of thinking. This means being aware of the act of thought processes.

-Social developments

Go through less conflict with parents. Show more independence from parents. Have a deeper
capacity for caring and sharing and for developing more intimate relationships. Spend less time
with parents and more time with friends.

As their social circles expand, adolescents spend less time with their families and may focus
more on their peers. Young people also develop a greater capacity to form stronger
relationships with adults outside of their families who may function as mentors.

-Emotional development

The child might show strong feelings and intense emotions, and their moods might seem
unpredictable. These emotional ups and downs happen partly because your child's brain is still
learning how to control and express emotions in a grown-up way.

During puberty your child's emotions may become stronger and more intense. Their mood
might change more frequently, quickly and randomly. Your child may have strong emotions that

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they've never experienced before. It's common for them to feel confused, scared or angry and not
know why.

-Emotional/Social Changes

Children in this age group might:

 Show more concern about body image, looks, and clothes.

 Focus on themselves; going back and forth between high expectations and lack of
confidence.
 Experience more moodiness.
 Show more interest in and influence by peer group.
 Express less affection toward parents; sometimes might seem rude or short-tempered.
 Feel stress from more challenging school work.
 Develop eating problems.
 Feel a lot of sadness or depression, which can lead to poor grades at school, alcohol or
drug use, unsafe sex, and other problems.

-Communication milestones at adolescence

Teens should be able to grasp word meanings and contexts, understand punctuation, and
form complex syntactic structures (how words are put together). Communication is more than
the use and understanding of words, though — it also includes how teens think of themselves,
their peers, and authority figures

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4.0 Growth, Development and Milestones

4.2 Physical development milestones

a. Evaluate the physical growth and development milestones in children at various stages
(covererd in 4.1.)

b. discuss the importance of physical development in children

c. demonstrate how to stimulate physical growth and development in children

d. discuss the factors that influence physical development, challenges experienced and suggested
intervention measures

-The importance of physical development in children

Physical development is one domain of development. It relates to the changes, growth and
skill development of the body, including the brain, muscles and senses. Physical
development is evident primarily in gross-motor and fine-motor skills. These skills are essential
to children's overall health and wellness.

Benefits of regular physical activity

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 Healthy growth and development including being a healthy weight and reducing the risk of
disease like diabetes or cancer later in life.
 Building strong hearts, muscles and bones.
 Learning fundamental movement skills.
 Improved movement, balance, coordination and reaction time
-How to stimulate physical growth and development in children
Exclusive breastfeeding, immunization and timely care during illness all contribute to a
child's healthy growth and development. Clean air, water and sanitation, and safe places for play
and recreation are likewise important for young children to explore and learn.
Exclusive breastfeeding, immunization and timely care during illness all contribute to a
child's healthy growth and development. Clean air, water and sanitation, and safe places for play
and recreation are likewise important for young children to explore and learn.

Stimulating your baby's senses will enable them to reach developmental milestones faster,
as well as aid in the development of motor skills. Infant stimulation can help improve your
baby's attention span, memory, curiosity and nervous system development as well
For example, you may stimulate physical development by encouraging an infant to walk back
and forth alongside a couch. Eventually, the child will become accustomed to the balance and
muscle movements that are required to walk and be able to do it on their own.
-Ways to Encourage Motor or Physical Development.

Around the age of 1:

 Let your baby turn the pages of a book when you read with him/her.
 Provide toys with moving parts that stay attached.
 Play games and sing songs with movements that your child can imitate.

At 2 years old:

 Encourage your toddler to build a tower of four or more blocks.

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 Play parade or follow the leader with your toddler.
 Help your toddler to explore things around him/her by going on a walk or wagon ride.
 Gently roll a ball to your little one, and ask your toddler to roll it back.

From ages 3 to 5:

 When outdoors, have your child run between you and another adult or a landmark.
 Practice standing on one foot, and count to see how long he/she can stay still.
 Throw a soft, squishy ball back and forth.
 Do arts and crafts projects using playdough, scissors and small beads on a string.
 Have your child help with simple household chores.
 Give your child crayons, markers and a variety of play materials.

-Factors that influence physical development of a child

 Heredity
 Environment
 Gender
 Hormones
 Exercise
 Nutrition
-Challenges experienced during physical growth and development of children
Child Development Specific Conditions

 Anxiety.
 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
 Autism Spectrum Disorders.
 Cerebral Palsy

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 Conduct Disorder (CD)
 Depression
 Developmental Disabilities
 Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders
 Self-Esteem and Body Image
 Stress
 Bullying
 Depression
 Cyber Addiction
 Drinking and Smoking
 Teen Pregnancy
 Underage Sex

4.3 Cognitive Development…end of TERM 2

a. Define cognitive development in children
b. Examine cognitive development in children at various stages (Discussed in 4.1)
c. Identify the gaps related to cognitive development in children

-Define cognitive development in children

Cognitive development is the construction of thought processes, including remembering,
problem solving, and decision-making, from childhood through adolescence to adulthood.
Cognitive development refers to how a person perceives, thinks, and gains understanding of his
or her world through the interaction of genetic and learned factors. Among the areas of cognitive
development are information processing, intelligence, reasoning, language development, and
memory.
-Gaps related to cognitive development in children

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One of the most frustrating gaps for children and their parents is what we refer to as a cognitive
gap. A cognitive gap is the difference between and individual's current cognitive capacity
and their potential cognitive capacity.
Cognitive capacity refers to the relative strength of cognitive processes or skills such as
attention, memory, and visual and auditory processing. Cognitive skills are the processes in our
brains that take in, recognize, understand, organize, store and retrieve information. They are
the foundation of learning. Weak cognitive skills can keep a child from achieving the academic
and life success their parents want for them. Stronger cognitive skills can help them excel.
Every child on earth has cognitive strengths and weaknesses; every child is unique. But for many
children, there should be a big sign and recorded announcement as they enter their classrooms:
“Mind the Gap.”

4.4 Social Development. TERM 3

-Define social development milestones in children
-Analyse the aspects of social development milestones in children at various stages (covered in
4.1)
-Critic gaps related to social developments in children
-Examine and document the social interactions between caregivers and the child

-Definition of social development milestones in children

Social development is the process through which children learn to build relationships. It involves
learning the values, knowledge, and skills necessary to understand how to get along with others.
Everyday experiences at home support children's developing social skills.
-Analyse the aspects of social development milestones in children at various stages (covered
in 4.1)

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 -Newborn

 Shows feelings by crying.

 Uses face and body to show you how he/she is feeling.
 Shows interest in watching your face.
 Quiets in response to your touch.

-1 Month

 Shows feelings by crying.

 Shows interest in watching your face.
 Quiets in response to touch.

-2 MONTHS

 Shows feelings by crying or smiling.

 Begins to smile at parent.
 Follows parent with eyes.

-3 MONTHS

 Quiets to familiar voice or touch.

 Smiles at people.
 Enjoys being hugged and cuddled.

-4 MONTHS

 Smiles spontaneously, especially at people.

 Shows excitement by waving arms and legs.
 Calms and stops crying when comforted (most of the time).
 Enjoys playing with people and imitating smiles and frowns

-6 MONTHS

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 Knows familiar faces and begins to know if someone is a stranger.
 Enjoys playing with others, especially family (such as “peek-a-boo”).
 Likes to look at self in mirror.
 Responds to other people’s emotions and often seems happy.
 Makes sounds to express happiness or displeasure.

-9 MONTHS

 Shows feelings by smiling, crying and pointing.

 Prefers certain toys.
 Clings to familiar adults.
 Cries when parent leaves and is shy around strangers.
 Responds to own name.

-12 MONTHS

 Prefers certain people and toys.

 Imitates sounds, gestures or actions to get parent's attention.
 Cries when parent leaves and is shy around strangers.
 Puts arm or leg out to help with dressing.
 Enjoys playing games like “peek-a-boo” and “pat-a-cake.”

-18 MONTHS

 Shows interest in other children.

 Plays simple pretend, such as feeding a baby.
 Imitates your behavior.
 Tries new things with familiar adults nearby.
 Hands things to others as part of play.
 Shows feelings, for example, temper tantrums, fear of strangers, affection with familiar people or
clinging to a familiar adult in new situations.
 Points to show things to others.

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 -2 YEARS (TODDLER)

 Plays briefly beside other children, and gets excited when with other children.
 Imitates others, especially adults and older children.
 Shows more and more independence.
 Shows defiance, such as doing what he/she was told not to do.
 Begins to play with other children, as in chasing one another.

-2 YEARS

 Plays briefly beside other children, and gets excited when with other children.
 Imitates others, especially adults and older children.
 Shows more and more independence.
 Shows defiance, such as doing what he/she was told not to do.
 Begins to play with other children, as in chasing one another.

-3 YEARS

 Shows concern and affection for others without prompting.

 Copies adults and friends (for example, runs when other children run).
 Takes turns in games.
 Separates easily from parents.
 Shows a wide range of feelings.
 Enjoys routines and may get upset with a major change.
 Dresses and undresses self.
 Enjoys helping with simple household tasks.
 Verbalizes toilet needs and may be toilet trained during the day.

-4 YEARS (PRESCHOOL)

 Plays cooperatively with other children.

 Negotiates solutions to conflicts.

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 Prefers playing with other children than playing alone.
 Enjoys doing new things.
 Becomes more creative in make-believe play.
 Confuses what’s real and what’s make-believe.
 Expresses likes and dislikes.
 Seeks new experiences.

5 YEARS

 Wants to please friends.

 Wants to be like friends.
 Agrees to rules more easily.
 Likes to sing, dance and act.
 Knows the difference between fantasy and reality.
 Knows who is a boy or girl.
 Expresses likes and dislikes.
 Shows increasing independence.
 Seeks new experiences.
 Demonstrates both demanding and cooperative behaviors.

-Critic gaps related to social developments in children

Red Flags for Social Development in Early Childhood (gaps)

The following are indicators of possible dysfunctional social development.

 Shows no interest in playing with other children

 Is unable to share or take turns with other children
 Wants to be dependent on caregivers for everything
 Is extremely “rigid” about routines and becomes upset when things change
 Has extreme difficulty separating from parents or caregivers

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-Examine and document the social interactions between caregivers and the child
Caregiver-Child Interactions
Most important are the day-to-day interactions between primary caregivers and small children
in affecting the child's brain and neurological development, psychological capacities and social
adjustment.

Observational studies of institutional care have revealed that caregivers rarely interact with
children in warm, sensitive, contingently responsive ways. Because of the high children-adult
ratios and large group sizes, caregivers spend nearly all their time with children in routine care,
such as bathing, feeding, and toileting, and very little time interacting with the children in play.
In one study of Russian BHs, caregivers spent only 16% of their time engaged in group or one-
on-one activities with children. On average, children birth to three years old spent half of their
waking hours not engaged in interactions with either peers or caregivers. In another study of the
BHs involved in the current study, caregivers only interacted with infants 3–10 months old for
12.4 minutes during a 3-hour period, and nearly half of interaction was during routine feeding.
When caregivers are required to interact with children for routine care, they demonstrate little
warmth, sensitivity, or affection.

4.5 Emotional Development in Children

-Synthesis how emotions influence behavior in children at various stages
-Examine the emotional behavior manifestations in children at various stages (discussed in 4.1)
-Suggest ways of promoting positive control of emotions in children
-Discuss the challenges related to emotional development in children
-How emotions influence behavior in children at various stages
Emotions are what help us derive meaning from the world around us. Without them, we would
experience life with the vibrancy of reading a technical manual on transmission repair. While our

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emotions—whether good or bad—provide a lot of the excitement in life, there’s still a lot about
them that we don’t know.

Researchers have been studying emotions for decades and there are still plenty of questions left
unanswered. That said, we know that emotional development is key to living a healthy life. So
what can be done to help facilitate this emotional growth in young children? We asked parents,
psychologists and educators to tell us everything they know about this process, including
caregiver tips for each stage.

Every child is unique and develops a little differently, but overall, there are three major steps to
building a well-equipped, emotional toolbox—and they don’t just happen. They involve practice
and support from those who understand how important emotional intelligence really is.

Emotions help us derive meaning from the world around us and emotional development during
childhood is key to living a healthy life. If children build a well-equipped emotional tool-box of
strategies, they will develop the emotional intelligence needed to cope with challenges
throughout their lives.

Emotional development in children means that they have self-awareness, emotional regulation
and have responsible decision-making skills. These skills influence a child’s ability to be
successful at school and within society. Without emotional guidance, children can struggle
academically and behaviorally

-There are three major emotional stages children progress through:

 Noticing Emotions: from a young age children deal with simplified emotions such as
happiness, anger and fear. They notice how things make them feel and use simple
physical reactions to display their emotions. Young children can be encouraged to self-
soothe, as this is the first stage of regulating their emotions. Parents are normally the
main role model at this stage, so children tend to emulate how their parents react to big
emotions.
 Expressing Emotions: Children begin to develop vocabulary and an awareness of
emotions. They may experiment with how they express more complex emotions –

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 sometimes through tantrums and defiant behaviours. Parents can acknowledge and name
the emotions which helps validate how children are feeling. After acknowledgement,
parents can model appropriate responses to these emotions.
 Managing Emotions: As children begin formal schooling, their greater independence
allows for opportunities and challenges when it comes to emotional development.
Children begin to develop coping skills to deal with sharing, listening and playing
together. Parents can give children strategies to deal with their emotions. Children can
learn what behaviours work for them – such as deep breathing or finding quiet spaces to
calm down. Parents can have realistic expectations and accept that children will get
frustrated. Instead of trying to “fix” problems, they can give their children tools and
strategies to help them manage their emotions.

-The emotional behavior manifestations in children at various stages (discussed in 4.2 )

- Ways of promoting positive control of emotions in children

We teach our kids basic skills in life, but one of the most important skills that you have to teach
your children is how to handle their emotions.

-Teach Your Child about Complex Emotions

When your child is little they know they main emotions that they have such as happy, sad, and
angry. But as your child grows you want to expand the emotions that they have so they know
how to properly identify and express themselves. They need to know what anxiety, frustration,
peaceful, and other emotions are.

This can help your child understand how they are truly feeling as the grow because there are
times when they think they may be angry, but they are just frustrated about a situation. Knowing
the word to that emotions will help them develop.

Let Them Know Everyone Feels Different Emotions

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Growing up it can be hard to see the world past yourself and if you have a child they could be in
this state of mind right now. If they are feeling powerful emotions they might have considered
that no one else is feeling the same way as them.

You must talk time to discuss how everyone has a range of emotions, even yourself. This can
help them understand that not everyone is going to be happy all the time and that is okay. So let
your child know they are not alone and that everyone can feel the same emotions they do.

Don’t Be Afraid To Show Your Emotions Too

Kids do what their parents do, they watch how you act and talk and will copy what you do. If
you are the type of person who likes to keep things bottled up then this could hurt your child in
the long run.

Let Them Be Affectionate Towards You

One way that kids show emotions is by being affectionate. want to sit on your lap, hug you, hold
your hand, and give your kiss. With you being their parent is their whole world and it is sweet
that they want to show they love you. But you do not want to brush them off when they are
trying to show they love.

We are not saying that you always have to let them sit on your lap and give you kisses, but when
it is appropriate you should. So learn the signs of their affection and make them feel special that
they are giving you their love.

Provide A Safe Environment

As a parent, your child’s safety can be the number one concern for you. You want to make sure
that your living space does not have anything that they can hurt themselves with. Not only do
you want a physically safe space for them, you want it to be a safe place for them to share their
emotions.
This includes how you and your partner interact with each other, friends, and your child. If your
kids think they are going to be mocked for expressing themselves then it will stunt their
emotional growth.

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Show Your Affection Towards Them

Kids love showing their affection for the ones they love and appreciate in many different ways,
but it’s not just the kids who should be showing affection in the house. You need to show your
affection towards them and the people you love.

You do not have to be overly affectionate, but you do want to give your kids kisses and hugs
when it is appropriate. This will let them know what a healthy relationship looks like and be a
positive role model for them to base their emotions on.

Involve Them In Social Situations

A great way for you to introduce your kids into positive emotional behavior is to get them in
social situations with kids their age. Being around other kids their age will teach them how to
behave around people.
Teaching your kids how to be a good friend will be a great and needed step in their emotional
growth experience since they need all types of relationships to be successful in life. So get
together with some other parents so they can have positive emotional growth by being in a social
situation.

Let Them Express Their Feelings In A Healthy Way

Besides just teaching our kids about emotions we need to teach our kids how to express their
feelings in a healthy way. Sometimes just crying it out or using their anger differently can take
your child from being destructive to positive.

To really have conquered a positive emotional growth experience your child must find a way to
express themselves. Remember the way to express their emotions may be different than yours so
be open. Teach them skills they are going to use for their life and they will one day teach their
kids!

Tell Them It’s Okay Not To Always Be Happy

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There is so much pressure that society puts on people to always feel happy all of the time and
this can make kids feel weird if they are sad. Though we always want our kids to be happy and
healthy we need to teach kids that it is okay to feel sad at times.
Feeling emotions are healthy and necessary to live a full life. Make time to discuss with your
child that they can feel however they want and that they do not always have to be happy all of
the time.

Don’t Just Brush Off Their Emotions

How many times have you seen your child upset and told them that it’s okay? Sometimes as
parents this can be a go-to response that has been programmed in us and other generations of our
family. We need to stop brushing off our kid's emotions and let them feel how they are actually
feeling.

Taking the time to let your kids explain their feels and why they are feeling that way will help
their emotional growth. So next time your child is upset don’t tell them it’s okay, instead just let
them talk and they will surely feel better after that.

Kids experience many of the same emotions as their parents. These can be confusing, and they
often do not know how to talk about their feelings.

Children sometimes act in inappropriate ways because they have not developed an understanding
of those emotions or how to express them in the correct ways.

Because of the close connection with social growth, you often see ‘emotional development’
referred to as ‘social-emotional.’

This area of human development includes how children feel about and act towards the people
and situations in their lives.

Children sometimes act in inappropriate ways because they have not developed an understanding
of those emotions or how to express them in the correct ways.

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Because of the close connection with social growth, you often see ‘emotional development’
referred to as ‘social-emotional.’

This area of human development includes how children feel about and act towards the people
and situations in their lives.

Kids experience many of the same emotions as their parents. These can be confusing, and they
often do not know how to talk about their feelings.

Children sometimes act in inappropriate ways because they have not developed an understanding
of those emotions or how to express them in the correct ways.

Because of the close connection with social growth, you often see ‘emotional development’
referred to as ‘social-emotional.’

-Discuss Challenges Related to Emotional Development in Children

Poor communication skills or inability to play or relate to others. Delays in normal
development. Under- or over-responsiveness to environment, objects or environmental changes,
including sound and light. Weight loss or inadequate weight gain.
Emotional development is defined as the breakthrough of a child's expression, understanding,
experience and regulation of emotions from birth through the adolescent stages. In essence, kids
learn how to react to and handle certain scenarios over the course of their early life. Every tot is
different, meaning each one will mature at a different level.
However, some children do struggle with emotional development, either for a short or long
period of time. Specific situations, like entering new environments or meeting new people may
trigger reactions parents wouldn't expect and have to attempt to understand.
Over time, the majority of children learn how to process their emotions and feelings, both in
front of adults and in front of their peers. This isn't the case for all tots, however, and some

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 experience difficulty focusing, listening and/or expressing themselves. Issues anxiety, and autism
can present early in a child's life, so it's important for parents to be aware of behaviors that are
uncommon.
Here are some examples of problems that signal an emotional development issue

 Poor communication skills or inability to play or relate to others.

 Delays in normal development.
 Under- or over-responsiveness to environment, objects or environmental changes, including
sound and light.
 Weight loss or inadequate weight gain.
 Significant delays in cognitive or language development as well as motor skills.
 Engrossment in self-stimulating behavior to the exclusion of normal activities.
 Inability to form affectionate relationships with care providers.
 Self-abusive behaviors: biting, hitting, head banging.
 Attempts to injure others.

Emotional development issues are difficult for both children and their parents to handle. The
triggers can present differently in every child, causing every tot to act in a uniquely separate way.
While the fear of diagnosis - or misdiagnosis - can be frightening for adults, assistance from
peers and medical professionals can provide families with the support they need to provide an
understanding household for their children dealing with these problems.

4.6 moral and spiritual development in children. (1 hr)

 Discuss how moral development occurs in children

 Examine moral behavior manifestation in children (4.1)
 Apply appropriate moral strategies to enhance acceptable moral behavior in children
 Appreciate the importance of appropriate moral development

-i. How moral development occurs in children

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Lawrence Kohlberg describes moral development as a process of discovering universal moral
principles, and is based on a child's intellectual development. Piaget conceptualizes moral
development as a constructivist process, whereby the interplay of action and thought builds
moral concepts.

Piaget's Theory of Moral Development

Piaget (1932) was principally interested not in what children do (i.e., in whether they break rules
or not) but in what they think. In other words he was interested in children’s moral reasoning.

Piaget was interested in three main aspects of children’s understanding of moral issues. They
were

1. Children’s understanding of rules. This leads to questions like

• Where do rules come from?

• Can rules be changed?

• Who makes rules?

2.Children’s understanding of moral responsibility. This leads to questions like

 Who is to blame for “bad” things?

• Is it the outcome of behavior that makes an action “bad”?

• Is there a difference between accidental and deliberate wrongdoing?

3.Children’s understanding of justice. This leads to questions like

• Should the punishment fit the crime?

• Are the guilty always punished?

Piaget found that children’s ideas regarding rules, moral judgements and punishment tended to
change as they got older. In other words just as there were stages to children’s cognitive
development so there were also universal stages to their moral development.

Piaget (1932) suggested two main types of moral thinking:

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 1. Heteronomous morality (moral realism)
2. Autonomous morality (moral relativism)

Heteronomous Morality (5-9 yrs)

The stage of heteronomous morality is also known as moral realism – morality imposed from
the outside. Children regard morality as obeying other people's rules and laws, which cannot be
changed.

They accept that all rules are made by some authority figure (e.g. parents, teacher, God), and that
breaking the rules will lead to immediate and severe punishment (immanent justice).

The function of any punishment is to make the guilty suffer in that the severity of the punishment
should be related to severity of wrong-doing (expiatory punishment).

During this stage children consider rules as being absolute and unchanging, i.e. 'divine like'.
They think that rules cannot be changed and have always been the same as they are now.

behavior is judged as “bad” in terms of the observable consequences, regardless on the intentions
or reasons for that behavior. Therefore, a large amount of accidental damage is viewed as worse
than a small amount of deliberate damage.

Autonomous Morality (9-10 yrs)

he stage of autonomous morality is also known as moral relativism – morality based on your
own rules. Children recognize there is no absolute right or wrong and that morality depends on
intentions not consequences.

Piaget believed that around the age of 9-10 children’s understanding of moral issues underwent a
fundamental reorganisation. By now they are beginning to overcome the egocentrism of middle
childhood and have developed the ability to see moral rules from other people’s point of view.

A child who can decenter to take other people’s intentions and circumstances into account can
move to making the more independent moral judgements of the second stage. As a result

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children’s ideas on the nature of rules themselves, on moral responsibility and on punishment
and justice all change and their thinking becomes more like that of adults.

Children now understand that rules do not come from some mystical “divine-like” source.
People make rules and people can change them – they are not inscribed on tablets of stone. With
regard to the “rules of the game” older children recognise that rules are needed to prevent
quarrelling and to ensure fair play.

Indeed sometimes they even become quite fascinated with the whole issue and will for example
discuss the rules of board games (like chess, Monopoly, cards) or sport (the off-side rule) with all
the interest of a lawyer. They also recognise that rules can be changed if circumstances dictate
(e.g. “You’ve got one player less so we will give you a three goal start”) and if everybody
agrees.

With regard to issues of blame and moral responsibility older children don’t just take the
consequences into account they also consider motives. Children begin to realize that if they
behave in ways that appear to be wrong, but have good intentions, they are not necessarily going
to be punished. Thus for them a well-intentioned act that turned out badly is less blameworthy
than a malicious act that did no harm.

It all goes to show, in Piaget’s opinion, that children are now able to appreciate the significance
of subjective facts and of internal responsibility.

Children’s views on lying also change. The seriousness of a lie is judged in terms of betrayal of
trust. They now recognise that all lies are not the same and, for example, you might tell a “white
lie” in order to spare someone’s feelings.

They also recognise that if someone says something that they know not to be the case this
doesn’t necessarily mean the other person is telling a lie. It could be that they made a mistake or
that this is a difference of opinion. Overall lying is now considered wrong not because you get
punished for it by adults (the younger children’s view) but because it is a betrayal of trust and
undermines friendship and co-operation.

With regard to punishment the emphasis now moves from retribution to restitution. It’s purpose
is not primarily to make the guilty suffer but to put things right again.

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In other words punishment should be aimed at helping the offender understand the harm (s)he
has caused so that (s)he will not be motivated to repeat the offence and, wherever possible,
punishment should fit the crime – say for example when a vandal is required to make good the
damage (s)he has caused.

Older children also recognise that justice in real life is an imperfect system. Sometimes the
guilty get away with their crimes and sometimes the innocent suffer unfairly. For younger
children collective punishment is seen as acceptable.

For example they would not disagree with a whole class being punished for the misdeeds of a
single child. For the older children it is always considered wrong to punish the innocent for the
misdeeds of the guilty.

Overall Piaget describes the morality of the older child as an autonomous morality i.e. a morality
that is subject to its own laws. The change is partly seen as a result of the child’s general
cognitive development partly due to declining egocentrism and partly to the growing importance
of the peer group.

ii. moral behavior manifestation in children ( see 4.1)

Moral development is the process throught which children develop proper attitudes and
behaviors toward other people in society, based on social and cultural norms, rules, and laws.
Moral development is a concern for every parent. Teaching a child to distinguish right from
wrong and to behave accordingly is a goal of parenting.

Moral development in childhood may be considered one of the central aspects of socialization. It
is a process through which children learn to differentiate the wrong from the right based on
society’s social and cultural laws and norms. Parents and teachers play an important role in
teaching morals to children. Teaching morals at a young age can help raise responsible
citizens. However, the understanding and implementation of moral values in children depend on
the environment they are raised in and their physical, social, emotional, and cognitive skills.
Read this post to learn more about the stages of moral development in children and tips on how
parents can help their children learn moral values.

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Morality is the ability to see the difference between right and wrong in intentions, thoughts,
actions, and behavior. Teaching this concept to children is the primary goal of parenting. Moral
development deals with the concepts of morality that a child learns from infancy through
adulthood.
Keep reading to learn about the different stages of moral development in children.

Stages of Moral Development in Children

Moral growth in children happens gradually as they grow from infancy to teens and older.

1. Infants
Infants cannot moralize. Their sense of right and wrong depends on their feelings and desires.
After being provided for nine months in the mother’s womb, a baby expects the nurturing to
continue. As a result, their sense of rightness depends on whether or not their needs are met.

 Hunger and loneliness are uncomfortable feelings for your infant and do not feel right.
 Being attended, cuddled, and fed feels right, while unresponsiveness is scary and wrong.
2. Toddlers
Age: 2 to 3 years
At this age, your toddler realizes that others have rights and needs as well. However, he is yet to
grasp the difference between right and wrong. A aged 2-3 toddler might show empathy-based
guilt and moral behaviors. Depending on the actions conveyed by parents, the toddler
understands obedience is the norm.

 Your toddler knows that it is wrong to take away a toy from a sibling only because he might
land himself in trouble.
 While he may not understand why hitting someone is wrong, he knows that he will be
punished for doing that.
 Your toddler tends to follow the rules to avoid punishment.
3. Preschoolers
Age: 3 to 5 years
This is the age when your child internalizes family values.

 Since rules and norms are essential for discipline in the family, they become important for
your child too.
 Your child expects older people, or parents, to take charge

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 They understand the role of a “child” and an “adult” and expect maturity to be directed
towards them.
 The child recognizes that actions have consequences – “If I do this, this will happen.”
 Positive parental direction makes the child connected, and he behaves well. The
unconnected child will do what he feels like, unless and until he doesn’t get caught.
4. Kids (school age)
Age: 7-10
After the age of 7, children start questioning if the people who hold authoritative positions, such
as teachers and parents, are infallible.

 Your child will develop a strong sense of what he should and should not do. They would
want to participate in making rules
 Children of this age develop a sense of fairness and understand the necessity of rules.
 They understand children have rights as well and they filter rules according to what suits
them.
5. Teens- adolescents
 As they get closer to adulthood, children start to develop their own moral values, while
questioning and analyzing the ones that their parents set for them.

Age: 11-16
 Your adolescent will expand his moral horizon and see rules as a set of social guidelines that
benefit all.
 They value rules but also negotiate.
 They become interested in what’s good for the society at large as they develop their
abstract reasoning abilities.
 Your adolescent will start realizing that the decision he takes affects others around him.

-iii. Moral strategies to enhance acceptable moral behavior in children

-Be Clear about Moral Values- This means that children should have a clear definition of what’s
good, bad, right, or wrong.

-Lead by Example: they should see good use of morals in you

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--Hold the Child Accountable- the child learns better and benefits when there’s consistency

-Praise good Behavior - with emotional support, words of encouragement, and praise your kid in
front of close friends and family. Children love to feel supported and to know that they make you
proud, which will motivate them to continue to behave

-Promote Morality through Playful Activities e.g. Play Group Games where everyone has to
follow specific rules is a great opportunity to teach children about fairness, equal opportunities,
and justice; Role-playing a Story that centers around a moral issue. Children involved in the
acting will have a first-hand experience, while the others will identify with the characters.

 Be their role model. Children see their parents, teachers and other close ones and learn
things from them. ...
 Teach them moral values. ...
 Share moral stories with valuable lessons. ...
 Give them scenarios to help build a good character. ...

4.6 Aesthetic Development in Children (1 hr)

 Analyze how children acquire different forms aesthetic development

 Suggest ways of assessing aesthetic development in children
 Suggest ways that can be used to promote aesthetic developments in young children
 Appreciate the importance of aesthetic developments in young children in relation to
physical and social environment

- Aesthetics, is a set of values relating to nature and the appreciation of beauty. It involves a
set of skills ranging from simple identification (naming what one sees) to complex
interpretation on contextual, metaphoric and philosophical levels. Many aspects of cognition

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 are called upon, such as personal association, questioning, speculating, analyzing, fact-
finding, and categorizing. For example, students can attend arts seminars and concerts, join
guided tours on arts exhibitions, work with artists, as well as participate in community arts
services and arts exhibitions, performances, competitions and training programmes

- What Is Aesthetic Development in Children?

Aesthetic development in children is the emergence of the ability to appreciate and
critically evaluate art. Art pertains to any form of artistic expression. Aesthetic appreciation is
usually a reflection of the senses rather than of artistic ability.

As children develop a sense of aesthetics, they begin to recognize the importance of patterns,
arrangement, proportion, use of light and color and even theme as they pertain to art as a form of
communication. Children who have parents with a highly developed sense of aesthetics are likely
to develop a sense of aesthetics at an early age. This is primarily due to exposure and the
importance placed upon the arts within the home.

With aesthetic development comes the ability to interpret an environment. They begin to
associate ugly places with things that are bad and beautiful ones with things that are good. They
also apply aesthetics to the people found in “ugly” or “beautiful” places. Conversely, ugly places
attract ugly people and beautiful places attract beautiful people. They can also apply those terms
to themselves based on their own surroundings. Depending on whether the environment is an
ugly or beautiful one, this can have a healthy or an unhealthy effect on self-esteem.

- Ways of assessing aesthetic development in children

Misson & Morgan (2006) suggest that we can tell that aesthetic learning has taken place if there
is a sense that ‘composition’ has taken place. If the work has been purposefully constructed for
the context of aesthetic consumption it is able to become a definable ‘aesthetic text’ (p. 36).
Apart from this, there are several examples of the assessment of aesthetic qualities already in
existence.

For example, arts education regularly evaluates creative, aesthetic and imaginative work using
presentation, creative and synthesis tools. The judgments made in the Arts are frequently

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quantified using marks or grades. At senior levels grades are verified using moderation
processes or external exams.

Certainly, the formal assessment of aesthetic literacy is not unique to the Arts, but their
experience allows us to discuss the principles of evaluating aesthetic achievement in light of their
experience. As an example, Wright and Gerber (2004) argue that the aesthetic dimension of
drama education makes the field more intricate, providing more difficulties for the tasks of
assessment and certification. Quantifying achievement can be seen to be difficult because of the
wide range of creative responses that may be given to a particular task. Divergent responses
require the assessor to use judgment in relation to the execution of the task and assessment
criteria. These concerns can be similarly applied to any task that involves creative aims, for
example, the writing of poetry, the construction of a tessellation or any task involving design.
Other examples present further challenges. Cockett (1998) argues that when performances are
used the processes are highly dependent on a wide range of interrelated contributions which add
to the challenge of aesthetic assessment. Assessment of other literacies often requires that the
student selects responses from their experience in order to fit the function of the question that
they are asked (Ross et al., 1993). In contrast, an assessment task that involves a students’ own
creation can be multi-faceted with many interlocking variables (Thomas & Millard, 2006) as the
tasks emphasise originality, creativity and innovation. To use an example from Drama,
performance tasks require students to not only replicate theatrical traditions before them, but
synthesize their own ideas with theatrical conventions, while showcasing their performance skill,
all while accessing the aesthetic as appropriate to the task. Attributes of flair, imagination and
originality, as appropriate to the style concerned, feature strongly in criteria used to assess
artistic works, as is evidenced for example in the HSC Drama Marking Guidelines (NSW Board
of Studies) and the ACT’s Performing Arts Framework (ACT Board of Senior Secondary
Studies, 2004).

- ways that can be used to promote aesthetic developments in young children

Research suggests that adults who encourage children to talk about art objects, who the artists
are and how the objects are made, generates children's interest in making art and nurtures their
art language development.

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 By integrating activities and various manipulatives, educators can enhance student learning
and motivation and foster aesthetic development. Students can learn about music through toys,
musical instruments, and, when applicable, technology.

There are some easy ways to help the children in expressing their creativity

 Make children question things

 Provide opportunities to express their intelligence
 Teach them multiple ways to solve every problem
 Trigger their curiosity
 Engage them with activity boxes
 Encourage children to read for pleasure

1. Make Children Question Things

One of the main ways of developing creative thinking in children is to urge them to wonder.
Whenever you are spending time with them, ask them questions like why is the sky blue? Why
does the ocean water have waves and not the water in lakes or ponds? How does gravity work?
And so on. Explaining such things to them would help them in becoming curious, thereby
enhancing their imaginative skills and inculcating problem-solving abilities.

2. Provide Opportunities to Express Their Intelligence

Another important thing to remember is that even though there are different types of intelligence,
they can be developed over time even if the child isn't necessarily exhibiting the characteristics.
Sometimes it is difficult to recognize their natural inclination towards a certain form of
intelligence. In that case, give them ample opportunities to express all the forms of intelligence
and pick up on what they do best.

3. Teach Them Multiple Ways to Solve Every Problem

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Be it a math problem or an emotional problem they're facing in real life, as a parent or a
guardian, you must make your children understand that there are multiple ways to solve a
problem and also different perspectives to look at everything.

4. Trigger Their Curiosity

Children are born curious and they want to know extra about anything and everything. It is thus
the responsibility of the parents and the teachers to provide interesting and relevant indications to
further drive their curiosity towards the right direction. For instance, they can be exposed to the
rich art, culture, and literature of a country and simultaneously be made familiar with their
hidden meanings and implications. You can also talk about the deteriorating environmental
situations with them and how it can affect the life of human beings and animals around. By
involving them in such meaningful discussions, parents can get their curiosity going in a way
that they would want to know more.

5. Engage Them With Activity Boxes

Creative intelligence and its importance depend on out-of-the-box thinking or going beyond
thinking about the obvious things that we're often presented with. To make it happen, they need
some peaceful time away from digital gadgets, which is a little tough these days. You can make
your child think out-of-the-box by engaging them with creative games and activities. The play-
based learning tools help in developing various skills like coordination, self-expression, fine-
motor, etc.

5. Engage Them with Activity Boxes

Creative intelligence and its importance depend on out-of-the-box thinking or going beyond
thinking about the obvious things that we're often presented with. To make it happen, they need
some peaceful time away from digital gadgets, which is a little tough these days. You can make
your child think out-of-the-box by engaging them with creative games and activities. The play-
based learning tools help in developing various skills like coordination, self-expression, fine-
motor, etc.

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6. Encourage Children to Read for Pleasure

Limit TV or other screen time of your kids to make room for creative hobbies like reading as it
encourages thought activity which in turn promotes creativity. Reading can help your child
understand and express better, develop their logical thinking, and help them to focus on learning
new things. You can frequently take them to visit the library in your locality and discuss with
them about their favourite author or book and its characters. This will give you an insight into
your child's way of thinking.

7. Give Them Free Time & Space

Building skills in a methodical way is important. But it is important to give the kids enough
space to freely explore their imaginations. Let them spend a few idle hours at home without any
scheduled activities so that the child can just aimlessly roam around and run their imagination
wild in whatever they are doing.

8. Avoid Rewarding Children for Exhibiting Creativity

Offering incentives to your kids to perform any creative activity can hinder the process, resulting
in reducing the quality and flexibility of their thoughts. So, allow your children to master the
creative activities that they are innately motivated to do, rather than motivating them with
rewards and incentives for the same.

4.8 Language Development in Children (1 hr )

 Evaluate the stages of language development in children

 analyze aspects of language development in children
 Identify challenges related to language development in children at different stages
and the strategies to overcome them

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  Develop simple psychometric tests for learners at different levels of language
learning
 appreciate the importance of language development in children

i. The stages of language development in children

Effective language development is critical to a child's ability to function in society because it

helps them learn and socialize. Knowing the phases of language development ensures that you
can identify and correct any issues that arise during each stage

What is language development?

Language development is the process through which children acquire the ability to process
speech and communicate. During this process, a child may slowly understand basic linguistic
patterns and expand their vocabulary gradually before achieving fluency. Although the stages of
language development are universal, the rate at which each child progresses can vary. Certain
factors can influence a child's language learning capabilities, including motivation, environment,
gender and physical development.

Why is language development important?

Promote social interaction

Improve cognitive development

A Enhance literacy

id self-expression

Improve self-esteem

What are the stages of language development?

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1. Pre-linguistic stage

Also known as the pre-linguistic stage, the first stage of language development often occurs
between zero and six months. Children in this phase don't have developed language skills, so
they communicate with sounds. They cry, make cooing sounds and utter nasal murmurs as their
vocal tracts develop. Infants can also recognize voices and sounds in addition to facial
expressions and voice tones.

2. Babbling stage

The second stage of a child's language development happens between the ages of 6 and 9
months. Children begin to babble, making noises and syllables that aren’t yet words. Mouth
muscles and teeth grow to prepare children for more advanced talking.

3. Holophrastic stage

The third phase of language development, also known as the holophrastic stage, usually happens
between the ages of 9 and 18 months. During this time, their language skills usually have
increased enough for them to say single words that describe objects or identify their basic needs.
For instance, a child in this stage might say "dada" as a way of getting their dad's attention.

4. Two-word stage

During this stage, the child can speak two-word sentences that usually have some meaning. They
group words together that they learned during the holophrastic stage. Some examples may
include:

 Saying "more food" at the table

 Saying "doggy small" to describe a dog
 Saying "thank mom!" to show appreciation
 5. Telegraphic stage

 The telegraphic stage occurs between the ages of 24 and 30 months. Children can speak
phrases that are not only longer but also have more than two elements. For instance, a

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 child might say “The cat stand up on the table.” Correct grammar still isn’t prevalent in
this stage, but the sentence conveys that the cat is standing up in addition to being on the
table. The child also develops the ability to understand basic instructions, including two-
part orders like "go to your table and get your books."
 6. Multi-word stage

 Beyond 30 months, children enter the multi-word stage. They build increasingly complex
sentences that allow them to better communicate their ideas. They also start to
incorporate morphemes to make more semantically sound phrases. For instance, they
know to use the word “dogs” instead of “dog” when referring to more than one dog. The
telegraphic stage occurs between the ages of 24 and 30 months.

ii. Aspects of language development in children

Language development supports many other aspects of development, like cognitive, social and
literacy development. Language development starts with sounds and gestures, then words and
sentences. You can support language development by talking a lot with your child, and
responding when your child communicates

These are the five basic rules systems found in language.

1. Syntax – The rules that govern word order to form clauses, phrases, and
sentences.
2. Morphology – The rules that govern change in meaning at the word level.
3. Phonology – The rules that govern the structure, distribution, and sequencing
of speech-sound patterns.
4. Semantics – The rules that govern the meaning and context of words or
grammatical units.
5. Pragmatics – The rules that govern language use across communication
contexts.

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 iii. Challenges related to language development in young children at different stages

Most studies demonstrated that the following factors affect language development--antenatal
care, birth weight, premature delivery, birth order, parental education, environmental factors,
gender of the children, and family history with specific language impairment.

Language Development

Language refers to all forms of communication. This includes auditory language, such as
speaking and listening, as well as written language, which involves writing and reading.
Language can also include body language like facial expressions and other non-verbal
movements that express meaning.

As young children are forming their own grasp on language, there are several factors that might
influence development. Children between the ages of two and five are especially vulnerable to
these influences, so it's important for parents and caregivers to be aware of them.

These factors can include:

1. Health and physical development: Illness can effect hearing which, in turn, will cause
problems with understanding spoken language or other auditory cues. Hearing problems
can, in turn, effect speech development. Children who are ill also lack enthusiasm to
speak and communicate non-verbally. This can hinder development of language and
communication. In addition to illness, physical development can influence language.
Vocal cords and speech related facial muscles must be developed in order for a child to
orally communicate effectively. Fine motor skills are also necessary to write or draw
letters and symbols.

2. Environment: It's important that developing children be immersed in a language rich

environment. Children who are spoken to and read to are more likely to want to speak
and learn to read. Social environment can be a hinderance to language development when
there is a lack of example on which children can base their understanding of language

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 and all that it entails.

3. Cognitive ability: It's been suggested that there's a correlation between intelligence and
early speech. Children who pick up on the language early show an increased level of
cognitive development. They tend to develop early use of proper sentence structure and
strong vocabulary. It should be noted, however, that children who are slow to develop
language skills are not necessarily slow cognitively, as there may be other factors at play.

4. Biological sex: Biological sex has been known to play a role in a child's language
development. Around the age of two, females tend to start developing language at a faster
rate than males. They begin to communicate more fluently, and understanding of the
spoken language develops quicker. This is sometimes attributed to children's
relationships or closeness to their parents.

5. Number of siblings: Some doctors and scientists suggest that children who come from
one-child homes tend to have a stronger grasp on the understanding and use of language.
This is because there is no competition for the attention of parents or caregivers, and
adults tend to communicate with single children in a more fluent manner, thereby setting
a better example. Others argue, however, that the opposite is true. More siblings can
mean more opportunities for language use, which can result in quicker and stronger
language development.

6. Motivation: If a child has no desire to communicate or understand the world around her
or him, there will be a lack of language development. Until he or she sees the value and
need for use of the language, development may be slow.

-strategies to overcome challenges related to language development in children

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Talking, understanding others and knowing what to say are really important skills in life. Being
able to communicate helps children make friends, learn and enjoy life to the full. You will be
your child’s first and most important teacher.

You may be wondering “when will my baby talk?”. A toddler’s first words usually occur
between 12 and 18 months and they will continue to learn and progress quickly once they reach
that milestone. Here we look at simple ways encourage and enjoy your child’s language
development.

Get your child’s attention

Face your child or sit down with them. Say their name before you start speaking. Talk about
something you can both see in front of you. This helps them to learn what words mean.

Have fun together

Use actions, sing, make noises and funny faces. Don’t be shy, being a bit silly helps get their
attention and makes them laugh and can encourage language development.

Comments not questions

Asking lots of questions can feel like it’s a test. Make it a conversation. When you talk to your
baby comment on what they are doing and what is happening instead.

Give them time to think

Children need more time than adults to think about what they’ve heard, and to decide what to say
back. Give them time to respond, and look at them while you wait.

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Use simple language

Keep your sentences short. For example, “Food time now” or “Wow, you’re building a tower”.

Repeat what you say

It’s good to say the same thing over again. Babies and toddlers need to hear words and sentences
lots of times to understand them and learn new words. This is key aspect of baby talk.

Make it easier for them to listen

Turning the music, radio or TV off helps children focus on your words.

Build on what they say

Adding one or two words to what they say helps your child onto the next stage of talking. So, if
your child says “bus” you say “Yes, big bus”.

Speak in your home language

It’s important for children to learn their first words and sentences in their home language. Your
child will learn in English later, at nursery and school.

Make it easier for them to talk

Dummies can get in the way of talking. Try to keep them just for sleep times. Take it out to talk.

Show them the right way

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Young children often make mistakes. Show them that you understand, rather than asking them to
repeat words correctly. Say the word or sentence again correctly for your child. If they say “Look
at the dod”, you can say “Yes, it’s a dog”.

Copy what they say

Repeat back sounds, words and sentences. Whether its “la la” or “Oh, you liked the banana?”, it
shows you’re interested and that sounds and words are important. This can help your baby's
speech development.

Talk to someone if you’re worried

Some children find talking and listening harder than others. They might find it hard to
understand what words and sentences mean. Some struggle to find the right words and sounds to
use and put them in order. These children may need extra help.

If you are worried about your child, talk to people you know and who know your child. If you’re
still worried, go with your instinct. Talk to someone who can help, for example a speech and
language therapist or your health visitor or GP.

Develop a psychometric test for learners at different levels of learning

Psychometric tests help students to get to know their strengths and weaknesses better.
Through a set of simple questions or queries, psychometric tests try to understand an individual's
capabilities. These questions are designed to interpret the student's physical and mental state and
their conditioning. As explained further below, there are essentially three categories: aptitude
tests, skills tests and personality tests

4.9 Cultural Development in Children ( 1 hr)

 analyze different aspects of cultural development in children at different stages

 examine how culture has influenced child growth and development

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  suggest probable challenges to effective cultural development in young children
 appreciate different aspects of cultural development in children at different stages
i. Different aspects of cultural development in children at different stages
Cultural background gives children a sense of who they are. The unique cultural
influences children respond to from birth, including customs and beliefs around food,
artistic expression, language, and religion, affect the way they develop emotionally,
socially, physically, and linguistically.
When a child’s self-identity is at odds with the social environment due to cultural
differences, it can hinder learning. Fortunately, culturally competent educators help
children of all cultural backgrounds learn by showing an understanding and
acceptance of diverse cultures and how they make each child uniquely valuable.

i. Cultural Development in Children at Different Ages or Levels

Between the ages of three and five most children develop the ability to correctly label
themselves in terms of an ethnic or cultural group, though it is unclear whether this label carries
any meaning, let alone functions as a developmental resource.

Children start to identify with their own cultural/racial identity around the age of 3-4. This
identification comes from the interactions they have with their family members, teachers, and
community. By age 7-9, children are more aware of the group dynamics around culture and race

From birth onwards, children’s learning of a variety of universal concepts in such “privileged
domains” as arithmetic, physics

and psychology are present in a “skeletal” form that subsequent, culturally-mediated learning
builds upon according to local circumstances. 3 For example, infants appear to recognize basic
physical concepts associated with such phenomena as gravity (they are surprised if an object
appears to fall through a solid barrier) and mathematical concepts such as 1+1=2 (they are
surprised if two objects are hidden behind a screen and when the screen is removed, only one
object is to be seen), and are able to distinguish between intentional and mechanical causation,
providing the scaffolding for learning the distinction between animate and inanimate objects.

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Children also start to create their own “cultures” by about nine months and before the age of five
the need for, and organization of, adult and peer cooperation radically change. 9,10,11 Early in
development, children are incapable of regulating the social organization of their interaction, but
as middle childhood approaches, greater autonomy of child groups becomes possible.

Child development is a dynamic, interactive process. Every child is unique in interacting with the
world around them, and what they invoke and receive from others and the environment also
shapes how they think and behave. Children growing up in different cultures receive specific
inputs from their environment. For that reason, there’s a vast array of cultural differences in
children’s beliefs and behaviour.

Culture influences development from the moment we’re born, making an impact on us as we
grow. For instance, culture can affect how children build values, language, belief systems, and an
understanding of themselves as individuals and as members of society.

Children can receive these cultural influences in different ways, such as through their parents,
their environment, and the media. How society shows an understanding of diverse cultures can
impact a child’s development in many ways, such as how confident in themselves or how
comfortable interacting with others they become as adults

Culture influences development from the moment we’re born, making an impact on us as we
grow. For instance, culture can affect how children build values, language, belief systems, and an
understanding of themselves as individuals and as members of society

ii. HOW culture influences child growth and development

cultural background gives children a sense of who they are. The unique cultural influences
children respond to from birth, including customs and beliefs around food, artistic expression,

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language, and religion, affect the way they develop emotionally, socially, physically, and
linguistically.

Cultural factors like dietary restrictions and lifestyle choices may improve or impede a child's
growth. Body image, childhood obesity, eating disorders, hunger, and malnutrition are
challenges that different cultures deal with in different ways

In children and youth, participation in culture helps develop thinking skills, builds self-esteem,
and improves resilience, all of which enhance education outcomes

parents in different cultures also play an important role in moulding children’s behaviour and
thinking patterns. Typically, parents are the ones who prepare the children to interact with wider
society. Children’s interaction with their parents often acts as the archetype of how to behave
around others – learning a variety of socio-cultural rules, expectations and taboos. For example,
young children typically develop a conversational style resembling their parents’ – and that often
depends on culture.

Children can receive these cultural influences in different ways, such as through their parents,
their environment, and the media. How society shows an understanding of diverse cultures can
impact a child’s development in many ways, such as how confident in themselves or how
comfortable interacting with others they become as adults

Cultural differences in interactions between adults and children also influence how a child
behaves socially. For instance, in Chinese culture, where parents assume much responsibility and
authority over children, parents interact with children in a more authoritative manner
and demand obedience from their children. Children growing up in such environments are more
likely to comply with their parents’ requests, even when they are reluctant to do so.

Parental Influences on Child Development

Parents’ culture can influence their children’s development. A 2019 study, for example, found
that cultural values often influence the way parents raise their children, including how they
discipline and set boundaries. It makes sense that parents raise their children based on cultural
influences because they’re preparing them to develop behaviors necessary to operate and thrive

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in that culture. However, when the social environment and home culture clash, developmental
issues can arise.

Collectivist vs. Individualistic Cultures and Parental Discipline

Parents’ cultural influences can impact how they discipline a child’s behavior. This, in turn, can
affect a child’s development, particularly if those methods of discipline differ from the dominant
cultural tradition.

Before delving into the methods of discipline and culture, what do the terms “collectivist” and
“individualistic” mean exactly? Essentially, a collectivist culture values and rewards the
prioritization of community needs over individual needs, as well as generous, kind, collaborative
behavior. Collectivism is the norm in Asian, Central American, South American, and African
cultures.

On the opposite end of the spectrum, an individualistic culture values and rewards assertiveness
and independent action, stressing the importance of the individual over the group. Individualism
dominates in North American and Western European cultures.

The 2019 study cited earlier found that parents from individualistic cultures discipline differently
from parents from collectivist cultures. The former group of parents might discipline their
children by taking something away that matters to them personally. On the other hand, parents
from collectivist cultures might tell their children to think about how their behavior affects
others.

The study found that children raised in individualistic cultures often described themselves based
on their unique attributes, such as “I am good at math.” Meanwhile, children raised in collectivist
cultures were more likely to describe themselves based on their relationships with others, such as
“I am my mother’s daughter.”

Child development can be influenced if parents or teachers discipline children according to the
dominant culture — the U.S. has an individualistic culture — rather than the culture of their
family of origin. For example, children whose parents have disciplined them to value

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cooperation over competition might become confused or upset when a teacher urges them to be
competitive.

Parental Influences on Children’s Social Behavior Varies by Culture

Children learn how to act by interacting with their parents. For this reason, the parents’ cultural
background often influences a child’s behavior.

Communication style is a case in point. Children tend to communicate in a style that resembles
their parents’ way of communicating, and diverse cultures converse and explain things in
different ways.

Children who communicate based on an individualistic cultural model will often tell long, self-
focused stories with themes of autonomy and personal preference. Conversely, children who
communicate based on a collectivist cultural model will often tell brief, other-oriented stories
with themes of authority and interrelationships.

These cultural influences on children’s language development can help or hinder them on the
playground, and later in the workplace. If children’s culture is respected at school, including the
way the children interact verbally with others, then they’ll be more likely to experience the
acceptance and respect they need to grow and develop. They’re more likely to become adults
with a healthy self-image who feel understood and capable of confident, fruitful interactions. If
not, however, they may become adults who hesitate to raise their voices and be heard for fear of
being ridiculed or misunderstood.

Environmental Influences on Child Development

Environmental influences on child development can include influences from community and
culture as well as from environmental health hazards. Pollution from a nearby power plant,
contaminated water, or lead in the home, for example, can cause lasting impacts on children’s
health. As the CDC reports, environmental contaminants can cause greater harm to children than
to adults because children’s bodies are still developing.

In fact, children take in more air, water, and food per pound of body weight, making them more
vulnerable to health issues from environmental hazards. The health issues might not show up

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until later in life, causing difficulty in school, work, and socialization. A child exposed to
polluted air, for example, might develop asthma as a teenager.

Children of low-income communities are most likely to be at risk of exposure to environmental

hazards. As the National Environmental Health Association (NEHA) reports, low-income
communities may have poor infrastructure, making them more vulnerable to the effects of
natural disasters, such as contaminated water and damaged drainage systems. They may also be
located closer to factories and highways, both of which contribute to high levels of pollution in
the air, soil, and water.

Media Influences on Child Development

Media influences on childhood development include movies, TV shows, video games, and other
online content. Research that the American Psychological Association (APA) has shared shows
that children’s exposure to violent media can result in aggressive behavior; exposure to
advertising for non-nutritious foods can increase rates of childhood obesity; and too much screen
time can be linked to lower brain development in preschoolers.

A study from the Cognitive Impacts of Digital Media Workgroup found that children begin to
learn from TV programs at around 2.5 years old. Educational programs, such as “Sesame Street,”
can positively influence their knowledge and social skills, preparing them for school. However,
after they turn 6 years old, children begin to watch more entertainment programming, which can,
in turn, influence their behavior negatively. In addition, while video games can help children
develop visual processing skills, they can also yield aggressive behavior. The effects on
cognitive skills and behaviors are often specific to the games played.

As a result of these findings, the study suggests that clinicians and early childhood service
providers should work with parents to limit TV exposure before children turn 2 years old. As
children begin to learn how to read, clinicians and service providers should advise parents to
regulate children’s media consumption — with a focus on providing educational media content
— and encourage reading habits.

The connection with cultural background is clear: Diverse cultures have different attitudes
toward TV and other entertainment media, as well as different abilities to afford access to such

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media. A child from a collectivist culture, for example, may be encouraged to help infant or
elderly family members in lieu of watching educational TV after school. Indirectly, culture
influences these children’s ability to benefit from such experiences.

In addition, to take the example further, children whose culture discourages educational TV and
other media may be ridiculed by school peers for missing out on popular pastimes other children
engage in.

Another way that media in popular culture can influence child development is by depicting and
perpetuating cultural stereotypes. For example, a movie might show women or minorities in a
negative light, or not at all. A sitcom might feature only white characters, never those of diverse
races or ethnicities.

Clearly, the absence of role models in entertainment media, or the presence of negative
stereotypes, can affect children’s self-esteem. This can cause media to become a negative
cultural influence on a child’s development.

Educators, parents, caregivers, and social workers need to understand how children’s cultural
influences affect their development. With this knowledge, adults can better guide students of
different cultures and backgrounds through their growth processes and ensure that they’re being
exposed to healthy influences. They can also provide them with the tools they need to cope with
negative influences, such as cultural biases and prejudices against diverse cultures, in schools
and in society at large.

iii. challenges to effective cultural development in young children

4.10 Growth Monitoring and Promotion (1 hr)

 discuss the importance of growth monitoring and promotion in young children

 use anthropometrics to monitor growth and development
 analyses growth monitoring and promotion documents to determine children
development trends, and interventions

i. The importance of growth monitoring and promotion in young children

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 Growth monitoring and promotion (GMP) comprises: measurement (the regular recording of a
child's weight and sometimes their height); assessment (plotting weight against age or weight
against height on a growth chart; analysis (interpreting the growth pattern of the child)

Growth monitoring is important as it starts right from when the child is born and the parents/
caregivers should be encouraged to do the following:

 Attend regular growth monitoring and promotion sessions (GMP) to make sure the baby is
growing well.
 Take the baby for growth monitoring and promotion every month during the first year.
 A healthy child who is growing well should gain weight every month. If your child is not gaining
weight or is losing weight, there is a problem. S/he should be taken to the nearest health facility
for treatment immediately.
 Attending growth monitoring and promotion sessions can help identify nutrition problems your
child may have, such as severe thinness or swelling. Nutrition problems may need urgent
treatment.
 During growth monitoring and promotion sessions parents/caregivers can ask questions about
their child’s growth, health and nutrition.

Benefits of monitoring the growth and development of the child

 Weight gain is the most important sign that a child is healthy and is growing and developing
well.
 A health check-up can also detect if a child is gaining weight too fast for his or her age. This
requires examining a child’s weight in relation to his or her height, which can determine if the
child is overweight.
 If the child is underweight or overweight, it is important to examine the child’s diet and provide
the parents or other caregiver with advice on good nutrition.
 Every child should have a growth chart that tracks his or her growth. It shows whether the child
is growing appropriately for his or her age. At each weighing the child’s weight should be
marked with a dot on the growth chart and the dots should be connected.

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 A child who is not gaining enough weight over one or two months may need larger servings,
more nutritious food or more frequent meals. The child may be sick or may need more attention
and care or assistance with eating. Parents and trained health workers need to act quickly to
discover the cause of the problem and take steps to correct it.

A young child should grow and gain weight rapidly. From birth to age 2, children should be
weighed regularly to assess growth. If regular weighing shows that the child is not gaining
weight, or the parents or other caregivers see the child is not growing, something is wrong.

ii. Use anthropometrics to monitor growth and development

The term anthropometric refers to comparative measurements of the human body. The
anthropometric measurements commonly used as indices of growth and development for infants
include length, weight, and head circumference. Typically, growth is evaluated by comparing
individual measurements to reference standards, represented by percentile curves on a growth
chart. In assessing and monitoring the nutritional status of a low birth weight infant it is most
helpful to evaluate a pattern of measurements obtained on a regular basis over time. For
anthropometric measurements to be valid indices of growth status, they must be highly accurate,
requiring precision in measuring technique. Accurately measuring children with physical
abnormalities is often a challenge.

The anthropometric measurements commonly used as indices of growth and development for
infants include length, weight, and head circumference. Typically, growth is evaluated by
comparing individual measurements to reference standards, represented by percentile curves on a
growth chart.

iii. Growth monitoring and promotion documents to determine children development

trends, and interventions

Child growth and development is a problem in low and middle income countries, where an
estimated 195 million children under five years old are stunted and 129 million are underweight
(UNICEF 2009). Poor growth of children is associated with increased child mortality due to
severe infections and more vulnerable to common childhood illnesses, which contributes to over

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one third of all deaths of children under five (UNICEF 2009). Promotion of child growth is an
international health priority in relation to control of the under five mortality rate (Millennium
Development Goal, MDG 4), and poverty reduction (MDG 1); and is a widely accepted practice
strongly supported by health professionals (Hall 1996). A recent survey reported that 154 out of
178 Ministries of Health used growth charts, which shows that growth monitoring practices are
used universally in paediatric care (de Onis 2004).

Growth monitoring has a long history. In the 1960s, Dr David Morley introduced the use of
anthropometric indicators for measuring the promotion of adequate growth of children in
developing countries (Morley 1973). Over the years the use of different type of growth chart
emerged. In 1978, the World Health Organization (WHO) developed a standard growth chart in
collaboration with other national and international institutions, and promoted its use worldwide,
which was considered a milestone of growth monitoring development (Mangasaryan 2011). In
the early 1980s, the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) developed a number of primary
health care strategies known collectively as the Child Survival and Development Revolution.
Growth monitoring was one of the key activities in the GOBI‐FFF strategy, alongside oral
rehydration, breastfeeding, immunisation, family planning, food supplementation, and the
promotion of female literacy (Grant 1984; Claeson 2000). After that, the promotion activities
related to child growth increasingly integrated into the growth monitoring procedure.

In the mid‐1980s, the concept of Growth Monitoring and Promotion (GMP) was introduced. It
emphasised linking the results of monitoring with follow‐up promotional actions (including
nutrition counselling and provision of supplements, and early disease detection and treatment) in
order to improve individual child nutritional outcomes, improve health and reduce child deaths
(Pearson 1995; Caulfield 2006; Mason 2006). It has been a key component of UNICEF's overall
nutrition strategy (Griffiths 2007), and serves as a core activity in most community‐based health
and nutrition programs (CHNPs) (Mason 2006). In 1996, WHO and UNICEF promoted a broad
child‐saving strategy of Integrated Management of Childhood Illness (IMCI). This strategy
developed into a practice guideline for frontline health care workers that has been introduced into
over 100 countries (WHO/UNICEF 2008). The strategy recommends that child nutrition status
be assessed by weight for age, and that counselling and follow‐up services be provided. In 2009,

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 the WHO Eastern Mediterranean office advocated the evolution of the IMCI, re‐named
'Integrated Management of Child Health' specifying growth monitoring as one of its key aspects.

In the 1990s, however, the effectiveness of GMP was beginning to be called into question. The
coverage was relatively low, and the implementation was considered weak, with poor linkage
between growth monitoring and promotion activities due to staff ineffectiveness and poor
organisational structure (Gerein 1991; Ashworth 2008). In addition, it was reported that the
'Road to Health' card was not being used effectively as a tool in monitoring growth and
promotion of child health (Tarwa 2007), and that a sharp growth faltering occurred in the first
year of life so early interventions were vital (Shrimpton 2001).

Due to limited health resources in many low‐ and middle‐income countries, there are ongoing
debates over targeted monitoring at certain ages or universal coverage, and how to allocate
available resources.

Description of the intervention

Growth monitoring and promotion (GMP) comprises:

1. measurement (the regular recording of a child's weight and sometimes their height);
2. assessment (plotting weight against age or weight against height on a growth chart;
3. analysis (interpreting the growth pattern of the child);
4. action related to the analysis (for example, counselling, providing nutritional supplements or
examining the child for disease) (Mangasaryan 2011).

Throughout this review, growth monitoring and promotion refers to actions 1 through to 4.

How the intervention might work

The benefit of growth monitoring and promotion is thought to be mainly due to two mechanisms:
one is best summarised as the 'detecting a problem' mechanism, and the second as the 'vehicle for
health promotion' mechanism.

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Detecting a problem

The weighing of children and detection of faltering growth shows there is a problem in an
individual child. The health workers respond with targeted promotion activities based on the
growth status, including providing tailored counselling (such as appropriate feeding), providing
nutritional supplements, detecting and treating common diseases (such as vitamin D deficient
rickets, anaemia, diarrhoea, respiratory infection) and making referrals to health providers if
needed. Such benefits could be detected in both individually randomised and cluster‐randomised
designs.

Providing a vehicle for health and nutrition promotion

The process of measuring is thought to provide a focus for discussing the importance of nutrition
and the relationship between nutrition and health. The interaction between health workers and
mothers is expected to raise maternal awareness and knowledge of child care practice leading to
changes in health behaviour. Moreover, it is expected to build a good relationship between health
workers and mothers to encourage the use of preventive and curative health services. Such
benefits are related to the package of care and the social process occurring at a clinic, so would
only be measurable in cluster‐randomised trials.

Substantive outcomes

GMP aims to improve the nutritional status of children, and ultimately to reduce mortality and
morbidity in children under five years. However, GMP is frequently meshed with a series of
other child health services. Demonstrating the contribution of GMP to reducing child mortality in
isolation from other interventions is therefore likely to be complicated. However, it seems
reasonable to expect to be able to identify, through properly controlled trials, an effect on
nutrition. Thus the main outcome of this review is change in nutritional status.

Intermediate outcomes

The implementation of GMP can be expected to improve both mother's knowledge of nutrition
and child care, with consequential improvements in a mother's health behaviour, such as her

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 feeding practice. It can also be expected to improve health care providers' performance in
relation to nutrition counselling, identification of faltering and taking appropriate action.

User views

GMP may provide mothers with reassurance, and so their satisfaction with the service increases,
and the use of health services is encouraged. These outcomes are sought (see Figure 1). On the
other hand, GMP might make mothers anxious about whether their baby is growing well, in
particular when faltering is detected. In addition, a lack of effective communication between
health care providers and mothers could make mothers unwilling to make use of health services,
adversely impacting care, for example, reducing the uptake and coverage of vaccines. Mothers'
perceptions of GMP therefore need to be ascertained when evaluating the effectiveness of GMP.
Although in this review we examine only quantitative measures of mothers' satisfaction, we
intend subsequently to synthesise the qualitative data on this aspect of GMP and incorporate it in
future updates.

Resource use

There is some empirical evidence to show that GMP takes up a considerable amount of time at
maternal and child health clinics, and that this may mean there is less time to consider health
education issues or treat intercurrent illness (Reid 1984). We will seek trials that examine
resource use in terms of time.

To evaluate the effect of routine child growth monitoring, combined with health and nutrition
promotion, on:

 substantive health outcomes (anthropometric indicators of nutrition, mortality);

 intermediate outcomes, including health service use, improved health, nutritional behaviour and
knowledge;
 mothers' views of the value of the process;
 resource use by mothers and service providers.

4.11 abnormalities in growth and development of children (1 hr)

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  analyse the types of abnormalities that happen before, during after birth
 account for the causes of abnormalities that happen before, during after birth

a. A birth defect is something visibly abnormal, internally abnormal, or chemically abnormal

about your newborn baby’s body. The defect might be caused by genetics, infection, radiation, or
drug exposure, or there might be no known reason. Examples of birth defects include
phenylketonuria, sickle cell anemia and Down syndrome

A birth defect is something abnormal about your newborn baby’s body. Every four and a half
minutes, a baby in the United States is born with a birth defect. A defect, which can affect almost
any part of your baby’s body, can be:

 Visibly obvious, like a missing arm or a birthmark.

 Internal (inside the body), like a kidney that hasn’t formed right or a ventricular septal
defect (a hole between the lower chambers of your baby’s heart).
 A chemical imbalance, like phenylketonuria (a defect in a chemical reaction that results
in developmental delay).

i. the types of abnormalities that happen before, during and after birth

What are the types of birth defects?

There are two main categories of birth defects.

Structural Birth Defects

Structural birth defects are related to a problem with the structure of body parts. These can
include:

 Cleft lip or cleft palate

 Heart defects, such as missing or misshaped valves
 Abnormal limbs, such as a clubfoot

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  Neural tube defects, such as spina bifida, and problems related to the growth and
development of the brain and spinal cord

Functional or Developmental Birth Defects

Functional or developmental birth defects are related to a problem with how a body part or body
system works or functions. These problems can include:

 Nervous system or brain problems.These include intellectual and developmental

disabilities, behavioral disorders, speech or language difficulties, seizures, and movement
trouble. Some examples of birth defects that affect the nervous system include Down
syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome, and Fragile X syndrome.
 Sensory problems. Examples include hearing loss and visual problems, such as
blindness or deafness.
 Metabolic disorders. These involve problems with certain chemical reactions in the
body, such as conditions that limit the body’s ability to rid itself of waste materials or
harmful chemicals. Two common metabolic disorders are phenylketonuria and
hypothyroidism.
 Degenerative disorders. These are conditions that might not be obvious at birth but
cause one or more aspects of health to steadily get worse. Examples of degenerative
disorders are muscular dystrophy and X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy, which leads to
problems of the nervous system and the adrenal glands and was the subject of the movie
"Lorenzo’s Oil."

Some birth defects affect many parts or processes in the body, leading to both structural and
functional problems.

This information focuses on structural birth defects, their causes, their prevention, and their
treatment. Functional/developmental birth defects are addressed more completely in
the intellectual and developmental disabilities content.

ii. causes of abnormalities before, during and after birth

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Birth defects are also known as congenital abnormalities, congenital disorders or congenital
malformations. They can be defined as structural or functional anomalies (for example,
metabolic disorders) that occur during intrauterine life and can be identified prenatally, at birth,
or sometimes may only be detected later in infancy, such as hearing defects. Broadly, congenital
refers to the existence at or before birth.

 An estimated 240 000 newborns die worldwide within 28 days of birth every year due to
birth defects. Birth defects cause a further 170 000 deaths of children between the ages of
1 month and 5 years.

 Birth defects can contribute to long-term disability, which takes a significant toll on
individuals, families, health care systems and societies.

 Nine of ten children born with a serious birth defect are in low- and middle-income
countries.

 As neonatal and under-5 mortality rates decline, birth defects become a larger proportion
of the cause of neonatal and under-5 deaths.

 The most common severe birth defects are heart defects, neural tube defects and Down
syndrome.

 Although birth defects may be the result of one or more genetic, infectious, nutritional or
environmental factors, it is often difficult to identify the exact causes.

 Some birth defects can be prevented. Vaccination, adequate intake of folic acid or iodine
through fortification of staple foods or supplementation, and adequate care before and
during a pregnancy are examples of prevention methods.

-Causes and risk factors

Genetic

A minority of birth defects are caused by genetic abnormalities i.e. chromosomal abnormalities
(for example Down syndrome or trisomy 21) or single gene defects (for example cystic fibrosis).

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Consanguinity (when parents are related by blood) also increases the prevalence of rare genetic
birth defects and nearly doubles the risk for neonatal and childhood death, intellectual disability
and other anomalies.

Socioeconomic and demographic factors

Low-income may be an indirect determinant of birth defects, with a higher frequency among
resource-constrained families and countries. It is estimated that about 94% of severe birth defects
occur in low- and middle-income countries. An indirect determinant, this higher risk relates to a
possible lack of access to sufficient nutritious foods by pregnant women, an increased exposure
to agents or factors such as infection and alcohol, or poorer access to health care and screening.

Maternal age is also a risk factor for abnormal intrauterine fetal development. Advanced
maternal age increases the risk of chromosomal abnormalities, including Down syndrome.

Environmental factors including infections

Others occur because of environmental factors like maternal infections (syphilis, rubella, Zika),
exposure to radiation, certain pollutants, maternal nutritional deficiencies (e.g., iodine, folate
deficiency), illness (maternal diabetes) or certain drugs (alcohol, phenytoin).

Unknown causes

While complex genetic and environmental interactions are proposed, most birth defects have
unknown causes, including congenital heart defects, cleft lip or palate and club foot.

Birth defects can occur during any stage of pregnancy. Most birth defects occur in the first 3
months of pregnancy, when the organs of the baby are forming. This is a very important stage of
development. However, some birth defects occur later in pregnancy. During the last six months
of pregnancy, the tissues and organs continue to grow and develop.

For some birth defects, like fetal alcohol syndrome, we know the cause. But for most birth
defects, we don’t know what causes them. For most birth defects, we think they are caused by a
complex mix of factors. These factors include our genes (information inherited from our

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parents), our behaviors, and things in the environment. But, we don’t fully understand how these
factors might work together to cause birth defects.

Some things might increase the chances of having a baby with a birth defect, such as:

 Smoking, drinking alcohol, or taking certain drugs during pregnancy.

 Having certain medical conditions, such as being obese or having uncontrolled diabetes
before and during pregnancy.
 Taking certain medications, such as isotretinoin (a drug used to treat severe acne).
 Having someone in your family with a birth defect. To learn more about your risk of
having a baby with a birth defect, you can talk with a clinical geneticist or a genetic
counselor.
 Having certain infections during pregnancy such as Zika virus and cytomegalovirus.
 Experiencing fever greater than 101oF or having an elevated body temperature due to heat
exposure.
 Being an older mother, as the risk of chromosomal abnormalities increases with age

What causes birth defects?

Experts don’t know the exact cause of most birth defects, but some reasons are:

 Genetic or hereditary factors.

 Infection during pregnancy.
 Drug exposure during pregnancy.

How do genes and chromosomes affect birth defects?

About 20% of birth defects are caused by genetic or hereditary factors. Genetic causes of birth
defects fall into three general categories:

 Chromosomal abnormalities.
 Single-gene defects.

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  Multifactorial.

Every human body cell contains 46 chromosomes, and each chromosome contains thousands of
genes. Each gene contains a blueprint that controls development or function of a particular body
part. People who have either too many or too few chromosomes will therefore receive a
scrambled message regarding anatomic development and function.

Down syndrome is an example of a condition caused by too many chromosomes. Because of an

accident during cell division, individuals with Down syndrome have an extra copy of a particular
chromosome (chromosome 21). This extra chromosome can cause a typical constellation of birth
defects. Characteristic features of Down syndrome can include developmental delay, muscle
weakness, downward slant of the eyes, low-set and malformed ears, an abnormal crease in the
palm of the hand and birth defects of the heart and intestines.

With Turner syndrome, a female lacks part or all of one X chromosome. In the affected women,
this can cause short stature, learning disabilities and absence of ovaries.

Trisomy 13 (Patau Syndrome) and Trisomy 18 (Edwards Syndrome) are caused by inheriting
extra copies of the 13th or 18th chromosome, respectively. These are rarer, more serious
conditions which cause severe birth defects that are incompatible with survival after birth.

In addition to inheriting an extra or absent chromosome, deletions or duplications of single genes

can also cause developmental disorders and birth defects. One example is cystic fibrosis (a
disorder that causes progressive damage of the lungs and pancreas).

Defective genes can also be caused by accidental damage, a condition called “spontaneous
mutation.” Most cases of achondroplasia (a condition that causes extreme short stature and
malformed bones) are caused by new damage to the controlling gene. In addition, recombination
errors can cause translocations of chromosomes which may lead to complex birth defects.

How do environmental factors like infection and drugs affect birth defects?

Environmental factors can increase the risk of miscarriage, birth defects, or they might have no
effect on the fetus at all, depending on at what point during the pregnancy the exposure occurs.

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The developing fetus goes through two major stages of development after conception. The first,
or embryo stage, occurs during the first 10 weeks after conception. Most of the major body
systems and organs form during this time. The second, or fetal stage, is the remainder of the
pregnancy. This fetal period is a time of growth of the organs and of the fetus in general. Your
developing fetus is most vulnerable to injury during the embryo stage when organs are
developing. Indeed, infections and drugs can cause the greatest damage when exposure occurs
two to 10 weeks after conception.

Diabetes and obesity can possibly increase your child’s risk of birth defects. Your healthcare
provider may suggest that you do your best to manage these conditions before you get pregnant.

Some medicines and recreational drugs can cause birth defects, which are most severe when used
during the first three months of pregnancy. Thalidomide, an anti-nausea medicine prescribed
during the 1960s, caused birth defects called phocomelia (absence of most of the arm with the

5.0 PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT (end of term 3 but begin term 4 from here)
5.1 Theories of Personality Development (2 hrs)
 Analyze the views of personality structure, types and traits according to psychoanalytic
theories to understand the stages of personality development and their relevance in
learning
 Examine the views of humanistic theories on self-concept in personality development to
making learner develop self-actualization in life
 Apply personality development theories in learning to develop self-actualization in life
 Suggest appropriate ways of making appropriate interventions on personality
development among learners
i. views of personality structure, types and traits according to psychoanalytic theories
-Psychoanalytic Theory is part of a collection of psychological theories and therapeutic
techniques originating in the works of Sigmund Freud, who developed Psychoanalytic Theory,
coining the term ''psychoanalysis'' in 1896. The theory encompasses the idea that all people have

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unconscious thoughts, memories, emotions, and desires, and that therapy should be used to
access the mind's repressed feelings and experiences. Only then will the patient experience
cathartic healing of the mind.

-Freud's Elements of Personality (Id, Ego, and Superego)

According to Sigmund Freud, human personality is complex and has more than a single
component. In his famous psychoanalytic theory, Freud states that personality is composed of
three elements known as the id, the ego, and the superego. These elements work together to
create complex human behaviors

Each component adds its own unique contribution to personality and the three interact in ways
that have a powerful influence on an individual. Each element of personality emerges at different
points in life.
-According to Freud's theory, certain aspects of your personality are more primal and might
pressure you to act upon your most basic urges. Other parts of your personality work to
counteract these urges and strive to make you conform to the demands of reality.
Here's a closer look at each of these key parts of the personality, how they work individually, and
how they interact.

The Id

 According to Freud, the id is the source of all psychic energy, making it the primary
component of personality.1
 The id is the only component of personality that is present from birth.
 This aspect of personality is entirely unconscious and includes instinctive and primitive
behaviors.

-The id is driven by the pleasure principle, which strives for immediate gratification of all
desires, wants, and needs.1 If these needs are not satisfied immediately, the result is a state of
anxiety or tension. For example, an increase in hunger or thirst should produce an immediate
attempt to eat or drink.

-The id is very important early in life because it ensures that an infant's needs are met. If the
infant is hungry or uncomfortable, they will cry until the demands of the id are satisfied. Young

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infants are ruled entirely by the id; there is no reasoning with them when these needs demand
satisfaction.

-Examples of the Id

Imagine trying to convince a baby to wait until lunchtime to eat their meal. The id requires
immediate satisfaction, and because the other components of personality are not yet present, the
infant will cry until these needs are fulfilled.

However, immediately fulfilling these needs is not always realistic or even possible. If we were
ruled entirely by the pleasure principle, we might find ourselves grabbing the things that we want
out of other people's hands to satisfy our cravings.

-This behavior would be both disruptive and socially unacceptable. According to Freud, the id
tries to resolve the tension created by the pleasure principle through the use of primary process
thinking, which involves forming a mental image of the desired object to satisfy the need.
N/B Although people eventually learn to control the id, this part of personality remains the same
infantile, primal force throughout life. It is the development of the ego and the superego that
allows people to control the id's basic instincts and act in ways that are both realistic and socially
acceptable.

-The Ego

 According to Freud, the ego develops from the id and ensures that the impulses of the id
can be expressed in a manner acceptable in the real world.
 The ego functions in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind.
 The ego is the personality component responsible for dealing with reality.

Everyone has an ego. The term ego is sometimes used to describe your cohesive awareness of
your personality, but personality and ego are not the same. The ego represents just one
component of your full personality.

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The ego operates based on the reality principle, which strives to satisfy the id's desires in realistic
and socially appropriate ways. The reality principle weighs the costs and benefits of an action
before deciding to act upon or abandon impulses.
In many cases, the id's impulses can be satisfied through a process of delayed gratification—the
ego will eventually allow the behavior, but only in the appropriate time and place.

The term ego is often used informally to suggest that someone has an inflated sense of self.
However, the ego in personality has a positive effect. It is the part of your personality that keeps
you grounded in reality and prevents the id and superego from pulling you too far toward your
most basic urges or moralistic virtues. Having a strong ego means having a strong sense of self-
awareness.
-Freud compared the id to a horse and the ego to the horse's rider. The horse provides power and
motion, while the rider provides direction and guidance. Without its rider, the horse would
wander wherever it wished and do whatever it pleased. The rider gives the horse directions and
commands to get it where it wants it to go.
-The ego also discharges tension created by unmet impulses through secondary process thinking,
in which the ego tries to find an object in the real world that matches the mental image created
by the id's primary process.

-Examples of the Ego

Imagine that you are stuck in a long meeting at work. You find yourself growing increasingly
hungry as the meeting drags on. While the id might compel you to jump up from your seat and
rush to the break room for a snack, the ego guides you to sit quietly and wait for the meeting to
end.

Instead of acting upon the primal urges of the id, you spend the rest of the meeting imagining
yourself eating a cheeseburger. Once the meeting is finally over, you can seek out the object you
were imagining and satisfy the demands of the id realistically and appropriately.

-The Superego

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The last component of personality to develop is the superego.

 According to Freud, the superego begins to emerge at around age five.

 The superego holds the internalized moral standards and ideals that we acquire from our
parents and society (our sense of right and wrong)
 The superego provides guidelines for making judgments.

The superego has two parts:

3. The conscience includes information about things that are viewed as bad by parents and
society. These behaviors are often forbidden and lead to bad consequences, punishments,
or feelings of guilt and remorse.5
4. The ego ideal includes the rules and standards for behaviors that the ego aspires to.

The superego tries to perfect and civilize our behavior. It suppresses all id's unacceptable urges
and struggles to make the ego act upon idealistic standards rather than on realistic principles. The
superego is present in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious.

-Examples of the Superego

For example, if you give in to the urges of the id, the superego is what will cause you to feel a
sense of guilt or even shame about your actions. The superego may help you feel good about
your behavior when you suppress your most primal urges.

-Other examples of the superego include:

 A woman feels an urge to steal office supplies from work. However, her superego
counteracts this urge by focusing on the fact that such behaviors are wrong.
 A man realizes that the cashier at the store forgot to charge him for one of the items he
had in his cart. He returns to the store to pay for the item because his internalized sense of
right and wrong urge him to do so.

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  A student forgot to study for a history test and feels an urge to cheat off of a student
sitting nearby. Even though he feels like the chances of getting caught are low, he knows
that cheating is wrong, so he suppresses the urge.

-How is Psychoanalysis used in Education?

 Psycho-analysis has given rise to many movements and practices which have provided a
stimulus to new education. It has changed the conception of education and intended its
aim. Education is no longer considered as restraint to be achieved by external regulatory
means such as punishment and rewards.
 The aim of education is the development of the whole personality – the development of
intellect as well as emotions for socially desirable purposes.
 Psychoanalysis has laid stress on such psychological incentives as love, use of instincts,
permissiveness and leniency and the child’s own will or interest. It has thrown light on
and explained the variations that we find in the assimilation of various subjects among
different children. This means that specific disabilities may be due to affective inhibition
among other causes.
 Psychoanalysis has explained the child’s resistance to learning in terms of unfavourable
environmental conditions, unsympathetic and critical teachers and parents, lack of
preparations and emotional blocking caused by anxiety and aggression in the form of
phobias or due to inharmonious parent-child or intra-parental relationships.
 Psychoanalysis, thus, brings out the importance or proper environment for the education
of children. The environment in the school and in the home should be such as to reduce
the chances of repression and increase the chances of sublimation. It should provide
opportunities for spontaneous and creative activities and for all sublimations.
 Psychoanalysis has stressed the significance of play in the education of children. Play
along with other natural interests of children should determine the various curricular and
cocurricular activities in the school. This emphasis play has given rise to play therapy and
play-way as important techniques in the treatment of scholastic and emotional problems.
 The success of educational efforts much depends upon the personal relationship
between the teacher and the pupil. This point should not be neglected either by the
practical teacher or the education theorist. The teacher is prone to the influence of

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 parental complexes, because for the pupil, he is in the psychological situation of the
father or mother.
 The teacher is in a position of authority which may provide a favorable opportunity for
the gratification of such powerful impulses as self- esteem, self love, and pleasure in
inflicting pain. These impulses work in such a disguised form that consciousness cannot
easily recognize their true nature.
 The pupils, too, can resort to narcissism and exhibitionism if the teacher is not able to
handle them in a psychological manner. All this requires that the teacher must be able to
understand his own psyche so that he may take due precautions against his special
tendencies and complexes. He should also be able to get into contact with the pupil’s
psychic life.

-Psychoanalytic theory & children's classroom activities

Psychoanalytic theories seek to understand how and why humans think and behave in certain
patterns from infancy.

 Psychoanalytic theories seek to understand how and why humans think and behave in
certain patterns from infancy.

When applying psychoanalytic theories to children in the classroom, activities are typically
categorised into either behaviorism or cognitivism. Behaviorism focuses on tangible behaviours,
such as a child who will share her toys versus a child of the same age who refuses to share.
Behaviorism also looks at conditioning and social learning to understand where a child picks up
his personality traits and habits. Cognitivism looks at mental processes and events rather than
tangible behaviours. Cognitive structure, or the structure and function of the brain, is of
particular concern here. In cognitive science, psychologists are concerned with whether
behaviours can be justified chemically or structurally in biological differences between people.
When behaviorism and cognitivism are understood, teachers, parents and psychologists can
attempt to answer behavioural disorders from a social conditioning and chemical perspective. A
behavioural problem may be rooted in either or both areas of psychoanalysis.

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  When applying psychoanalytic theories to children in the classroom, activities are
typically categorised into either behaviorism or cognitivism.
 When behaviorism and cognitivism are understood, teachers, parents and psychologists
can attempt to answer behavioural disorders from a social conditioning and chemical
perspective.

Examples
An example of a classic activity used for psychoanalysis in the classroom is role playing. During
a role play, the teacher exercises control over the basic set-up of the scenario. Students then act
within those boundaries to produce original decisions and actions. In each scenario, a student
knows there are things she should or should not do. For example, if the scenario involves seeing
another child break a rule, the actor in the role play must decide what to do. Should he tell the
teacher, attempt to punish or correct the child himself or let the child get away with it?
Classroom activities around psychoanalytic theory can be public or anonymous. An example of
an anonymous psychoanalytic activity is the question and answer game. Students write
anonymous questions about social situations on a piece of paper and submit them to the teacher.
The teacher will pass the questions back out to students, making sure each student gets a
question he did not write. Students take the questions home and answer them overnight, and
resubmit them anonymously. The teacher then reads them aloud for class discussion.

 An example of a classic activity used for psychoanalysis in the classroom is role playing.
 During a role play, the teacher exercises control over the basic set-up of the scenario.

ii. Humanistic Theory by Psychologist Carl Rogers

The humanistic perspective rose to prominence in the mid-20th century in response to

psychoanalytic theory and behaviorism; this perspective focuses on how healthy people develop
and emphasizes an individual’s inherent drive towards self-actualization and
creativity. Humanism emphasizes human potential and an individual’s ability to change, and
rejects the idea of biological determinism. Humanistic work and research are sometimes
criticized for being qualitative (not measurement-based), but there exist a number of quantitative

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research strains within humanistic psychology, including research on happiness, self-concept,
meditation, and the outcomes of humanistic psychotherapy (Friedman, 2008).

One pioneering humanistic theorist was Carl Rogers. He was an

influential humanistic psychologist who developed a personality theory that emphasized the
importance of the self-actualizing tendency in shaping human personalities. He also believed that
humans are constantly reacting to stimuli with their subjective reality (phenomenal field), which
changes continuously. Over time, a person develops a self-concept based on the feedback from
this field of reality.

Figure 1. The phenomenal field refers to a person’s subjective reality, which includes external
objects and people as well as internal thoughts and emotions. The person’s motivations and
environments both act on their phenomenal field.

One of Rogers’s main ideas about personality regards self-concept, our thoughts and feelings
about ourselves. How would you respond to the question, “Who am I?” Your answer can show

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how you see yourself. If your response is primarily positive, then you tend to feel good about
who you are, and you probably see the world as a safe and positive place. If your response is
mainly negative, then you may feel unhappy with who you are. Rogers further divided the self
into two categories: the ideal self and the real self. The ideal self is the person that you would
like to be; the real self is the person you actually are. Rogers focused on the idea that we need to
achieve consistency between these two selves.

Unconditional Positive Regard

Human beings develop an ideal self and a real self, based on the conditional status of positive
regard. How closely one’s real self matches up with their ideal self is called congruence. We
experience congruence when our thoughts about our real self and ideal self are very similar—in
other words when our self-concept is accurate. High congruence leads to a greater sense of self-
worth and a healthy, productive life. Conversely, when there is a great discrepancy between our
ideal and actual selves, we experience a state Rogers called incongruence, which can lead to
maladjustment.

According to Rogers, parents can help their children achieve their ideal self by giving them
unconditional positive regard, or unconditional love. In the development of self-concept, positive
regard is key. Unconditional positive regard is an environment that is free of preconceived
notions of value. Conditional positive regard is full of conditions of worth that must be achieved
to be considered successful. Rogers (1980) explained it this way: “As persons are accepted and
prized, they tend to develop a more caring attitude towards themselves” (p. 116).

The Good Life

Rogers described life in terms of principles rather than stages of development. These principles
exist in fluid processes rather than static states. He claimed that a fully functioning person would
continually aim to fulfill their potential in each of these processes, achieving what he called “the
good life.“ These people would allow personality and self-concept to emanate from experience.
He found that fully functioning individuals had several traits or tendencies in common:

8. A growing openness to experience–they move away from defensiveness.

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 9. An increasingly existential lifestyle–living each moment fully, rather than distorting the
moment to fit personality or self-concept.

10. Increasing organismic trust–they trust their own judgment and their ability to choose
behavior that is appropriate for each moment.

11. Freedom of choice–they are not restricted by incongruence and are able to make a wide
range of choices more fluently. They believe that they play a role in determining their own
behavior and so feel responsible for their own behavior.

12. Higher levels of creativity–they will be more creative in the way they adapt to their own
circumstances without feeling a need to conform.

13. Reliability and constructiveness–they can be trusted to act constructively. Even aggressive
needs will be matched and balanced by intrinsic goodness in congruent individuals.

14. A rich full life–they will experience joy and pain, love and heartbreak, fear and courage
more intensely.

Application of humanistic theory in learning

Good teachers are always looking for ways to improve their methods to help students thrive in
their classroom. Different learning theories and techniques help teachers connect with different
students based on their learning style and abilities. Teaching strategies that are student-centered
often have great success in helping students learn and grow better. Learner-centered approaches
place the student as the authority in the educational setting, helping ensure that they are the focus
of education and are in control of their learning to an extent.

The idea of student-centered learning is an example of the humanistic learning theory in action.
It’s valuable for current and aspiring educators alike to learn about student-centered education
and other humanistic approaches to use in their classroom. These approaches can be vital in
helping students truly learn and succeed in their education. Learn more about the humanistic
learning theory and discover how it can be implemented in the classroom.

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 There are several important principles involved in the humanistic learning theory that all lead to
self-actualization. Self-actualization is when all your needs are met, you’ve become the best
you’ve can, and you are fulfilled. While Maslow and the humanists don’t believe that most
people reach self-actualization, their belief is that we are always in search of it, and the closer we
are, the more we can learn.

 Student choice. Choice is central to the humanistic learning theory and humanistic psychology.
Humanistic learning is student-centered, so students are encouraged to take control over their
education. They make choices that can range from daily activities to future goals. Students are
encouraged to focus on a specific subject area of interest for a reasonable amount of time that
they choose. Teachers who utilize humanistic learning believe that it’s crucial for students to find
motivation and engagement in their learning, and that is more likely to happen when students are
choosing to learn about something that they really want to know.

 Fostering engagement to inspire students to become self-motivated to learn. The effectiveness of

this psychology approach is based on learners feeling engaged and self-motivated so they want to
learn. So humanistic learning relies on educators working to engage students, encouraging them
to find things they are passionate about so they are excited about learning.

 The importance of self-evaluation. For most humanistic teachers, grades don’t really matter.
Self-evaluation is the most meaningful way to evaluate how learning is going. Grading students
encourages students to work for the grade, instead of doing things based on their own satisfaction
and excitement of learning. Routine testing and rote memorization don’t lead to meaningful
learning in this theory, and thus aren’t encouraged by humanistic teachers. Humanistic educators
help students perform self-evaluations so they can see how students feel about their progress.

 Feelings and knowledge are both important to the learning process and should not be separated
according to humanistic psychology. Humanistic teachers believe that knowledge and feelings go
hand-in-hand in the learning process. Cognitive and affective learning are both important to
humanistic learning. Lessons and activities should focus on the whole student and their intellect
and feelings, not one or the other.

 A safe learning environment. Because humanistic learning focuses on the entire student,
humanistic educators understand that they need to create a safe environment so students can have

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 as many as their needs met as possible. They need to feel safe physically, mentally, and
emotionally in order to be able to focus on learning. So humanistic educators are passionate
about the idea of helping students meet as many of their needs as possible.

The role of teacher and student in humanistic learning theory.

In the humanistic learning theory, teachers and students have specific roles for success. The
overall role of a teacher is to be a facilitator and role model, not necessarily to be the one doing
the teacher. The role of the teacher includes:

 Teach learning skills. Good teachers in humanistic learning theory focus on helping students
develop learning skills. Students are responsible for learning choices, so helping them understand
the best ways to learn is key to their success.

 Provide motivation for classroom tasks. Humanistic learning focuses on engagement, so teachers
need to provide motivation and exciting activities to help students feel engaged about learning.

 Provide choices to students in task/subject selection. Choice is central to humanistic learning, so

teachers have a role in helping work with students to make choices about what to learn. They
may offer options, help students evaluate what they’re excited about, and more.

 Create opportunities for group work with peers. As a facilitator in the classroom, teachers create
group opportunities to help students explore, observe, and self evaluate. They can do this better
as they interact with other students who are learning at the same time that they are.

Humanistic approach examples in education.

Some examples of humanistic education in action include:

 Teachers can help students set learning goals at the beginning of the year, and then help design
pathways for students to reach their goals. Students are in charge of their learning, and teachers
can help steer them in the right direction.

 Teachers can create exciting and engaging learning opportunities. For example, teachers trying to
help students understand government can allow students to create their own government in the

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 classroom. Students will be excited about learning, as well as be in-charge of how everything
runs.

 Teachers can create a safe learning environment for students by having snacks, encouraging
students to use the bathroom and get water, and creating good relationships with students so they
will trust speaking to their teacher if there is an issue.

 Teachers can utilize journaling to help students focus on self-evaluation and their feelings as part
of learning. Using prompt questions can help students better understand their feelings and
progress in learning.

Best practices from humanistic theory to bring to your classroom.

A teaching degree is a crucial step for those who want to be teachers. A degree can help them
learn about current practices and trends in teaching, learning theories, and how to apply them to
the classroom. Established teachers can also greatly benefit from continuing education and
continuously expanding their techniques.

When considering their own teaching practices, teachers can work to incorporate humanistic
theory into their classroom by:

 Making time to collaborate with other educators

 Co-planning lessons with other teachers

 Evaluating student needs and wants regularly

 Connecting with parents to help meet specific student needs

 Preparing to try new things with students regularly

Extended activities
 Apply personality development theories in learning to develop self-actualization in life
 Suggest appropriate ways of making appropriate interventions on personality
development among learners

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5.2 Determinants of Personality (1 hr)
 Demonstrate the role of genetics and environment in determining personality
development among learners
 Analyze how genetics and environment determine personality development among
learners
i. the role of genetics and environment in determining personality development
-One question that is exceedingly important for the study of personality concerns the extent to
which it is the result of nature or nurture. If nature is more important, then our personalities will
form early in our lives and will be difficult to change later. If nurture is more important,
however, then our experiences are likely to be particularly important, and we may be able to
flexibly alter our personalities over time.
-Humans are complex beings, with their personalities and behavioral patterns being perhaps their
most intricate aspects. The fascination with this aspect of human behavior can be seen in popular
debates such as Nature v.s. Nurture.
-If our personalities result from genetics, then we develop them early on and will remain the
same throughout our lifetime. However, if they are a result of our environment, then our
personalities may evolve throughout our lifetime, and our experiences will have a more
significant effect on them. Studies have concluded that human personalities and temperaments
are shaped by both genetics and our environment; while we may be born with certain personality
traits, there still is the possibility to develop others as we experience life.
-Personality traits like openness to experience or intimacy seem to be shaped by a child’s
upbringing. In contrast, more stable characteristics like distractability or agreeableness seem to

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be rooted within a child’s DNA. You may wish to take a personality traits test to determine your
personality type and behavioral characteristics. Specific characteristics are associated with
different genomes, making them reliant on genetics, and other features may be developed later
on due to external factors. While it is understandable to assume that personality is the result of
genetics, it is important to consider that personalities are hereditary and a result of environment
or other factors.
Often, a person might seemingly inherit their parent’s short temper or perfectionist tendencies.
That same child may inherit their parent’s big blue eyes and thick curly hair. While it may be
clear that the physical characteristics are genetic correlations, it is difficult to know whether the
behavioral traits result from genetics or learned thanks to years of exposure throughout
childhood.
What determines personality?
1. Genetics (nature/heredity)
Multiple variables shape our traits, genetics being one of them. In fact, a study found that 20%-
60% of our temperament is determined by genetics. They also found that specific primary genes
are involved in the communication of cells within the brain, which directly affect someones'
personality and behaviors. Possessing certain genes can significantly impact sociability,
predisposition to anxiety or depression, self-control, and more.
The same study suggested that while our personality traits may evolve as we grow into adulthood
thanks to life experiences and events, our core temperament generally remains the same. This
suggests that at our core temperament, we are made up of specific traits that have genetic
components.

Temperament is usually associated with heritability and includes common behavioral traits that
influence how we do things--such as being persistent or shy. Subsequently, personality is
generally associated with why we do things--like openness to experience or agreeableness-- and
is shaped by our genetics and upbringing.

Genetic personality traits (inherited from parents)

-Distractibility

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Specific learning disabilities resulting from high levels of distractibility. Easily distracted hence
lapses in concertation

-Leadership

In a newer study, specific inherited DNA sequences were found to correlate with leadership
abilities. In this study, a particular genotype was found associated with passing leadership
abilities down through generations. While leadership may still be thought of as a skill to have or
develop, it is important to note the role behavioral genetics plays.

-Neuroticism

People with this trait are more vulnerable to stress and are often seen as more nervous and
sensitive to stimuli, while those without may have a more positive and calm demeanor

2. environment/nurture
Environmental factors, such as upbringing, culture, geographic location, and life experiences,
greatly influence our personality. For example, a child raised in a harmonious environment may
have a more positive or calm outlook and disposition. In contrast, a child raised in a turbulent
household may be more inclined to develop aggression or other adverse traits.
rom 1979 to 1999, researchers studied both identical and fraternal twins separated at birth to
determine the effects of genes and environment on their personalities as they aged. This study
found that identical twins shared about 50% of the same traits, whereas fraternal twins (non-
identical twins) shared about 20%. The study also found 70% of the variance in IQ was linked to
genetic variations, while the remaining 30% was due to environmental effects.
In studying different pairs of twins and their genetic differences and aspects of
personality, scientists also found that while these genetic effects greatly influence personality,
other factors such as leading a healthy lifestyle and engaging in intellectual activities played a
great role in their overall well-being and development.

Environmental factors that influence human behavior

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Here are some of the environmental influences that can affect personality characteristics and
development:

-Culture

Culture is defined as the shared values, customary beliefs, traditions, and social norms of a
group. It is perhaps one of the most powerful drivers in individual differences and personality
dimensions. For example, someone raised in an individualistic culture may value independence
or personal success. In contrast, someone raised in a more collectivist culture may value social
harmony and the group’s needs over their own.

-Geographic location

Similar to culture, geographic location directly impacts human behavior. Depending on your
location, you are exposed to different experiences, hardships, cultures, and more.

-Community

Within a geographic location and culture, smaller groups called communities form. These
communities are generally people who live in the same place and share certain traits, goals, or
interests. Community influences could include role models, religion, and neighborhood context.

-Education

Another environmental factor that plays a role in personality characteristics is the schools people
went to and their education. Studies found that various school experiences were associated with
personality changes. For example, a student who prioritizes studying and doing their homework
may experience an increase in conscientiousness. In contrast, a student exposed to a stressful or
volatile school environment may increase neuroticism.

2. The Role of the Environment in Shaping Personality (nurture)

Personality often depends on particular combinations of genes that brothers and sisters don’t
necessarily share, but what about the environmental influences on personality? Consider the

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impact of the parents and the family environment on personality. One might expect children who
are raised by the same parents in the same way in the same home ought to turn out similar, but
this fact isn’t necessarily the case.

It is true that environmental influences, including parenting, affect personality. Based on genetic
data, researchers have concluded that environment accounts for approximately 50 to 70 percent
of personality. But researchers have also found the environments that children from the same
family share with each other exert a much weaker influence on their personalities than the
environments that each child experiences individually.

There are certain activities that kids in a family share—they all went together on a family
vacation last year and they all had dinner with the family last night. But many experiences
happen to just one child—two different second-grade teachers or one sibling plays in a band
while the other does not.

Research shows that shared experiences that are common to all children in a family affect their
personalities far less than unshared environmental influences that each child experiences
separately. The common environments and experiences that children in a family share don’t
make them as similar to each other as we might expect.

Adopted Children: Unshared Influences

One of the strongest pieces of evidence for the idea that the shared family environment does not
cause children to be alike stems from research with adopted children. If the shared family
environment made children similar to each other, then children with different biological parents
who are adopted into the same family should have personalities that are more similar than two
unrelated people who grew up in different homes. According to the latest research, they are not

When researchers analyzed why identical twins were so similar psychologically, they found that
the similarity was due almost entirely to genetics, not to the fact that they grew up in the same
environment. The fact that sharing a particular environment growing up does not lead siblings to
be similar surprises most people.

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Shared influences are variables that are common to all children in a family—the house and
town they live in, the number of TV sets and books in the house, their parents’ attitudes and
values, whether the family attends church, the family’s financial situation, the relatives who visit,
the family pet, family vacations, and so on.
Unshared influences are things that children in the same family don’t share. For example, the
kids probably have different sets of friends and different teachers in school. Their parents
probably treat them a bit differently as well, both because each child is different, and because the
parents themselves change as they have more children. The family’s finances may change when
different children are different ages, and the parents’ marriage may have different ups and downs
along the way so that some children may see more conflict between the parents. Brothers and
sisters in the same family also have different personal experiences, different illnesses, and
different injuries.
Even children growing up in the same family have many different, unshared experiences—and
these differences help explain some of the variations in personality. Research has shown that
unshared parts of children’s environments exert a stronger influence on personality development
than the shared parts. In some studies, the shared environment exerts little or no discernible
impact on personality. For example, once we control for the genetic similarity among brothers
and sisters, they are barely any more similar to one another than randomly selected people—even
though they grew up in the same family.

Common Questions about Environment and Human Personality

Q: Does a person’s environment affect their personality?

A person’s environment does affect personality, but biology and genetics also play a role in
determining one’s personality traits.

Q: Is personality genetic or environmental?

Both genetics and environment influence personality. Twin studies have found that genetics
play a larger role than parental influences when it comes to behavioral outcomes, but non-shared

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environmental factors play an even bigger role. For instance, if one twin falls in with a bad
crowd at school, that will have a huge influence on his or her behavior.

Q: What factors influence human behavior?

Many factors influence human behavior, including the environment in which one is raised,
genetics, culture, and community, which includes teachers and classmates.

Q: What are two environmental influences on personality?

One environmental influence on personality is culture. For instance, some cultures dictate that
children should be reserved and speak only when spoken to. Another environmental influence is
school. Since children spend the majority of their time in school, this can have a huge influence
on their personality. If they go to a school where violence and drug abuse proliferates, they are
more likely to engage in these behaviors themselves as peer pressure can be very powerful.

5.3 Defense mechanisms (1 hr)

 Discuss the types and application of defence mechanisms
 Analyze the types, causes and characteristics of defence mechanisms
 Discuss the characteristics of learners with socio-emotional and behavioural disorders
 Suggest strategies and intervention measures to manage learners with socio-emotional
and behavioural disorders
ii. Types and application of defence mechanisms
Defense mechanisms are psychological strategies that are unconsciously used to protect a person
from anxiety arising from unacceptable thoughts or feelings. According to Freudian theory,
defense mechanisms involve a distortion of reality in women way so that we are better able to
cope with a situation
-Defense mechanisms are methods people use to cope with feelings of stress or anxiety. These
methods can vary widely in their degree of helping or potentially causing further harm. For most
people, defense mechanisms are unconscious behaviors.
Mature defense mechanisms may be more helpful and inflict less harm upon yourself and others.
The mature defenses involve accepting reality even if it is disliked. Uncomfortable thoughts,

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feelings, and situations are interpreted and addressed in less threatening forms instead of being
denied.
In the early twentieth century, Anna Freud, the daughter of Sigmund Freud, highlighted ten of
the most common defense mechanisms people use. Psychoanalysts are constantly expanding on
this number. Here’s a breakdown of the most common types of defense mechanisms people use.

-Avoidance

Avoidance is a defense mechanism people use to avoid handling a problem at hand.

With avoidance, you’ll dismiss any uncomfortable or negative thoughts or feelings without
trying to understand them.

You might also avoid people or places that make you uncomfortable to the extent that it disrupts
your personal life.

In the long run, avoidance may not be a sustainable solution and can compound a stressful
situation. If it is safe and possible to do so, addressing and resolving a stressful situation directly
can be more helpful. Using drugs or alcohol to circumvent dealing with your feelings or a
difficult situation is also a form of avoidance

-Denial

Denial is used to avoid dealing with a stressful or overwhelming situation. When a person is in
denial, they refuse to accept the reality of their situation.

For instance, if you are going through a rough divorce, you might stay in denial about the fact
that your partner is about to leave you until it happens. The problem with denial is that it stops
you from dealing with a situation when you should.

If you've just received shocking or life-changing news, denial can give you some time to come to
terms with your new reality. However, if you remain in a state of denial, it could disrupt your life
by keeping you disconnected from reality

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-Projection

Projection is an unconscious act of taking unwanted emotions or traits you don't like or refuse to
accept about yourself and attributing them to someone else. For instance, a person who is
cheating might suspect or accuse their partner of cheating.

-Distortion

Distortion is the misinterpretation of your environment to see what you want to see, the way you
want to see it. Your unconscious brain may seek out data that supports your beliefs and ignores
evidence against it to protect your ego so you can perceive yourself as right or good instead of
having made a mistake.

-Repression

With repression, a person will block out painful or overwhelming feelings and emotions in
situations where they experience them. You often have no control over the thoughts and
emotions you repress.

Repressed memories or feelings don’t just disappear, however. During therapy, or in certain
unsuspecting moments you might find yourself uncovering them. A person who was abused by
their parents as a child, for instance, may repress the memories and be unaware of them as an
adult, insisting their parents were wonderful and never hurt them.
Suppression, on the other hand, is a conscious and intentional form of repression where you
choose not to interact with or talk about distressing thoughts, feelings, or situations. You are
aware of them, but you may put off addressing them until a later time. The ways suppression
may be used can range from maladaptive to adaptive.

-Identification

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Identification involves a person adopting the thoughts and behaviors of a person who has power
over them. In many identification cases, the person using it as a coping mechanism is being
abused.

-Intellectualization

With intellectualization, people use reason, logic, and facts to avoid uncomfortable feelings or
situations. Many times, people use intellectualization to avoid dealing with their emotions. For
instance, they might justify cheating on a test because they needed the grade to graduate.

-Regression

Regression involves an individual coping with a traumatic, stressful, or anxiety-provoking

situation by returning to an earlier developmental stage, or going psychologically back to a
period in time.

For instance, a child who was abused and has been potty trained might start bedwetting again.
It's possible for regression to occur at any stage of your life

-Sublimation

Sublimation, in many cases, is a positive defense mechanism. People who use it as a defense
mechanism will substitute their more aggressive or problematic impulses with healthier and more
positive alternatives.

For instance, a person who has been feeling a lot of pent-up anger and frustration might start
playing a contact sport like football to channel these emotions healthily

-Dissociation

Dissociation involves disconnecting from yourself and your own thoughts, feelings, memories,
or sense of identity. It often happens in response to a traumatic situation, like when a person is
being abused. Like all defense mechanisms, forms of dissociation can range from mild to
extreme.

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Symptoms of dissociation may include having an out-of-body experience (which may happen
during extreme physical violence such as rape or assault), feeling like you're a different person,
feeling emotionally or physically numb or detached, and not feeling any pain. "Zoning out" is a
very mild form of dissociation.

-Displacement

Displacement involves taking out difficult feelings, frustrations, and impulses on a less
threatening person or object. For example, someone who is yelled at by their boss and has a bad
day at work might not say anything directly to their boss. However, they may come home and
yell at or take their frustrations out on their child.

-Causes of defence mechanisms

 As psychological strategies to deal with stress positively

 To find an excuse to defend an unhealthy behavior
 To avoid dealing with hurtful emotions
 As pain avoidance when you feel threatened
 As a mental time-out to adjust to changes in life

ii. Characteristics of defence mechanisms

 they are denial of realities
 they operate unconsciously
 behaviours used by people against unpleasant action, thoughts or events
 they influence our personality
 they are emotional reactions
iii. Characteristics of learners with socio-emotional and behavioural disorders
Emotional and behavioral disorders (or EBD, as an abbreviation) are general terms for patterns
of emotional regulation and behavior, typically in school age children. EBD is defined as
maladaptive and interferes with the ability of a student to form appropriate relationships with
peers and/or adults with whom they have regular contact. The characteristics of emotional and
behavioral disorders include that these behaviors are chronic (occur frequently over a long period

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of time, such as months or even years), the behaviors are considered to be inappropriate in a
classroom or social setting, and the behaviors are extreme.

Emotional and behavioral disorders also impede the ability to learn of the afflicted individual,
which leads to lower test scores and problems in other academic areas. Consequently, these types
of disorders are correlated with less postsecondary education, problems with familial
relationships, and employment problems in adults who exhibited symptoms of these types of
disorders as children.

There are a few root causes of emotional and behavioral disorders, which include instability in
home life, a history of trauma or adverse childhood experiences, and family history of behavioral
or psychiatric conditions. Emotional and behavioral disorders are sometimes referred to as
emotional disabilities.

-Characteristics of Emotional Disturbance

Certain behavioral traits are exhibited by those with an emotional disturbance, which can include
at least one of any of the following characteristics:

 Aggression or anger towards other people or self

 Impulsivity
 Maladaptive methods of coping with problems
 Poor performance on tests and other graded assignments
 A lack of or unhealthy relationships with peers/adults
 Lack of focus
 Anxiety
 Lack of maturity considering where the individual should be developmentally

Other factors which increase the possibility of developing EBD include:

 Malnutrition
 Substance abuse during pregnancy of the biological mother
 Too rigid or too lenient of parenting style
 Neglect

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iii. Strategies to manage learners with socio-emotional and behavioural disorders
Here are five effective strategies you can use to help EBD kids work well in an inclusive
classroom.

1. Keep class rules/activities simple and clear

Your EBD students (as well as some of your more focused students) will most likely struggle if
you impose a long list of complicated rules and demands. Try to keep your classroom guidelines
broad and simple—no more than 3 to 5 main rules. Let students know about them on the first day
of class, and post them in the classroom as well. An example list might be:

 Be on time
 Try your best
 Be polite
 Respect one another

By including clear activities in your classroom, your students will engage and interact with the
lesson plan, ensuring that they learn alongside other students.

2. Reward positive behaviors

While you will, at times, have to discipline children for improper behavior, remember that
rewarding positive behavior is ultimately far more effective in the long run. Many students with
Emotional and Behavioral Disorder tend to take any discipline as a personal attack, and because
of this, they often learn very little from it.

Try to celebrate the successes of these students more than you reprimand or punish their
mistakes. When they receive positive feedback and rewards, they start to see that there is a
positive benefit to good behavior. They will then start to see you as more of an ally than an
adversary, and this will in turn motivate them to want to behave and do well in your classroom.

3. Allow for mini-breaks

A lot of EBD kids lack the emotional balance and maturity needed to remain focused and on-task
for long periods. Instead of reprimanding these students for their lapses, build in short rest
periods or mini-breaks into the school day.

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Take time to periodically stop teaching and allow students to catch up if need be. Give them time
to finish their assignment, and allow those who have finished to stretch, get out of their seats, and
move around a bit. This will allow them to burn off any excess energy that might have built up
from sitting still for a long period of time. (And it’s good time for you to stretch, too!)

4. Fair treatment for all

Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders also often don’t respond very well to
situations that appear unfair to them. This can trigger a cascade of negative emotions and acting-
out behavior.

To ensure that you are treating all of your students in a consistently fair manner, don’t bend your
established rules for any student. Enforce the expected consequences every time, with every
student. Allowing exceptions opens you up to accusations of being unfair.

5. Use motivational strategies

Unfortunately, Emotional and Behavioral Disorder students tend to have had a lot of negative
experiences in school. Therefore they often lack the desire or motivation to try to succeed.

To avoid disruptive or off-task behaviors, take some extra steps to motivate these students. Offer
them incentives for academic successes, large and small. Celebrate their hard work, and praise
their good efforts consistently. This can go a long way in giving these students the motivation to
excel in your class.

While having EBD kids in your classroom can at first seem daunting, these are proven ways to
help cultivate and keep a harmonious spirit of learning. More good news: many of these
strategies for success can help your non-EBD students as well.

6.0 learning in children

6.1 Hereditary Factors and Learning (1 hr)

 Distinguish the role played by biological factors/hereditary/ genetic to individual
differences in learning
 Correlate hereditary factors to individual differences in learning

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  Design an action research to identify the effect of hereditary on children’s learning
 i. the role played by biological factors/hereditary/ genetic to individual differences in
learning
Today, psychologists recognize that both genetics and the environment play a role in determining
intelligence. It now becomes a matter of determining exactly how much of an influence each
factor has.
Twin studies suggest that the variance in IQ is linked to genetics. This research suggests that
genetics may play a larger role than environmental factors in determining individual IQ
One important thing to note about the genetics of intelligence is that it is not controlled by a
single "intelligence gene." Instead, it is the result of complex interactions between many genes.

However, the exact height the person reaches can be influenced by environmental factors such as
nutrition and disease.

A child may be born with genes for brightness, but if that child grows up in a deprived
environment where he is malnourished and lacks access to educational opportunities, he may not
score well on measures of IQ

Studies show that IQ scores of identical twins may be more similar than those of fraternal twins.

Siblings who were raised together in the same environment have more similar IQs than those of
adopted children who were brought up in the same household.

In addition to inherited characteristics, other biological factors such as maternal age, prenatal
exposure to harmful substances, and prenatal malnutrition may also influence intelligence.

Studies have found that people with lower intelligence are more likely to report criminal
victimization, which can have serious consequences including physical injury, loss of property,
and psychological and emotional trauma

ii. Correlate heredity factors to learning

Heredity plays a vital role in forming a healthy individual who is fit to learn. Heredity contributes
to the intelligence and intellectual maturity of an individual. The environment also plays a huge

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role in learning. It helps to build self-confidence and enhances motivation to learn. It builds a
holistic individual who is ready for life.

Effects of Heredity on Learning

According to Ormorod (2009) Heredity affects learning because:-

-It lays the foundation for the intellectual probable or capability of an individual.

-Each individual inherits different kinds of intelligences from other parents. Some inherit
analytical intellect others prowess in creative cleverness and functional intelligences. Parents and
teachers should therefore monitor and identify their children's potential domains, nurture and
develop them.

-It determines maturation which really is a factor affecting learning. Unfolding of genetically
directed changes as the child builds up for example basic engine skills e. g. walking, operating
and jumping emerge primarily as a result of neurological (brain) development, increased power
and increased muscular control changes that are largely determined by inherited biological
instructions.

-It determines personality e. g. temperament i.e. an aspect of personality concerned with

emotional dispositions and reactions and their speed and intensity.

-Children seem to acquire distinct temperaments almost from beginning. Temperament of a

person dictates standard activity level, adaptability, persistence, adventurousness, shyness,
inhibitedness, irritability and distractibility. Nature greatly impacts learning.

Ngaroga (2003) explained that hereditary factors arranged the limit of a given characteristic (e. g.
intelligence) however the environment determines how much the can be understood.

Ngaroga (2003) also mentioned that mental retardation during pre-natal period can be induced by
heredity factors. Mentally retarded learners have problems in all academic areas and have short
attention course.

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Ngaroga (2003) added that heredity factors such as albinism and colour blindness may lead to
loss of vision which plays an essential role in learning. Loss of perception can highly have an
impact on learning. 1

Myers (2001) wrote that heredity contributes 50 to 70 % intelligence within several people. It
really is intellect that determines the ability to learn.

6.2 Environmental Factors and learning (1 hr)

 Examine the role played by environmental factors in determining human traits that
contribute to individual differences among learners

Environment significantly influences individual differences. Changes in child’s environment are

reflected in the changes in his personality. Psychologically speaking, a person’s environment
consists of sum total of stimulation which he receives from conception until his death.

Environment consists of physical, intellectual, social, moral, political, economic and cultural
forces. All these forces cause individual differences. Modern psychologists believe that
individual differences are caused by both heredity and environment. Personality is the outcome
of mutual interaction between heredity and environment.

Environmental Factors

From the moment of conception, individuals are in constant interaction with their environments
(e.g., the womb, home, school, society; Bronfenbrenner, 2005). In the context of talent
development, environmental factors refer to those that are aimed at propelling the individual
along a talent development pathway (Ziegler, 2005). Examples include emotional and financial
support from the family, specialized classes, or coaching inside and outside traditional
educational contexts, and access to opportunities and experts in the talent domain. Sosniak
(1985, p. 417) described this process in the talent development journey of a concert pianist:

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Parents began to consider what other activities they could allow their child to engage in without
the possibility of harming his or her music making. Parents began making large sacrifices of time
and money to get the child to a better teacher, buy a better piano, and travel to competitions.

If an individual who has tremendous potential in mathematics but less potential in other domains
is sent to a school for the performing arts rather than a science magnet school, the environment is
less likely to support talent development in mathematics. Although typical sibling rivalry does
not provide the context for talent development, competing against a sibling who is highly skilled
in the same domain – as described by Syed (2010) on his path to becoming a table tennis
champion – provides a cogent example of the home environment supporting talent development.
By doing careful analysis of the results it can be easily found out how much difference the
environment makes in shaping personality. Woodworth concluded that environmental
differences do operate to produce I.Q. differences in persons with exactly the same hereditary
potentialities. Woodworth showed that educational influences can produce I.Q. differences in
persons having the same heredity but it is the large rather than the minor environmental
discrepancies that are important.
Newman, Freeman and Hollinger (1937) tried to identify the factors present in the environment
which produce personality differences in separated identical twins. Two main conclusions drawn
from the studies of identical twins are as follow:
(1) Marked educational differences are able to produce substantial differences in measured
intelligence.

(2) Intellectual differences in the population as a whole are so large that they cannot be
accounted for in terms of environmental differences alone.

A teacher should know about the impact of a good educational system on the individual. It
means it is quite possible that the intelligence level of the population as a whole can be
moderately increased. But it cannot be accepted that individuals with low intelligence can be
brought to the level of the bright ones through a good system of education.

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Some of environment inputs that appear to affect an individual’s personality and intelligence are
as under:

Nutrition:
One of the environment factors is nutrition. Gross deficiency of diet can adversely affect I.Q. and
even produce mental retardation.

Kwashiorkor:
An illness resulting from a protein-deficient diet has been found to be extremely damaging the
intellectual development.

Recent studies have led to some speculation that inadequate protein intake prevents full
development of the brain especially those areas which are involved in memory storage.

Bloom (1964) has emphasised that an abundant early environment is the key to the full
development of intelligence.

Variables
The three crucial environment variables listed by Bloom (1964) are as under:

1. The stimulation that the children receive for verbal development.

2. The affection and reward that the children receive from verbal reasoning accomplishments,
and

3. The encouragement which the children receive for active interaction with problems,
exploration of the environment for learning of new skills. Murlidharan and Srivastava (1995)
examined the impact of temple ecology on cognitive development of children. Children
associated with temples emerged to be more cognitively competent than children from no temple
areas.

-Social and economic status:

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On the basis of data supplied by the Army Alpha Test, people living in large center’s of
population are more intelligent than those living in rural areas; higher intelligence is found along
with better educational facilities.

Higher intelligence likewise exists in those states which rank high in their economic condition.
There exists a close relationship between occupational socio-economic condition and the general
level of intelligence.

Parents found in high occupational levels usually provide good physical and intellectual
environments, which favour the speedy cultural development of their children. A considerable
body of evidence is available to show that children belonging to the so-called higher social
classes are superior in intelligence to those of the lower classes.

Environmental challenges that inhibit learning

Learning itself is the process of acquiring new knowledge, understanding, skills, attitude,
behavior, and preferences. It is both an emotional and intellectual process. A person starts
learning immediately after birth, and their behavior changes throughout their life, through direct
or indirect experiences.

The continuous process of learning is often affected by the environment in which it takes place.
One’s individual situation and the environment contain several factors that affect the learning
capacity of a person.

Learning in a healthy environment helps you acquire a deeper understanding and sound
knowledge of the subject matter.

So, it is essential to be aware of such environmental factors that hamper the learning process of
an individual, and learn to avoid negative stimulants to increase one’s performance.

Environmental Factors that Affect the Learning Process

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Some other home environmental factors that affect the learning process directly or indirectly are:

1) Family size

The children may be in a nuclear or joint family. In a nuclear family, the learner may find silence
with a peaceful learning environment but may not get anyone to assist in their lessons.

However, it may be a bit noisy and messy in a joint family, but the children can find other
individuals, who can help and support their studies and learn better. So, both family size has its
pros and cons, affecting the learning process of children accordingly.

2) Family culture, traditions

All families have their own culture and follow their customs differently.

The culture implanted in the children during their growth shapes their perception and cognitive
capacity.

Hence, the learning process is affected by family culture, traditions, religion, and other similar
factors.

3) Socio-economic status

The socio-economic status of a family influences the children’s academic inclusiveness and
performance during their learning.

The social class also affects the parents’ educational expectations towards their children and their
educational participation. The higher the status, the higher are the chances of educational
opportunities being presented to the students and vice versa.

4) Occupation/profession

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The parents and other guardians in a family can teach many divergent things to a child since
infancy. As such, the job of parents also affects their personality and thinking.

Parents learn many things related to their occupation and teach their children the same.

5) Parents

Parents are the caregiver of their offspring and play a crucial role in shaping the children’s
personality, cognition, and behavior. They affect the learning process of children directly.

Children inherit parents’ traits and develop other attributes from their parents’ activities during
their growth phase.

Parents are the first teachers for their babies. In such ways, the learning is affected by parents,
behavior, character, cognition level, attitude, and personality.

6) Other factors

-Comfort
No matter where you choose to study, be it your bedroom, a local coffee shop, or your university
library, it is vital that you’re comfortable. According to lecture hall seating specialists at Race
Furniture, ‘When you are comfortable, you will stay focused and motivated for longer, which
will help you to absorb more information. The right type of seating can also improve posture,
encourage the use of movement, and reduce the risk of injury’.

Seating should therefore be a key consideration when creating a study space. Make sure you
choose seating that is comfortable and provides the correct level of support, to maintain good
posture throughout your study sessions. Keep in mind that, if you’re uncomfortable, you’re likely
to become distracted more easily, and this will have a negative effect on your overall learning
ability.

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-Lighting
Lighting can also play an important role in how well you engage in your learning. Studies have
found that students learning in naturally lit environments typically achieve grades that are 25%
higher than those in dimly lit classrooms. Natural light has also been shown to effectively boost
mood and reduce feelings of stress and anxiety. Try to take advantage of natural lighting as much
as possible, by positioning desks near windows and choosing study rooms that benefit from
sunlight throughout the day. You should try and avoid using fluorescent lamps, as these can
cause glare and make you feel tired quicker.

-Colour
Colour can play a key role in how effectively you learn, so you should always consider this when
choosing your ideal study space. Different colours can have a variety of effects on mood and
emotion – for example. red is a strong colour that can stimulate learning and encourage
creativity, but it has also been known to raise blood pressure, heartbeat, and stress levels. For that
reason, shades of red are often avoided in learning environments. Whereas, yellow has been
shown to create a positive feeling and can help students stay engaged throughout their study
sessions. This makes yellow a great colour to use in learning environments. You can use colour
to enhance learning and influence mood – try using different colours in your study space to see
the effect they have on your learning ability.

-Noise
Some people prefer some background noise while they’re studying, while others work most
effectively in complete silence. According to InformED, a blog by Open Colleges, ‘There are
times to use background noise and music to your advantage and times to seek out silence for
your study sessions’. Research has found that some low-level background noise can encourage
creativity and help you relax while studying. However, too much noise can act as a distraction
and make it harder to focus on your learning. Whether you choose to study with some
background noise or in complete silence is completely down to your personal preference.

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However, if you find that noise is having a negative effect on your learning, then be sure to find
a calm and quiet study space where you can learn most effectively. You should also remove
distractions, like mobile phones and other devices, that could potentially have a negative effect.

-untidiness
Many studies have found that mess and clutter can have a negative effect on learning ability.
Research suggests you will be more motivated and focused on your learning if your study space
is clear and tidy. Whereas, disorganised and messy spaces can create feelings of stress and
anxiety, which will have an obvious negative effect on your learning. It is therefore always worth
giving your study space a quick tidy before you start studying.

6.3 intelligence in children (1 hr)

 Define the concept of intelligence in children

 Critique different types of intelligence theories on children
 Develop psychometric tools that can be applied on learners and evaluate their level of
intelligence
 Discuss factors that influence intelligence in children

i. Define the concept of intelligence in children

A very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan,
solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from
experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts.

The concept of intelligence goes back to the Latin verb intellegere, meaning the acquirement,
processing and storage of information. From this point of view, intelligence is restricted to the
cognitive, mental abilities of the human being.
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Unlike height and weight, intelligence cannot be directly observed, touched, or measured in
physical terms. It is more well defined and less arbitrary than such concepts as beauty and
creativity. The concept of intelligence has been a widely debated topic among members of the
psychology community for decades. Intelligence has been defined in many ways: higher level
abilities (such as abstract reasoning, mental representation, problem solving, and decision
making), the ability to learn, emotional knowledge, creativity, and adaptation to meet the
demands of the environment effectively.
ii. Theories of Intelligence
Some researchers argue that intelligence is a general ability, whereas others make the assertion
that intelligence comprises specific skills and talents. Psychologists contend that intelligence is
genetic, or inherited, and others claim that it is largely influenced by the surrounding
environment.
As a result, psychologists have developed several contrasting theories of intelligence as well as
individual tests that attempt to measure this very concept.
Spearman’s General Intelligence
General intelligence, also known as g factor, refers to a general mental ability that, according to
Spearman, underlies multiple specific skills, including verbal, spatial, numerical and mechanical.

Charles Spearman, an English psychologist, established the two-factor theory of intelligence

back in 1904 (Spearman, 1904). To arrive at this theory, Spearman used a technique known as
factor analysis.

In the case of intelligence, Spearman noticed that those who did well in one area of intelligence
tests (for example, mathematics), also did well in other areas (such as distinguishing pitch; Kalat,
2014). In other words, there was a strong correlation between performing well in math and
music, and Spearman then attributed this relationship to a central factor, that of general
intelligence (g).
Spearman concluded that there is a single g-factor which represents an individual’s general
intelligence across multiple abilities, and that a second factor, s, refers to an individual’s specific
ability in one particular area (Spearman, as cited in Thomson, 1947).
Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities

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Thurstone (1938) challenged the concept of a g-factor. After analyzing data from 56 different
tests of mental abilities, he identified a number of primary mental abilities that comprise
intelligence, as opposed to one general factor.

The seven primary mental abilities in Thurstone's model are verbal comprehension, verbal
fluency, number facility, spatial visualization, perceptual speed, memory, and inductive
reasoning (Thurstone, as cited in Sternberg, 2003).

Mental Abililty Description

Word Fluency Ability to use words quickly and fluency in

performing such tasks as rhyming, solving anagrams,
and doing crossword puzzles.

Verbal Ability to understand the meaning of words, concepts,

Comprehension and ideas.

Numerical Ability Ability to use numbers to quickly computer answers to

problems.

Spatial Ability to visualize and manipulate patters and forms

Visualization in space.

Perceptual Speed Ability to grasp perceptual details quickly and

accurately and to determine similarities and
differences between stimuli.

Memory Ability to recall information such as lists or words,

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 Mental Abililty Description

mathematical formulas, and definitions.

Inductive Ability to derive general rules and principles from

Reasoning presented information.

Although Thurstone did not reject Spearman’s idea of general intelligence altogether, he instead
theorized that intelligence consists of both general ability and a number of specific abilities,
paving the way for future research that examined the different forms of intelligence.

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

Following the work of Thurstone, American psychologist Howard Gardner built off the idea that
there are multiple forms of intelligence.

He proposed that there is no single intelligence, but rather distinct, independent multiple
intelligences exist, each representing unique skills and talents relevant to a certain category.

Gardner (1983, 1987) initially proposed seven multiple intelligences: linguistic, logical-
mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal, and he has
since added naturalist intelligence.

Gardner holds that most activities (such as dancing) will involve a combination of these multiple
intelligences (such as spatial and bodily-kinesthetic intelligences). He also suggests that these
multiple intelligences can help us understand concepts beyond intelligence, such as creativity
and leadership.

And although this theory has widely captured the attention of the psychology community and
greater public, it does have its faults.

There have been few empirical studies that actually test this theory, and this theory does not
account for other types of intelligence beyond the ones Gardner lists (Sternberg, 2003).

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

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Just two years later, in 1985, Robert Sternberg proposed a three-category theory of intelligence,
integrating components that were lacking in Gardner’s theory. This theory is based on the
definition of intelligence as the ability to achieve success based on your personal standards and
your sociocultural context.

According to the triarchic theory, intelligence has three aspects: analytical, creative, and practical
(Sternberg, 1985).

Analytical intelligence, also referred to as componential intelligence, refers to intelligence that

is applied to analyze or evaluate problems and arrive at solutions. This is what a traditional IQ
test measure.

Creative intelligence is the ability to go beyond what is given to create novel and interesting
ideas. This type of intelligence involves imagination, innovation and problem-solving.

Practical intelligence is the ability that individuals use to solve problems faced in daily life,
when a person finds the best fit between themselves and the demands of the environment.
Adapting to the demands environment involves either utilizing knowledge gained from
experience to purposefully change oneself to suit the environment (adaptation), changing the
environment to suit oneself (shaping), or finding a new environment in which to work
(selection).

iii. Types of intelligence

Emotional Intelligence

Emotional Intelligence is the “ability to monitor one’s own and other people’s emotions, to
discriminate between different emotions and label them appropriately, and to use emotional
information to guide thinking and behavior” (Salovey and Mayer, 1990).

Emotional intelligence is important in our everyday lives, seeing as we experience one emotion
or another nearly every second of our lives. You may not associate emotions and intelligence
with one another, but in reality, they are very related.

Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to recognize the meanings of emotions and to reason
and problem-solve on the basis of them (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1999). The four key

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components of emotional Intelligence are (i) self-awareness, (ii) self-management, (iii) social
awareness, and (iv) relationship management.

In other words, if you are high in emotional intelligence, you can accurately perceive emotions in
yourself and others (such as reading facial expressions), use emotions to help facilitate thinking,
understand the meaning behind your emotions (why are you feeling this way?), and know how to
manage your emotions (Salovey & Mayer, 1990).

Fluid vs. Crystallized Intelligence

Raymond Cattell (1963) first proposed the concepts of fluid and crystallized intelligence and
further developed the theory with John Horn.

Fluid intelligence is the ability to problem solve in novel situations without referencing prior
knowledge, but rather through the use of logic and abstract thinking. Fluid intelligence can be
applied to any novel problem because no specific prior knowledge is required (Cattell, 1963). As
you grow older fluid increases and then starts to decrease in the late 20s.

Crystallized intelligence refers to the use of previously-acquired knowledge, such as specific

facts learned in school or specific motor skills or muscle memory (Cattell, 1963). As you grow
older and accumulate knowledge, crystallized intelligence increases.

The Cattell-Horn (1966) theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence suggests that intelligence is
composed of a number of different abilities that interact and work together to produce overall
individual intelligence

For example, if you are taking a hard math test, you rely on your crystallized intelligence to
process the numbers and meaning of the questions, but you may use fluid intelligence to work
through the novel problem and arrive at the correct solution. It is also possible that fluid
intelligence can become crystallized intelligence.

The novel solutions you create when relying on fluid intelligence can, over time, develop into
crystallized intelligence after they are incorporated into long-term memory.

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This illustrates some of the ways in which different forms of intelligence overlap and interact
with one another, revealing its dynamic nature.

Intelligence Testing

Binet-Simon Scale

During the early 1900s, the French government enlisted the help of psychologist Alfred Binet to
understand which children were going to be slower learners and thus require more assistance in
the classroom (Binet et al., 1912).

As a result, he and his colleague, Theodore Simon, began to develop a specific set of questions
that focused on areas such as memory and problem-solving skills.

They tested these questions on groups of students aged three to twelve to help standardize the
measure (Binet et al., 1912). Binet realized that some children were able to answer advanced
questions that their older peers were able to answer.

As a result, he created the concept of a mental age, or how well an individual performs
intellectually relative to the average performance at that age (Cherry, 2020).

Ultimately, Binet finalized the scale, known as the Binet-Simon scale, that became the basis for
the intelligence tests still used today.

The Binet-Simon scale of 1905 comprised 30 items designed to measure judgment,

comprehension, and reasoning which Binet deemed the key characteristics of intelligence.

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

When the Binet-Simon scale made its way over to the United States, Stanford psychologist
Lewis Terman adapted the test for American students, and published the Stanford-Binet
Intelligence Scale in 1916 (Cherry, 2020).

The Stanford-Binet Scale is a contemporary assessment which measures intelligence according

to five features of cognitive ability, including fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning,

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visual-spatial processing and working memory. Both verbal and nonverbal responses are
measured.

This test used a single number, referred to as the intelligence quotient (IQ) to indicate an
individual’s score.

The average score for the test is 100, and any score from 90 to 109 is considered to be in the
average intelligence range. Score from 110 to 119 are considered to be High Average. Superior
scores range from 120 to 129 and anything over 130 is considered Very Superior.

To calculate IQ, the student’s mental age is divided by his or her actual (or chronological) age,
and this result is multiplied by 100. If your mental age is equal to your chronological age, you
will have an IQ of 100, or average. If, however, your mental age is, say, 12, but your
chronological age is only 10, you will have an above-average IQ of 120.

WISC and WAIS

Just as theories of intelligence build off one another, intelligence tests do too. After Terman
created Stanford-Binet test, American psychologist David Wechsler developed a new tool due to
his dissatisfaction with the limitations of the Stanford-Binet test (Cherry, 2020).

Just like Thurstone, Gardner, and Sternberg, Wechsler believed that intelligence involved many
different mental abilities and felt that the Stanford-Binet scale too closely reflected the idea of
one general intelligence.

Because of this, Wechsler created the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and the
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) in 1955, with the most up-to-date version being the
WAIS-IV (Cherry, 2020).

The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), developed by David Wechsler, is an IQ
test designed to measure intelligence and cognitive ability in children between the ages of 6 and
16. It is currently in its fourth edition (WISC-V) released in 2014 by Pearson.

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The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), is an IQ test designed to measure cognitive
ability in adults and older adolescents, including verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning,
working memory, and processing speed.

The latest version of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV) was standardized on
2,200 healthy people between the ages of 16 and 90 years (Brooks et al., 2011).

The standardization of a test involves giving it to a large number of people at different ages in
order to compute the average score on the test at each age level

The overall IQ score combines the test takers’ performance in all four categories (Cherry, 2020).
And rather than calculating this number based on mental and chronological age, the WAIS
compares the individual’s score to the average score at that level, as calculated by the
standardization process.

The Flynn Effect

It is important to regularly standardize an intelligence test because the overall level of

intelligence in a population may change over time.

This phenomenon is known as the Flynn effect (named after its discoverer, New Zealand
researcher James Flynn) which refers to the observation that scores on intelligence tests
worldwide increase from decade to decade (Flynn, 1984).

Aptitude vs. Achievement Tests

Other tests, such as aptitude and achievement tests, are designed to measure intellectual
capability. Achievement tests measure what content a student has already learned (such as a unit
test in history or a final math exam), whereas an aptitude test measures a student’s potential or
ability to learn (Anastasi, 1984).

Although this may sound similar to an IQ test, aptitude tests typically measure abilities in very
specific areas.

Criticism of Intelligence Testing

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Criticisms have ranged from the claim that IQ tests are biased in favor of white, middle-class
people. Negative stereotypes about a person’s ethnicity, gender, or age may cause the person to
suffer stereotype threat, a burden of doubt about his or her own abilities, which can create
anxiety that result in lower scores.

6.6 memory
 analyze the types, stages and process of memory in learning
 distinguish the the types, stages and process of memory to promote information
storage
Types, stages and process of memory in learning

Memory refers to the ability to store and retrieve information over time.

For some things our memory is very good, but our active cognitive processing of information
ensures that memory is never an exact replica of what we have experienced.

Memory refers to an organism's ability to acquire, store, retain, and retrieve information. In
humans, short-term memories (like a phone number) are remembered for mere seconds while
long-term memories (like personal experiences) can remain for decade

1. types of memory, explicit memory and implicit memory,

2. three major memory stages: sensory, short-term, and long-term
3. processes of memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval
1. Types of memory
When we assess memory by asking a person to consciously remember things, we are
measuring explicit memory.
Explicit memory refers to knowledge or experiences that can be consciously remembered.
There are two types of explicit memory: episodic and semantic. Episodic memory refers to the
firsthand experiences that we have had (e.g., recollections of our high school graduation day or
of the fantastic dinner we had in New York last year). Semantic memory refers to our
knowledge of facts and concepts about the world (e.g., that the absolute value of −90 is greater

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than the absolute value of 9 and that one definition of the word “affect” is “the experience of
feeling or emotion”
Explicit memory is assessed using measures in which the individual being tested must
consciously attempt to remember the information. A recall memory test is a measure of explicit
memory that involves bringing from memory information that has previously been remembered.
We rely on our recall memory when we take an essay test, because the test requires us to
generate previously remembered information. A multiple-choice test is an example of
a recognition memory test, a measure of explicit memory that involves determining whether
information has been seen or learned before.

Implicit Memory

While explicit memory consists of the things that we can consciously report that we know,
implicit memory refers to knowledge that we cannot consciously access. However, implicit
memory is nevertheless exceedingly important to us because it has a direct effect on our
behaviour. Implicit memory refers to the influence of experience on behaviour, even if the
individual is not aware of those influences.

There are three general types of implicit memory: procedural memory, classical conditioning
effects, and priming.

Procedural memory refers to our often unexplainable knowledge of how to do things. When we
walk from one place to another, speak to another person in English, dial a cell phone, or play a
video game, we are using procedural memory. Procedural memory allows us to perform complex
tasks, even though we may not be able to explain to others how we do them

second type of implicit memory is classical conditioning effects, in which we learn, often
without effort or awareness, to associate neutral stimuli (such as a sound or a light) with
another stimulus (such as food), which creates a naturally occurring response, such as
enjoyment or salivation. The memory for the association is demonstrated when the conditioned
stimulus (the sound) begins to create the same response as the unconditioned stimulus (the food)
did before the learning.

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The final type of implicit memory is known as priming, or changes in behaviour as a result of
experiences that have happened frequently or recently. Priming refers both to the activation of
knowledge (e.g., we can prime the concept of kindness by presenting people with words related
to kindness) and to the influence of that activation on behaviour (people who are primed with the
concept of kindness may act more kindly).

3. Stages of Memory: Sensory, Short-Term, and Long-Term Memory

Another way of understanding memory is to think about it in terms of stages that describe the
length of time that information remains available to us. According to this approach.

Information begins in sensory memory, moves to short-term memory, and eventually moves
to long-term memory. But not all information makes it through all three stages; most of it is
forgotten. Whether the information moves from shorter-duration memory into longer-duration
memory or whether it is lost from memory entirely depends on how the information is attended
to and processed.

Sensory Memory

Sensory memory refers to the brief storage of sensory information. Sensory memory is a
memory buffer that lasts only very briefly and then, unless it is attended to and passed on for
more processing, is forgotten. The purpose of sensory memory is to give the brain some time to
process the incoming sensations, and to allow us to see the world as an unbroken stream of
events rather than as individual pieces.

Short-Term Memory

Most of the information that gets into sensory memory is forgotten, but information that we turn
our attention to, with the goal of remembering it, may pass into short-term memory. Short-term
memory (STM) is the place where small amounts of information can be temporarily kept for

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more than a few seconds but usually for less than one minute (Baddeley, Vallar, & Shallice,
1990). Information in short-term memory is not stored permanently but rather becomes available
for us to process, and the processes that we use to make sense of, modify, interpret, and store
information in STM are known as working memory.

Although it is called memory, working memory is not a store of memory like STM but rather a
set of memory procedures or operations. Imagine, for instance, that you are asked to participate
in a task such as this one, which is a measure of working memory (Unsworth & Engle,
2007). Each of the following questions appears individually on a computer screen and then
disappears after you answer the question:

Is 10 × 2 − 5 = 15? (Answer YES OR NO) Then remember “S”

Is 12 ÷ 6 − 2 = 1? (Answer YES OR NO) Then remember “R”

Is 10 × 2 = 5? (Answer YES OR NO) Then remember “P”

Is 8 ÷ 2 − 1 = 1? (Answer YES OR NO) Then remember “T”

Is 6 × 2 − 1 = 8? (Answer YES OR NO) Then remember “U”

Is 2 × 3 − 3 = 0? (Answer YES OR NO) Then remember “Q”

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 Maintenance rehearsal is the process of repeating information mentally or out loud with the goal
of keeping it in memory. We engage in maintenance rehearsal to keep something that we want to
remember (e.g., a person’s name, email address, or phone number) in mind long enough to write
it down, use it, or potentially transfer it to long-term memory.

Long Term Memory: information is held for a longer time and even permanent. it hold
unlimited amount of information. The capacity of long-term memory is large, and there is no
known limit to what we can remember.
Information that passes through one's sensory memory and short-term memory may eventually
become a long-term memory; this is especially true if that memory has been recalled more than
once. Long-term memories are information stored in the brain for days, months, years, or even
decades. Although long-term memories can degrade and morph over time, the capacity for long-
term memory storage is quite large, with no known limit.

Long-term memories can take many forms. Explicit memories, for example, are long-term
memories that can be consciously recalled, like life experiences. Implicit memories are behaviors
learned through experiences, many of which people glean from their parents, even if the subject
in question is unaware of them. Procedural memory is a subject knowledge of how to do things,
like driving a car, even without a person paying full attention to the act. In many ways, the task
of learning, for which people study, hire teachers, and construct entire school buildings, is simply
the art of building long-term memories.

Key Takeaways

 Memory refers to the ability to store and retrieve information over time.
 For some things our memory is very good, but our active cognitive processing of information
ensures that memory is never an exact replica of what we have experienced.

 Explicit memory refers to experiences that can be intentionally and consciously remembered,
and it is measured using recall, recognition, and relearning. Explicit memory includes episodic
and semantic memories.

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 Measures of relearning (also known as “savings”) assess how much more quickly information
is learned when it is studied again after it has already been learned but then forgotten.

 Implicit memory refers to the influence of experience on behaviour, even if the individual is
not aware of those influences. The three types of implicit memory are procedural memory,
classical conditioning, and priming.

 Information processing begins in sensory memory, moves to short-term memory, and

eventually moves to long-term memory.

 Maintenance rehearsal and chunking are used to keep information in short-term memory.

 The capacity of long-term memory is large, and there is no known limit to what we can
remember.

6.7 sensation and perception (1 hr)

 analyze the quantity of stimuli and quality of stimuli to discriminate one stimulus from
another
 examine the various sense organs and how they adapt to sensations

What is a stimulus? In biology, we can define stimulus as the “detectable change (physical or
chemical) in the environment of an organism that results in some functional activity”. For
example, sunlight acts as a stimulus for plants that helps them grow or move towards it. Another
example of stimulus is high temperatures that activate (stimulate) the perspiration system in our
bodies as a result of which our bodies cool down.

What do stimuli mean? What are the examples of stimuli? The meaning of stimulus can also be
as the act of nature or environment on an organism that activates (stimulates) it or a part of it to
react in some way. It is a common observation that after rain the frogs come out jumping. Thus,
rain acts as a stimulus for them.

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The word stimulus (or its plural stimuli) is often used by human behavior researchers. In terms of
psychology, stimuli are those actions, acts, or procedures that evoke a reaction from the human
mind. The stimuli may be visual, audio, physical, or a mix of them. One example of using stimuli
is in the treatment of achluophobia (fear of the dark). After the treatment, the subject (human) is
exposed to dark. The darkness is the stimulus of achluophobia. The bodily responses of the
patient are measured to study the reaction and curing stage of the patient.

The organisms can detect the changes using their sensory organs. The sensory organs can detect
external changes (such as temperature, light, sound, etc.) or internal changes (loss of energy
results in hunger). The sensory system signals the changes to the mind which elicit a response.
The response can be in the form of physical activity (move, run, change shape, etc.) or internal
response (perspiration). Moreover, the stimulus can be detected by an organism only if it is
higher than an absolute threshold.

Types of Stimuli
There are two main types of stimulus –the external stimulus and the internal stimulus. The
response to any type of stimulus is either learned or instinctual in nature. For example, a deer
will flee as a response after seeing a predator whereas a human response can be different, such as
hiding, or driving the car away, or firing a bullet. All of these responses are learned responses
while the response of deer was instinctive.

External stimulus

The external stimulus includes touch and pain, vision, smell, taste, sound, and balance
(equilibrium). These sensory stimuli are activated by external changes.

 Pain and touch: Pain is the stimulus that can cause a major response from the body. Pain
can also change the behavior of the organism. In response to pain, if the mind decides
that a response must be given, a signal will be sent to muscles that will behave
accordingly. Pain stimulus is sensed by the pain receptors known as nociceptors. Touch is
another stimulus that can cause the organism to change its behavior. For example, the

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 sensitive plant (also known as touch-me-not) responds to touch stimuli and closes its
leaves.
 Vision: Vision stimuli are sensed by a special type of neuron known
as photoreceptor cells. The organisms analyze the condition of the environment or space
around them using vision. Visual stimuli can lead an animal towards its prey. On the
other side, visual stimuli in prey will direct it to flee for its survival. In humans, visual
stimuli help us control almost everything — from crossing the road to flying an airplane.
 Taste: Taste is also an external stimulus because it comes from touching an external
thing (food) with the tongue. The cells on taste buds are known as gustatory cells. They
are responsible to create a sense of taste. This sense of taste stimulates the mouth to
produce different digestive enzymes. Thus taste is a stimulus for the production of saliva
and digestive enzymes.
 Smell: Smell is the stimulus for a number of organisms that either drives them towards
the food or away if it’s rotten or poisonous. Goats, sheep, and animals of similar breeds
usually smell their food before eating. They will ignore the plants even before tasting
them due to smell. In humans, the smell of good food definitely stimulates the saliva
glands. Similarly, the smell of a poisonous gas such as ammonia stimulates the body to
move away from the area. The smell is sensed by olfactory organs located inside
the nose. The volatile molecules touch the olfactory organs to stimulate the sense of
smell.
 Sound: Sound is a stimulus for a large number of organisms. Sound helps recognize the
presence of other animals or objects. Bats, for example, send sound waves periodically to
locate the obstructions that may come during their flight. The sound of buffalo, cow,
goat, deer, or other animals are the stimulus for predators, such as lions and tigers.
Similarly, when an eagle is flying around, the hen will produce a sound that acts as an
alarm for her chicks. The chicks will run towards the hen and will hide under her
feathers. The sound of a hen in this case is a stimulus for chicks. Human beings are also
affected by sound. The sound of a piano or other music can stimulate a good mood.
Similarly, the sound of a bullet fire can stimulate fear in the body.
 Balance: Animals need balance to walk and move from one place to another. The force
of gravity is constantly pulling down and can result in a fall if the animal is not balanced.

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 For four-leg animals, balance is less complex as compared to two-legged. The orientation
of an animal is an external factor and acts as a stimulus. The signals from the cochlea
convey to the brain information about orientation. This information is, then, processed by
the brain, and signals are sent to muscles to keep the balance.

Example of stimulus in human

Humans are supreme in terms of mental capabilities and thus respond to several stimuli apart
from basic ones such as taste, smell, temperature, sound, etc. The stimulus in humans can be a
sight of a picturesque scene or the smell of food. Human behavior itself is a stimulus for another
human. A kind and soft behavior will have a positive impact on others.

II. Adaptation of Sense Organs to Sensation

Sensory adaptation is the process in which changes in the sensitivity of sensory receptors
occur in relation to the stimulus. All senses are believed to experience sensory adaptation.
However, some experimental psychologists say that the sense of pain does not experience this
phenomenon.

Vision

In terms of the sense of sight, sensory adaptation involves dark adaptation and light adaptation.
Dark adaptation refers to the changes in the sensitivity of the receptors in response to reduced
light intensity. The process of dark adaptation is manifested through three changes in the visual
system. First, the pupil enlarges immediately after sensing the reduction of the light stimuli (in
terms of intensity). The dilation of the pupil is necessary so that more available light can enter
and stimulate the retina. Second, the color receptors or cones become increasingly sensitive.
Within 5 to 10 minutes of low levels of illumination, the cones achieve dark adaptation in a
complete manner. Lastly, the night vision receptors or rods become increasingly sensitive.

Generally, the changes are opposite of that in dark adaptation. The pupil becomes smaller
immediately in light adaptation to allow less light to enter the eye. The cones as well as the rods

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become less sensitive to light. Light adaptation takes only a few seconds, occurring faster than
dark adaptation due to the nature of the photons to enter the eye rapidly in increased light
intensity and destroy the excess light-sensitive chemical
Hearing

In terms of hearing, our ears adapt to loud sound as it hits the small bones located in the inner
ear. The loud sound leads the inner ear bone/s to contract. This contraction causes the reduction
or delay of transmission of sound vibrations to the inner ear. Detection of the vibrations follows.
However, this process of auditory adaptation usually does not work very well with loud sounds
that are sudden or instantaneous. Examples of these sounds are gun shots or explosions.

Taste and Smell

Low concentrations of several chemicals present in the air can be detected by the sensory
receptors in the nose. These chemicals that we quickly detect include those in perfumes or air
fresheners.

Touch

Humans are able to adapt to hot and cold stimulation in a split second if the stimuli are not too
extreme, such as a warm bath or a cold lake. However, very hot or very cold stimuli may destroy
touch receptors, and this intense stimulation may be interpreted as pain sensation.

iii. Factors that influence perception

Perception is a process that involves organizing, identifying, and interpreting sensory inputs for
the purpose of representation and understanding of the environment. When a sensory organ is
stimulated, the receptors send signals to the nervous system for perception to take place.

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 There are many factors that may influence the perceptions of the perceiver. The three major
factors include motivational state, emotional state, and experience. All of these factors,
especially motivation and emotion, greatly contribute to how the person perceives a situation

Factors influencing Perception in Organizational behavior

A number of factors operate to shape and sometimes distort perception. These factors residei.

i. In the perceiver
ii. In the object or target being perceived or
iii. In the context of the situation in which the perception is made.

Characteristics of Perception in Organizational Behavior

Characteristics of the Perceiver

Several characteristics of the perceiver can affect perception. When an individual looks at a
target and attempts to interpret what he or she, that interpretation is heavily influenced by
personal characteristics of individual perceiver. The major characteristics of the perceiver
influencing perception are:

A. Attitudes: The perceiver's attitudes affect perception. For example, suppose Mr. X is
interviewing candidates for a very important position in his organization –a position that
requires negotiating contracts with suppliers, most of whom are male. Mr X may feel that
women are not capable of holding their own in tough negotiations. This attitude will doubtless
affect his perceptions of the female candidates he interviews.
B. Moods: Moods can have a strong influence on the way we perceive someone. We think
differently when we are happy than we do when we are depressed. In addition, we remember
information that is consistent with our mood state better than information that is inconsistent
with our mood state. When in a positive mood, we form more positive impression of others.
When in a negative mood, we tend to evaluate others unfavourably.
C. Motives: Unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals and may exert a strong influence
on their perceptions. For example, in an organizational context, a boss who is insecure
perceives a subordinate's efforts to do an outstanding job as a threat to his or her own

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 position. Personal insecurity can be transferred into the perception that others are out to "get
my job", regardless of the intention of the subordinates.
D. Self-Concept: Another factor that can affect social perception is the perceivers' self-concept.
An individual with a positive self-concept tends to notice positive attributes in another person.
In contrast, a negative self-concept can lead a perceiver to pick out negative traits in another
person. Greater understanding of self allows us to have more accurate perceptions of others.
E. Interest: The focus of our attention appears to be influenced by our interests. Because our
individual interests differ considerably, what one person notices in a situation can differ from
what others perceive. For example, the supervisor who has just been reprimanded by his boss
for coming late is more likely to notice his colleagues coming late tomorrow than he did last
week. If you are preoccupied with a personal problem, you may find it hard to be attentive in
class.
F. Cognitive Structure: Cognitive structure, an individual's pattern of thinking, also affects
perception. Some people have a tendency to perceive physical traits, such as height, weight,
and appearance, more readily. Others tend to focus more on central traits, or personality
dispositions. Cognitive complexity allows a person to perceive multiple characteristics of
another person rather than attending to just a few traits.
G. Expectations: Finally, expectations can distort your perceptions in that you will see what you
expect to see. The research findings of the study conducted by Sheldon S Zalkind and
Timothy W Costello on some specific characteristics of the perceiver reveal.
 Knowing oneself makes it easier to see others accurately.
 One's own characteristics affect the characteristics one is likely to see inothers.
 People who accept themselves are more likely to be able to see favourable aspects of other
people.
 Accuracy in perceiving others is not a single skill.
These four characteristics greatly influence how a person perceives others in the environmental
situation.

Characteristics of the Target

Characteristics in the target that is being observed can affect what is perceived. Physical
appearance plays a big role in our perception of others. Extremely attractive or unattractive

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individuals are more likely to be noticed in a group than ordinary liking individuals. Motion,
sound, size and other attributes of a target shape the way we see it.

Physical appearance plays a big role in our perception of others. The perceiver will notice the
target's physical features like height, weight, estimated age, race and gender.

Perceivers tend to notice physical appearance characteristics that contrast with the norm, that are
intense, or that are new or unusual. Physical attractiveness often colourour entire impression of
another person. Interviewers rate attractive candidates more favourably and attractive candidates
are awarded higher starting salaries.

Verbal communication from targets also affects our perception of them. We listen to the topics
they speak about, their voice tone, and their accent and make judgements based on this input.

Non-verbal communication conveys a great deal of information about the target. The perceiver
deciphers eye contact, facial expressions, body movements, and posture all inan attempt to form
an impression of the target.

The perceiver, who observes the target's behaviour, infers the intentions of the target.

For example, if our manager comes to our office door way, we think "oh no! he is going to give
me more work to do". Or we may perceive that his intention is to congratulate us on a recent
success. In any case, the perceiver's interpretation of the target's intentions affects the way the
perceiver views the target.

Targets are not looked at in isolation, the relationship of a target to its background influences
perception because of our tendency to group close things and similar things together.

Objects that are close to each other will tend to be perceived together rather than separately. As a
result of physical or time proximity, we often put together objects orevents that are unrelated.
For examples, employees in a particular department are seen as a group. If two employees of a
department suddenly resign, we tend to assume their departures were related when in fact, they
might be totally unrelated.

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 People, objects or events that are similar to each other also tend to be grouped together. The
greater the similarity, the greater the probability we will tend to perceive them as a group.

Characteristics of the Situation

The situation in which the interaction between the perceiver and the target takes place has an
influence on the perceiver's impression of the target. For example, a professor may not notice his
20-year-old female student in a bikini at the swimming pool. Yet the professor will notice the
same girl if she comes to his organizational behaviour class in abikini. In the same way, meeting
a manager in his or her office affects your impression in a certain way that may contrast with the
impression you would form had you met the manager in a restaurant.

The strength of the situational cues also affects social perception. Some situations provide strong
cues as to appropriate behaviour. In these situations, we assume that the individual's behaviour
can be accounted for by the situation, and that it may not reflect the individual's disposition. This
is the discounting principle in social perception. For example, you mayen counter an automobile
sales person who has a warm and personable manner, asks you about your work and hobbies, and
seems genuinely interested in your taste in cars. Can you assume that this behaviour reflects the
sales person's personality? You probably cannot, because of the influence of the situation. This
person is trying to sell you a car, and in this particular situation he probably treats all customers
in this manner.

Factor Influencing Perception

1. elective Perception: We receive a vast amount of information. Therefore, it is impossible for
us to assimilate everything we see - on eye certain stimuli can betaken. That is why their boss
may reprimand some employees for doing something that when done by another employee
goes unnoticed. Since, we can't observe everything going on about us, we engage in selective
perception.
Selective perception is also out tendency to choose information that supports our view points;
Individuals often ignore information that makes them feel uncomfortable or threatens their
view points.

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 Selective perception allows us to "speed-read" others, but not without the risk of drawing an
inaccurate picture. Because we see what we want to see, we can draw unwarranted
conclusions from an ambiguous, perception tends to be influenced more by an individual's
attitudes, interests, and background than by the stimulus itself.
2. Stereotype: A stereotype is a generalization about a group of people. When we judge
someone on the basis of our perception of the group to which he or she belongs, we are using
the shortcut called stereo typing. Stereo types reduce information about other people to a
workable level, and they are efficient for compiling and using information. It is a means of
simplifying a complex world and it permits us to maintain consistency. It is less difficult to
deal with an unmanageable number of stimuli if we use stereo types. Stereo types can be
accurate, and when they are accurate, they can be useful perceptual guidelines. However,
most of the times stereotypes are inaccurate.
Attractiveness is a powerful stereo type. We assume that attractive individuals are also warm,
kind, sensitive, poised, sociable, outgoing, independent, and strong. Are attractive people
sociable, outgoing, independent, and strong? Are attractive peoplereally like this? Certainly
all of them are not.

In organizations, we frequently hear comments that represent stereo types based on gender,
age, nationality etc. From a perceptual stand point, if people expect tosee this stereo type, that
is what they will perceive, whether it's accurate or not.

3. Halo Effect: The halo error in perception is very similar to stereo typing. Where as in stereo
typing the person is perceived according to a single category, under the halo effect the person
is perceived on the basis of one trait.
When we draw a general impression about an individual based on a single characteristic, such
as intelligence, sociability or appearance, a halo effect is operating. The propensity for the
halo effect to operate is not random. Research suggests it is likely to be most extreme when
the traits to be perceived are ambiguous in behavioural terms, when the traits have moral over
tones, and when the perceiver is judging traits with which he or she has limited experience.
Example of halo effect is the extremely attractive women secretary who is perceived by her
male boss as being an intelligent, good performer, when, in fact, she is a poor typist.

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4. First-impression error: Individuals place a good deal of importance on first impressions.
First impressions are lasting impressions. We tend to remember what we perceive first about a
person, and some times we are quite reluctant to change our initial impressions. First -
impression error means the tendency to form lasting opinions about an individual based on
initial perceptions. Primacy effects can be particularly dangerous in interviews, given that we
form first impressions quickly and that these impressions may be the basis for long-term
employment relationships.
5. Contrast Effect: Stimuli that contrast with the surrounding environment are more likely to be
selected for attention than the stimuli that blends in. A contrasting effect can be caused by
colour, size or any other factor that is unusual (any factor that distinguishes one stimulus from
others at present). For example, a man walking down the street with a pair of crutches is more
attention getting than a common man. A contrast effect is the evaluation of a person's
characteristics that are affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered that
rank higher or lower on the same characteristics. The "contrast" principle essentially states
that external stimuli that stands out against the background or which are not what are
expecting well receive their attention. The contrast effect also explains why a male students
tands out in a crowd of female students. There is nothing unusual about the male students but,
when surrounded by females, he stands out.
An illustration of how contrast effects operate in an interview situation in which one sees a
pool of job applicants. Distortions in any given candidate's evaluation can occur as a result of
his or her place in the interview schedule. The candidate is likely to receive a more favourable
evaluation if preceded by mediocre applicants, and a less favourable evaluation if preceded by
strong applicants.

6. Projection: It is easy to judge others if we assume they are similar to us. This tendency to
attribute one's own characteristics to other people is called projection.
Projection can distort perceptions made about others. People who engage inprojection tend to
perceive others. According to what they they are like rather than according to what the person
being observed is really like. When managers engage in projection, they compromise their
ability to respond to individual differences.

They tend to see people as more homogeneous than they really are.

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7. Implicit Personality Theories: We tend to have our own mini-theories about how people look
and behave. These theories help us organize our perceptions and take shortcuts instead of
integrating new information all the time. Implicit-personality theory is opinions formed about
other people that are based on our own mini theories about how people behave. For example
we believe that girls dressed in fashionable clothes will like modern music and girls dressed
in traditional dress like saree will like Indian classical music. These implicit personality
theories are barriers because they limit our ability to take in new information when it is
available.
8. Self-Fulfilling Prophecies: Self-fulfilling prophecies are the situation in which our
expectations about people affect our interaction with them in such a way that our expectations
are fulfilled. Self -fulfilling prophecy is also known as the Pygmalion effect, named after a
sculptor in Greek mythology who carved a statue of a girl that came to life when he prayed
for this wish and it was granted.

Principles in Gestalt Laws of Organization

Developed by German psychologists, the Gestalt laws describe how we interpret the complex
world around us. They explain why a series of flashing lights appear to be moving.

Law of Similarity

The law of similarity states that similar things tend to appear grouped together. Grouping can
occur in both visual and auditory stimuli.

In the image at the top of this page, for example, you probably see two separate groupings of
colored circles as rows rather than just a collection of dots.

Law of Prägnanz (GOOD FIGURE)

The law of prägnanz is sometimes referred to as the law of good figure or the law of simplicity.
This law holds that when you're presented with a set of ambiguous or complex objects, your
brain will make them appear as simple as possible.3

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For example, when presented with the Olympic logo, you see overlapping circles rather than an
assortment of curved, connected lines.

Law of Proximity

According to the law of proximity, things that are close together seem more related than things
that are spaced farther apart.4

In the image at the top of the page, the circles on the left appear to be part of one grouping while
those on the right appear to be part of another. Because the objects are close to each other, we
group them together.

Law of Continuity

The law of continuity holds that points that are connected by straight or curving lines are seen in
a way that follows the smoothest path. In other words, elements in a line or curve seem more
related to one another than those positioned randomly.

Law of Closure

According to the law of closure, we perceive elements as belonging to the same group if they
seem to complete some entity.1 Our brains often ignore contradictory information and fill in gaps
in information.

In the image at the top of the page, you probably see the shape of a diamond because your brain
fills in the missing gaps in order to create a meaningful image.

The Law of Common Region

The Gestalt law of common region says that when elements are located in the same closed
region, we perceive them as belonging to the same group.1

Look at the last image at the top of the page. The circles are right next to each other so that the
dot at the end of one circle is actually closer to the dot at the end of the neighboring circle. But
despite how close those two dots are, we see the dots inside the circles as belonging together.

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Creating a clearly defined boundary can overpower other Gestalt laws such as the law of
proximity.

The Gestalt laws of perceptual organization present a set of principles for understanding some of
the ways in which perception works. Research continues to offer insights into perception and
how we see the world. These principles of organization play a role in perception, but it is also
important to remember that they can sometimes lead to incorrect perceptions of the world.

It is important to remember that while these principles are referred to as laws of perceptual
organization, they are actually heuristics or shortcuts. Heuristics are usually designed for speed,
which is why our perceptual systems sometimes make mistakes and we experience perceptual
inaccuracies.

The Gestalt laws of perceptual organization present a set of principles for understanding some of
the ways in which perception works. Research continues to offer insights into perception and
how we see the world. These principles of organization play a role in perception, but it is also
important to remember that they can sometimes lead to incorrect perceptions of the world.

It is important to remember that while these principles are referred to as laws of perceptual
organization, they are actually heuristics or shortcuts. Heuristics are usually designed for speed,
which is why our perceptual systems sometimes make mistakes and we experience perceptual
inaccuracies.

iv. importance of sensation and perception in learning

Sensation and perception work seamlessly together to allow us to detect both the presence of,
and changes in, the stimuli around us.

Psychology is a very large subject. Sensation and perception are just two parts of how we define
psychology. Sensation is known as a physical feeling and a physical process using the five senses
when the human body perceives something that happens to or comes into contact with the human
body. Perception is the process of the human body consciously recognizing and interpreting the
five senses.

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Sensations and perceptions shape the way humans see the world. The ability to take in
information from reality and process it in meaningful ways allows people to form a worldview
that helps them to understand life and make wise decisions. A lack or loss of sensations, such as
blindness or deafness, creates a gap in the experience and makes it harder to understand events
fully. A perception failure leads to misinterpretation of life and an inability to respond
adequately to the current situation.

 Sensations and perceptions shape the way humans see the word
 A lack or loss of sensations, such as blindness or deafness, creates a gap in the experience
and makes it harder to understand events fully.

6.8 Development of Emotions in Children (1 hr) TERM 5

 analyze the development and importance of expressing emotions among learners

 analyze the development and influence of emotions among the learners

i. Development of Emotions
Emotional development involves learning what feelings and emotions are, understanding
how and why they occur, recognising your own feelings and those of others, and developing
effective ways for managing those feelings

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 Emotional development is a complex task that begins in infancy and continues into
adulthood. The first emotions that can be recognised in babies include joy, anger, sadness and
fear. As children’s sense of self develops, more complex emotions like shyness, surprise,
elation, embarrassment, shame, guilt, pride and empathy emerge. School aged children and
young people are still learning to identify emotions, to understand why they happen, and how
to manage them appropriately.

Emotional expression includes several components:

 physical responses (like heart rate, breathing and hormone levels)

 behavioral displays of emotion
 feelings that children and young people recognise and learn to name
 thoughts and judgments associated with feelings
 Action signals (for example, a desire to approach, escape or fight).

Influences on emotional expression include:

 values and beliefs about appropriate and inappropriate ways of expressing emotions that
children and young people learn from families and educators
 how effectively children and young people’s emotional needs are usually met
 children and young people’s temperaments
 cultural norms
 emotional behaviors that children and young people have learned through observation or
experience
 The extent to which families are under various kinds of stress.

The rate of emotional development in children and young people can vary from person to person.
Some children may show a high level of emotional skill development while quite young,
whereas others take longer to develop the capacity to manage their emotions well into
adolescence.

3 Major emotional stages in childhood development

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Take a closer look at three critical stages of emotional development so you can be equipped to
help support the children you care for.

1. Noticing emotions: Birth to one

There are a lot of different theories about how emotions develop and function. Some think we
are born with only three emotions: happiness, anger and fear. Others believe that babies are
capable of feeling a much wider range from birth. It’s impossible to know for sure when they
can’t tell us, but through crying and cooing, babies certainly communicate something. At this
stage, an infant is discovering the world—good things like cuddles, bad things like full diapers.
They are noticing how everything makes them feel.

2. Expressing emotions: Two to three

As children develop a vocabulary and more independence, they will experiment with expressing
emotion in new ways. Some of it will be productive like drawing and narrating a picture of the
scary monster under the bed. Some of it will be more like throwing a tantrum in the grocery store
because they can’t get cheese puffs. This can be a very difficult stage for adults as children
experience complex emotions but have not yet figured out healthy versus unhealthy expression.

3. Managing emotions: Three to five

At this stage, children are ready to enter preschool. A new social environment and more
independence provides a great opportunity for growth but also poses some new challenges.
Sharing, listening and playing together can cause friction between children, and since they
cannot rely on their parents all the time anymore, they must develop new coping skills to manage
on their own. Preschool caregivers play a vital role in this development as they create a safe
space and offer guidance.

ii. Expression of emotions

Our bodies are hardwired to feel emotions – whether we express them or not is our choice.
Feeling sadness, anger or joy are natural responses to all the events our brains process every day.
Throughout history, emotions have played a big role in human evolution. Going back millions of

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years, our brains developed emotions to pass along responses to certain events to help preserve
the species. It's why seeing a predator naturally makes us feel fear – so we know we need to run
to save our lives. Emotional expression is simply the acknowledgement of these emotions we are
built to feel. Healthy expression allows us to understand the emotions, truly feel them and move
on.

An emotional expression is a behavior that communicates an emotional state or attitude. It can

be verbal or nonverbal, and can occur with or without self-awareness. Emotional expressions
include facial movements like smiling or scowling, simple behaviors like crying, laughing, or
saying "thank you," and more complex behaviors like writing a letter or giving a gift. Individuals
have some conscious control of their emotional expressions;[1] however, they need not have
conscious awareness of their emotional or affective state in order to express emotion.

There are six basic emotions humans are born with that we should all be able to recognize:

 Anger

 Sadness

 Fear

 Disgust

 Surprise

 Joy

We need to have awareness of these emotions as they happen. Awareness starts with
understanding how they make us feel. It is also important to recognize situations that make them
happen. This helps process emotions and let them go in a healthy and productive way. For
example, venting or dumping strong feelings isn't always helpful. It can actually cause more
harm than we intend.

iii. Influence of emotions on learning

Educators and students need to acknowledge the integral role that emotions have in learning.
Emotions are an embodied response to a stimulus (whether real or perceived, external or

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internal) and are experienced along a continuum from positive to negative. In the learning
environment, emotions can play a powerful role in supporting or undermining learning and
teaching. Emotions are inherently linked to and influence cognitive skills such as attention,
memory, executive function, decision-making, critical thinking, problem-solving and
regulation, all of which play a key role in learning.

Positive learning emotions include interest, curiosity, wonder, passion, creativity, engagement
and joy. These activate the reward system of the brain, make the experience desirable, and aid in
focus and attention. Positive emotional states can enable students to broaden their perspective,
see alternatives, persist through challenges and respond effectively to criticism and failure.

Positive emotions and the learning states they promote reciprocally influence the learner’s
motivation. Motivation can be considered the drive and energy behind learning. Students can be
motivated by both their internal goals for learning (mastery goals) or external factors such as
grade recognition (performance goals). Mastery goals are often driven by personal interest,
curiosity, relevance and effective learning regulation processes. Students who demonstrate
mastery of goal orientation have been , which results in more sustained experiences of learning
success.

On the other end of the spectrum, negative emotional states such as anxiety, stress, sadness,
disinterest, disengagement, worry and fear can impede learning processes and the motivation to
learn, and stifle the development of effective learning dispositions. If a learner perceives a threat,
their attention will be drawn to this, interfering with their ability to learn. In a learning
environment, threats might be in the form of failure, being unprepared or feeling disconnected
from other learners or the teacher. Unproductive negative emotions can lead to low motivation or
disengagement, which can negatively impact a student’s learning experience and present
challenging environments and dynamics for educators to navigate during class.

The role of emotions in learning has received increasing empirical and theoretical attention in
recent years. However, much of the emphasis has been on test anxiety and (more recently)
achievement emotions, that is, emotions directly related to achievement activities and

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outcomes .Even so, a growing number of researchers also recognize that students experience a
range of other emotions in academic settings including topic (i.e., subject area), epistemic and
social emotions .Epistemic emotions are experienced in response to the knowledge-generating
qualities of cognitive activities while social emotions arise in response to social concerns, e.g.,
status, power and attachment. Discrete negative emotions found to be important in academic
contexts include anxiety, fear, frustration, anger, boredom, sadness, shame, hopelessness, guilt
and embarrassment. Such emotions have been linked to assessment and testing, receiving grades
and feedback on performance, teacher behavior, personal study and satisfaction with the learning
experience. Understanding the impact of these and other negative emotions is important for
informing developments in practice, as well as promoting strategies for managing such reactions,
which can in turn lead to improved learning outcomes (for a review see ).

Evidence on the impact of negative emotions within academic environments suggests that they
are detrimental to motivation, performance and learning in many situations, although findings are
variable. For example, test anxiety, the most studied emotion in education, has been found to
impact negatively on academic achievement as well as motivate effort to avoid failure. The
impact of other negative emotions on learning and achievement is less well known, although
literature is starting to emerge particularly on boredom. Similarly, there is interest in the roles of
fear in avoidance behavior and in prioritizing information processing under particular
circumstances, and the role of anger in undermining motivation and task-irrelevant thinking. In
general, negative emotions are held to be detrimental to the pursuit of achievement goals,
investment of effort, cognitive processes (such as attention and memory), motivation, self-
regulation and self-efficacy. Even so, there are some circumstances in which negative affect can
potentially be adaptive; for example, in motivating students to attain goals and reduce error
making or to recover from a negative performance evaluation.

6.9 Emotions in learning (2hrs).

Examine the types and functions of emotions and their correlation to the learning process

i. types and functions of emotions

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The concept of emotion may seem simple, but scientists often have trouble agreeing on what it
really means. Most scientists believe that emotions involve things other than just feelings.

They involve bodily reactions, like when your heart races because you feel excited. They also
involve expressive movements, including facial expressions and sounds—for example, when you
say “woah” because you are fascinated by something. And emotions involve behaviors, like
yelling at someone when you are angry.

Although there are many different parts of an emotion, feelings are usually considered the most
important part . The majority of scientists who study emotion measure it by asking people what
they are feeling. Of course, we cannot know whether a person is telling the truth about what he
or she is feeling. It is also worth noting that terms like “angry” and “amused” might mean
different things to different people. Despite these limitations, however, self-reported experience,
meaning what a person says about what he or she is feeling, is the most direct way to measure
emotional feelings.

The patterns of emotion correspond to 25 different categories of emotion: admiration, adoration,

appreciation of beauty, amusement, anger, anxiety, awe, awkwardness, boredom, calmness,
confusion, craving, disgust, empathic pain, entrancement, excitement, fear, horror, interest, joy,
nostalgia, relief, sadness, satisfaction, and surprise.

There are many different types of emotions that have an influence on how we live and interact
with others. At times, it may seem like we are ruled by these emotions. The choices we make, the
actions we take, and the perceptions we have are all influenced by the emotions we are
experiencing at any given moment.

Psychologists have also tried to identify the different types of emotions that people experience. A
few different theories have emerged to categorize and explain the emotions that people feel.

Basic Emotions

 Disgust

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Disgust is another of the original six basic emotions described by Eckman. Disgust can be
displayed in a number of ways including:

 Body language: turning away from the object of disgust

 Physical reactions: such as vomiting or retching
 Facial expressions: such as wrinkling the nose and curling the upper lip

This sense of revulsion can originate from a number of things, including an unpleasant taste,
sight, or smell. Researchers believe that this emotion evolved as a reaction to foods that might be
harmful or fatal. When people smell or taste foods that have gone bad, for example, disgust is a
typical reaction.

Poor hygiene, infection, blood, rot, and death can also trigger a disgust response. This may be the
body's way of avoiding things that may carry transmittable diseases.

People can also experience moral disgust when they observe others engaging in behaviors that
they find distasteful, immoral, or evil.

 Anger

Anger can be a particularly powerful emotion characterized by feelings of hostility, agitation,

frustration, and antagonism towards others. Like fear, anger can play a part in your body's fight
or flight response.

When a threat generates feelings of anger, you may be inclined to fend off the danger and protect
yourself. Anger is often displayed through:

 Facial expressions: such as frowning or glaring

 Body language: such as taking a strong stance or turning away
 Tone of voice: such as speaking gruffly or yelling
 Physiological responses: such as sweating or turning red

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  Aggressive behaviors: such as hitting, kicking, or throwing objects

While anger is often thought of as a negative emotion, it can sometimes be a good thing. It can
be constructive in helping clarify your needs in a relationship, and it can also motivate you to
take action and find solutions to things that are bothering you.

Anger can become a problem, however, when it is excessive or expressed in ways that are
unhealthy, dangerous, or harmful to others. Uncontrolled anger can quickly turn to aggression,
abuse, or violence.
This type of emotion can have both mental and physical consequences. Unchecked anger can
make it difficult to make rational decisions and can even have an impact on your physical
health.8
Anger has been linked to coronary heart diseases and diabetes. It has also been linked to
behaviors that pose health risks such as aggressive driving, alcohol consumption, and smoking

 Fear

Fear is a powerful emotion that can also play an important role in survival. When you face some
sort of danger and experience fear, you go through what is known as the fight or flight response.

Your muscles become tense, your heart rate and respiration increase, and your mind becomes
more alert, priming your body to either run from the danger or stand and fight.

This response helps ensure that you are prepared to effectively deal with threats in your
environment. Expressions of this type of emotion can include:

 Facial expressions: such as widening the eyes and pulling back the chin
 Body language: attempts to hide or flea from the threat
 Physiological reactions: such as rapid breathing and heartbeat

Of course, not everyone experiences fear in the same way. Some people may be more sensitive
to fear and certain situations or objects may be more likely to trigger this emotion.

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Fear is the emotional response to an immediate threat. We can also develop a similar reaction to
anticipated threats or even our thoughts about potential dangers, and this is what we generally
think of as anxiety. Social anxiety, for example, involves an anticipated fear of social situations.

Some people, on the other hand, actually seek out fear-provoking situations. Extreme sports and
other thrills can be fear-inducing, but some people seem to thrive and even enjoy such feelings.

 Sadness

Sadness is another type of emotion often defined as a transient emotional state characterized by
feelings of disappointment, grief, hopelessness, disinterest, and dampened mood.
Like other emotions, sadness is something that all people experience from time to time. In some
cases, people can experience prolonged and severe periods of sadness that can turn
into depression. Sadness can be expressed in a number of ways including:

 Crying
 Dampened mood
 Lethargy
 Quietness
 Withdrawal from others

The type and severity of sadness can vary depending upon the root cause, and how people cope
with such feelings can also differ.

Sadness can often lead people to engage in coping mechanisms such as avoiding other people,
self-medicating, and ruminating on negative thoughts. Such behaviors can actually exacerbate
feelings of sadness and prolong the duration of the emotion.

 Happiness

Of all the different types of emotions, happiness tends to be the one that people strive for the
most. Happiness is often defined as a pleasant emotional state that is characterized by feelings of
contentment, joy, gratification, satisfaction, and well-being.
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Research on happiness has increased significantly since the 1960s within a number of
disciplines, including the branch of psychology known as positive psychology. This type of
emotion is sometimes expressed through:

 Facial expressions: such as smiling

 Body language: such as a relaxed stance
 Tone of voice: an upbeat, pleasant way of speaking

F Emotion has a substantial influence on the cognitive processes in humans, including

perception, attention, learning, memory, reasoning, and problem solving. Emotion has a
particularly strong influence on attention, especially modulating the selectivity of attention as
well as motivating action and behavior. This attentional and executive control is intimately
linked to learning processes, as intrinsically limited attentional capacities are better focused
on relevant information. Emotion also facilitates encoding and helps retrieval of information
efficiently. However, the effects of emotion on learning and memory are not always
univalent, as studies have reported that emotion either enhances or impairs learning and long-
term memory (LTM) retention, depending on a range of factors unctions of emotions in a
learning process

Emotions are inherently linked to and influence cognitive skills such as attention, memory,
executive function, decision-making, critical thinking, problem-solving and regulation, all of
which play a key role in learning

ii. Schachter- Singer’s Two-Factor Theory of Emotions

What exactly makes up an emotion? According to one major theory of emotion, there are two
key components: physical arousal and a cognitive label. In other words, the experience of
emotion involves first having some kind of physiological response which the mind then
identifies.

Cognitive theories of emotion began to emerge during the 1960s, as part of what is often referred
to as the "cognitive revolution" in psychology. One of the earliest cognitive theories of emotion

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was one proposed by Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer, known as the two-factor theory of
emotion.

-What Is the Two-Factor Theory?

Like the James-Lange theory of emotion, and in contrast to the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion,
Schachter and Singer felt that physical arousal played a primary in emotions. However, they
suggested that this arousal was the same for a wide variety of emotions, so physical arousal alone
could not be responsible for emotional responses.

The two-factor theory of emotion focuses on the interaction between physical arousal and how
we cognitively label that arousal. In other words, simply feeling arousal is not enough; we also
must identify the arousal in order to feel the emotion.

So, imagine you are alone in a dark parking lot walking toward your car. A strange man
suddenly emerges from a nearby row of trees and rapidly approaches. The sequence that follows,
according to the two-factor theory, would be much like this:

1. I see a strange man walking toward me.

2. My heart is racing and I am trembling.
3. My rapid heart rate and trembling are caused by fear.
4. I am frightened!

5. The process begins with the stimulus (the strange man), which is followed by the
physical arousal (rapid heartbeat and trembling). Added to this is the cognitive label
(associating the physical reactions to fear), which is immediately followed by the
conscious experience of the emotion (fear).

6. The immediate environment plays an important role in how physical responses are
identified and labeled. In the example above, the dark, lonely setting and the sudden
presence of an ominous stranger contributes to the identification of the emotion as fear.

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 7. What would happen if you were walking toward your car on a bright sunny day and an
elderly woman began to approach you? Rather than feeling fear, you might interpret your
physical response as something like curiosity or concern if the woman seemed to be in
need of assistance.

iii. Causes of negative emotions in young children

Common negative emotions include anger, anxiety, boredom, disappointment, distress, guilt,
jealousy, loneliness, loss, rejection and sadness. It is not our job to protect our children from
these emotions, but rather help them work through them by prompting problem solving.
what is the cause of all these?

6.10 development of attitudes 1 hr

 discuss the development of and formation of attitudes in learners
 analyze the functions of attitude and factors influencing attitude in a learning
environment
 examine the components of ABC model of attitude in the learning environment
 suggest ways in which positive attitude formation can be developed in young children
i. formation and development of attitudes in young children
Attitude Definition:

In psychology, an attitude refers to a set of emotions, beliefs, and behaviors toward a particular
object, person, thing, or event.

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Attitudes are often the result of experience or upbringing. They can have a powerful influence
over behavior and affect how people act in various situations. While attitudes are enduring, they
can also change.

To understand the meaning of attitudes, it can be helpful to look at a few different examples:

 Your opinion on the death penalty

 Your opinion about which political party does a better job of running the country
 Whether prayer be allowed in schools
 Whether violence on television be regulated

Chances are that you probably have fairly strong opinions on these and similar questions. You've
developed attitudes about such issues, and these attitudes influence your beliefs as well as your
behavior. Attitudes are an important topic of study within the field of social psychology. But
what exactly is an attitude? How does it develop?

Psychologists define attitudes as a learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way. This can
include evaluations of people, issues, objects, or events. Such evaluations are often positive or
negative, but they can also be uncertain at times.

Attitude Formation

Several factors can influence how and why attitudes form, including:

Experience

Attitudes form directly as a result of experience. They may emerge due to direct personal
experience, or they may result from observation.

Social Factors

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Social roles and social norms can have a strong influence on attitudes. Social roles relate to how
people are expected to behave in a particular role or context. Social norms involve society's rules
for what behaviors are considered appropriate.

Learning

Attitudes can be learned in a variety of ways. Consider how advertisers use classical
conditioning to influence your attitude toward a particular product. In a television commercial,
you see young, beautiful people having fun on a tropical beach while enjoying a sports drink.
This attractive and appealing imagery causes you to develop a positive association with this
particular beverage.

Conditioning

Operant conditioning can also be used to influence how attitudes develop. Imagine a young
man who has just started smoking. Whenever he lights up a cigarette, people complain, chastise
him, and ask him to leave their vicinity. This negative feedback from those around him
eventually causes him to develop an unfavorable opinion of smoking and he decides to give up
the habit.

Observation

Finally, people also learn attitudes by observing people around them. When someone you admire
greatly espouses a particular attitude, you are more likely to develop the same beliefs. For
example, children spend a great deal of time observing the attitudes of their parents and usually
begin to demonstrate similar outlooks.

Family:

Family is the most powerful source for formation of attitudes. The parents, siblings provide
information about various things.

Attitudes developed by an individual, whether positive or negative are the result of family
influence, are very powerful and difficult to undo.

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Peers:

As the individual develops, he comes in contact with outer world and peers in first place. Peers
include same age friends, neighbors, classmates, etc. The child tries to internalize the attitudes of
these people.

Social adjustment functions:

This is otherwise called balance theory. Every society has majority of people who prefer to lead
a harmonious life. They try to avoid unnecessary friction of conflicts with people. Naturally, they
are inclined to develop positive attitudes towards most of the people and issues. Our attitudes
may facilitate and maintain our relationships with members of positively valued groups. Usually
we want to go with significant others to us, and rebel against those unwanted.

Direct instruction:
Sometimes direct instruction can influence attitude formation. For example, somebody gives
information about a hair dye or usefulness of some fruit, we develop an attitude about that
product, may be positive or negative.

Satisfaction of wants:
Individual develops favourable attitudes towards those people and objects which satisfy his
wants and unfavourable attitudes towards those who do not satisfy.

Prejudices:
Prejudices are preconceived ideas or judgments where one develops some attitudes on other
people, objects, etc., without proper information. For example, disliking a doctor or a nurse
without knowing their abilities, just because of their caste, religion, region, nationality, etc.

iii. Components of ABC model of attitude in the learning environment

ABC Model of Attitude

An attitude is a powerful tool of mindset. Attitudes are defined as a set of beliefs that help
individuals evaluate people, situations, objects, or issues. The ABC model of attitude was first

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developed by Albert Ellis as a way to understand pessimistic thinking and move past it. This
model is also known as the tripartite model. ABC is made up of three components, affective,
belief, and cognitive.

3 Components of Attitude

The three components of attitude are affective, behavioral, and cognitive.

A. Affective: This is defined as the way an individual feels about a particular circumstance,
person, or object

B. Behavioral: This component is defined as how the object of the attitude makes a person
behave.

C. Cognitive: This aspect is defined as how one thinks about the subject of the attitude.

These three aspects of attitude can occur with the same experience. They can interact and be
overlapping in a given situation, but typically one of them will be the overriding indicator of how
one feels about it

Affective Component

Simply put, the affective component of attitude is the way one feels about the situation, person,
or object of the attitude. This initial feeling can influence our attitude in many ways which can be
either positive or negative. Often times this is an impulsive response stemming from memory or
past experience with the object of the attitude or something similar to it. An attitude that is based
on an affective position could also be religious or moral in nature.

Example: A woman is about to be a bride for the first time. Her deep faith influences her
preparations. She prepares everything for the ceremony to honor those who will be present as
well as those who have since passed. Her bouquet will have white roses and Lilly of the Valley;
a smell that reminds her of the mother she lost to cancer when she was in her teenage years. The
lining of her dress will have a handkerchief of her grandfather's sewn in. Lastly, the music of the
first dance will be the song that was playing when her fiancé proposed. In this example, the
flowers, handkerchief, and song bring back positive memories and make this bride-to-be feel

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comforted and loved. The sentimentality and faith are demonstrated here in how the affective
component of attitude can influence decisions and outcomes.

Behavioral Component

The behavioral component of attitude is the actions that one takes because of the person or
experience in front of them. These behaviors can be positive or negative depending on the object
of attitude. The behavior is often regarded as predictable in the sense that if the individual has
already acted in a specific manner to experience or object of similar value, that behavior is likely
to be consistent when the person is faced with the item or person again.

Example: A long-since-retired nursery school teacher feels that her calling was always to help
children. Even in her years of retirement, she continues to visit children in hospitals and
volunteer her time reading to children at the local library. Spending time with children is a
behavior-based attitude because it reinforces her responsibility to support and guide them
through their development. Her reactions towards children are predictable and unchanged.

iii. Ways in which positive attitude formation can be developed in young children
Having a positive mindset in life is one of the most important qualities for a successful
individual. While the world has taken a nosedive into the plunge pool of negativity, it is
not at all easy for anyone to see everything with a positive outlook.

Evaluate your attitude

Children learn a great deal from their parents and are influenced by them. If you remain
positive in life, your kid will develop the same attitude. You may not be aware, but they
watch your every move, word, action, feeling and emotion. They will slowly and
gradually start following whatever you believe or think. Thus, make sure that you show
them remaining positive towards everything that follows can be good. This will help your
kid develop a positive attitude.

Let them know it is okay to express feelings

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One of the most important ways to raise your child with a positive attitude in life is by
setting them free to acknowledge their emotions and express their feelings. Be it
happiness, sadness, shame, fear or any other emotion, tell them that it is absolutely
normal to feel happy or sad at times. Once they learn to accept and express their feelings,
there will be no room left for negativity. If you find that your kid is angry or unhappy,
get to their level, make eye contact and ask them about their problem. This will make
them feel more comfortable sharing their issues with you. Tell them that they should try
to look for solutions instead of worrying about the problem. Your kid will soon learn to
look at things with a positive mindset

Shower your little one with love and affection

There is, however, a persistent myth that showering love on your child will spoil them.
The opposite is true. Showering love on your child, or in other words, giving them plenty
of attention by responding to their requests, is an excellent strategy to raise a confident
child. Showing your love to your little munchkin by giving them a big loving squeeze
boosts their self-esteem, improves communication and adds a sense of trust to your
relationship. In addition to this, it reduces psychological problems in your child and
makes them feel more positive towards life.

Don’t compare your child to others

There is an old saying that “Comparison is the thief of joy,” and it has been retweeted and
pinned many times on social media platforms. But in a cruel twist of fate, many parents
often do exactly the same and as a result, their kids develop negative attitudes towards
everything. You as a parent need to understand that there will always be other kids who
are smarter, more athletic, more obedient and more talented than yours. But if you
compare your child with others, they may end up feeling bad about themselves and
developing a negative attitude. Thus, always focus on encouraging and motivating your
child to foster positivity in them.

Refrain from criticism

Always remember that criticising your child will not make them try hard to achieve their
goal. In fact, it will only lead to a negative attitude in them. As a parent, it is your

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responsibility to help and support your kid when they are struggling with something and
appreciate them for their efforts. If the goal is not attained, instead of ridiculing and
criticising your child

Role of a Teacher In Promoting Attitude Changes In Learners

Teacher and Attitude Change

What is the teacher’s role in attitude change?

The teacher is the person on the ground. He is in direct contact with the students and therefore
his role in attitude change can never be overestimated. For him to be effective in changing
pupils’ attitudes;

He should be conversant with the following:

 Remember that attitudes are very resistant to change because they are tied up with
personal feelings, needs, and self-concept.
 Note that schools are usually unable to change attitudes because their programs do
not appeal to the total person.

With this in mind, to be effective in attitude change, the teacher should first know the attitudes
held by learners, then use the following methods to change them.

1. Use the peer group

The peer group can be used in discussions or debates on certain topical issues. For example
sexuality

 Abortion,
 School life
 Friendship and so on.

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 As the peers exchange their views and give points for or against the topic being debated or
discussed they influence each other’s attitudes.
 The catch here is that the youths will readily accept values of their own peers. Attitudes
changed this way are more effectively inculcated.

2. First-hand experience

Students need to be exposed to first-hand experiences in the attitude issues concerned. I f they
had previously thought that the subject is boring or difficult, they should be exposed to
interesting teaching and to proper guidance that leads to success. If they are taught in an
interesting manner and they experience how a good teacher works, they will change their
attitudes.

3. Appeal to feelings

The teacher should always ensure that the students register information not only with their senses
but also with their feelings. If they are expected to cultivate positive feelings towards the
attitudinal issue or even negative feelings this issue should be well addressed.

 The teacher could refer the pupils to sources of information that will arouse feelings. Video
shows that arouse feelings could be shown. Stories with first hand experience could be
exchanged. Whatever feelings the teacher thinks will be beneficial should be evoked.
Feelings lead to experience of catharsis, which is very important in attitude change

4. Discovery Method

The teacher could also allow the students to discover for themselves basic information
concerning the attitudinal object. For example: There could be a student who is HIV positive or
one who has lost parents through AIDS and the rest of the class don’t know how to behave
towards him/her. Nobody wants to share a desk or books with her. For the teacher to instill
positive attitude towards the particular student he could give students projects to visit doctors for

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 information, to read about the topic, to contact families with AIDS patients and then present their
findings in class. After they have discovered all the basic information, that they can, they will be
friendlier, more helpful and more accepting towards their fellow student.

5. Persuasive periods

The teacher should look for persuasive periods in the child’s life and then foster the necessary
attitudes. There are times when students will be most receptive to new attitudes, for example
during a transition or crisis. This is the time when the student is facing some challenge or some
kind of failure. This could be.

 When a good student’s whose performance has been dropping steadily due to influence from bad
company.
 It could be a well-behaved student whose behavior has suddenly changed and is facing
punishment almost daily or
 It could be a lazy student who has lost a parent and now he needs to see the importance of being
serious and focused in his life.

Whatever the case a student who is in a crisis situation will be more receptive to suggestibility
and attitude change.

6. Consistent attitudes

 In attitude change, the teacher should foster attitudes that are consistent with attitudes
held by the home, the community, and the mass media. In other words, the teachers’
attitudes should not deviate from generally held attitudes. Of course, some care
and discretion may be required here because there are widely held attitudes which need
some revision if not a complete overhaul.

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 8b ii). Evaluate the role of the teacher in transforming the attitude of the learner in a
learning environment.

6.0 Factors influencing learning

6.11 school readiness and transition (1 hr)
 distinguish different levels of transition in learning and appropriate strategies which
enhance smooth transition
 account for various transitions and how they influence learning as children transit from
one level of education to another

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 i. Different levels of transition in learning- preprimary to lower primary; lower
primary to upper primary
a child passes through levels of transition in primary education i.e pre-primary education,
lower primary education and upper primary education.

Preschoolers: Characteristics, Development & School Readiness

Preschoolers are children ages 3-5 who many times are experiencing school for the first time,
often presenting challenges for teachers. Explore the characteristics and school readiness of
preschoolers, and learn about their physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development.
Preprimary education (level 0), also called early childhood education, usually includes education
for children aged 3-5, although in some countries, it starts as early as age 2 and in others
continues through age 6. In the United States, preprimary education includes kindergarten.
Preschool is a type of school focused on students who are ages three to five years old. It is the
first time that many children attend school, and both the age of the children and their
unfamiliarity with school can pose challenges for teachers

Preschoolers have usually developed the ability to walk, but sometimes they struggle with
movement, balance, or coordination
In addition, preschoolers like bright colors and visually interesting things. They understand and
think differently from adult.

Developmental Milestones

Skills such as naming colors, showing affection, and hopping on one foot are called
developmental milestones. Developmental milestones are things most children can do by a
certain age. Children reach milestones in how they play, learn, speak, behave, and move (like
crawling, walking, or jumping).

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As children grow into early childhood, their world will begin to open up. They will become more
independent and begin to focus more on adults and children outside of the family. They will
want to explore and ask about the things around them even more. Their interactions with family
and those around them will help to shape their personality and their own ways of thinking and
moving. During this stage, children should be able to ride a tricycle, use safety scissors, notice a
difference between girls and boys, help to dress and undress themselves, play with other
children, recall part of a story, and sing a song.

-lower primary level of education

Lower primary education means a level of education consisting of Grades 1 to 3.
-upper primary education covers grade 4-8 under the 8-4-4 framework
-under the CBC framework, the following are the levels of education in kenya
1. Early years education
-Pre primary education 2 years i.e PP1 and PP1
-Lower primary 3 years i.e. grade 1,2,3
2. Middle school education
-upper primary 3 years i.e grade 4,5,and 6
-junior secondary 3 years i.e. grade 7,8,9
3. Senior school, tertiary and university
iii. factors that enhance smooth transition in primary education levels
The studies conducted have established that teachers’ level of training, physical environment,
language of instruction and teaching methods were the major factors influencing learners’
transition from pre-school to lower primary.
other studies show that gender, race and ethnicity, academic ability, school location, and
students' ages all influence how well students make normative school transitions. In addition,
teachers, peers, and parents can all provide valuable support to students as they make school
transitions.

7.0 Theories of Learning

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7.1 operant conditioning (1 HR)
 Describe the principles of operant conditioning theory and its relevance in learning
 Demonstrate operant conditioning theory in learning environment and its relevance in
learning
i. principles of operant conditioning theory
Operant conditioning:A type of learning in which the probability of occurrence of preceding
behavior is increased or decreased, depending upon favorable or unfavorable consequences of
the behavior is called operant conditioning. Favorable consequences lead to reinforcement of
behavior whereas unfavorable consequences lead to punishments.

Principles of Operant Conditioning:

Principles or stages involved in operant conditioning are:

1.2.1. Reinforcement (Central Concept )

1.2.2. Punishment

1.2.3. Shaping and stimulus generalization and discrimination similar to that in classical
conditioning.
These are explained in detail as follows:

1.2.1) Reinforcement (Central Concept)

A phenomenon in which a stimulus increases the chance of repetition of previous behavior is

called reinforcement. In Skinner’s experiment, the pressing of lever can be referred to
reinforcement.

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 Reinforcer:
The phenomenon of reinforcement involves Reinforcer. Any stimulus that increases the
probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated is called reinforcer e.g. food, bonuses,
toys, chocolates, salary etc all are reinforcers. Reinforcer for one person might not be a reinforcer
for the other person. It all depends on individual. Reinforcers can be primary which satisfies
biological needs, secondary which helps in meeting the primary needs, positive which adds a
stimulus to repeat the preceding behavior or negative which removes a particular stimulus to
repeat the preceding behavior. These are explained in detail in article Reinforcement in operant
conditioning.

 Schedules of Reinforcement

The process which involves a particular frequency and timing of reinforcing a desired behavior is
known as scheduling of reinforcement. These schedules can be continuous or partial.

 Reinforcing the behavior every time it is repeated is called continuous schedule e.g. a child
wants to learn first 10 digits and we appreciate him every time for learning a single digit. In other
words, we reinforce his behavior after learning every single digit.
When behavior is not reinforced every time it is repeated, we call it partial schedule e.g. it is
impossible to praise a child for learning every digit when his target is to learn 100 digits at one
time. Partial schedule can be of four types which are explained in article Reinforcement in
Operant conditioning.

1.2.2) Punishment:

Stimulus that decreases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated is called
punishment e.g. if we receive a shock for something, there is a very little chance that we repeat

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that behavior. Removing the shock would be negatively reinforcing it i.e. removal of unpleasant
stimulus. Punishment can be of two types; Positive punishment or negative punishment.

Positive Punishment weakens a response or behavior through addition of an unpleasant stimulus

e.g. beating a child for misbehaving with elders or spending ten years in jail as a punishment of
robbery.

Negative Punishment weakens a response through removal of a Pleasant stimulus e.g. parents
may not allow their child to party anymore due to bad academic results, street crimes may
discourage us for hangouts till late nights, demoting an employee for his poor performance.

1.2.3) Shaping:

Shaping is a process in operant conditioning in which complex behaviors are taught by awarding
closer and closer approximations to the desired behavior. During initial stages, everything
related to desired behavior is appreciated, then only the closely related and finally only the
desired behavior is awarded e.g. pigeons trained to rescue people lost at sea. Similarly shaping is
used in behavior modification, learning alphabets, vocabulary, new language, musical
instruments and training of mentally handicapped children. Organization of most of textbooks is
based on the principle of shaping.

Stimulus generalization and discrimination are similar to that of classical conditioning.

1.3) Applications of Operant Conditioning:

The concept of Operant conditioning occurs in classroom management, shaping behavior,

teaching of skills, therapies, animal taming etc.
Application of operant conditioning in learning

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Operant conditioning is a type of learning that happens when certain behaviors are rewarded or
punished. Thus the participant, or in this case, the student, becomes conditioned to perform
certain behaviors instead of others in the anticipation of punishment or reward.

Advantages of Using Operant Conditioning in the Classroom

Using operant conditioning in the classroom can be beneficial in many ways. But the most
important effect, at least from the teacher’s perspective, is the establishment of classroom
management techniques. Using operant conditioning can give students immediate feedback
about their behavior. When the teacher rewards positive behavior, other students are more likely
to copy that behavior to earn the reward. The rewarded student is also more likely to repeat that
behavior because of the positive feedback.

Immediate feedback is also useful in curtailing negative classroom behaviors. Light punishment
or withholding of praise can function as operant conditioning in education. When the teacher
punishes negative behavior, other students will want to avoid that punishment, and so they will
be less likely to perform that behavior. The punished student will be less likely to repeat the
behavior as well, though outside factors may come into play.

2Disadvantages of Using Operant Conditioning in the Classroom

Using operant conditioning in the classroom can be part of a sound classroom management
strategy. However, relying too heavily on operant conditioning alone has its drawbacks. Operant
conditioning in education relies on extrinsic motivation, or factors outside the students
themselves used to motivate behaviors. The downside to extrinsic motivation is that it is less
permanent than intrinsic motivation, or motivation that comes from inside the self. Intrinsic
motivation exists without the presence of external motivating factors. But when extrinsic
motivations are relied on too heavily, when those motivating factors are removed, the behaviors
they shaped are more likely to decrease or disappear as well.

Effective classroom management techniques use a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic

motivating factors. Teachers can incorporate operant conditioning with other strategies for a
more holistic approach.

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Operant Conditioning Examples

Operant conditioning examples that teachers can use as part of their overall classroom
management strategy are helpful. Operant conditioning examples can include positive
reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment and negative punishment.
Reinforcements, by definition, increase the targeted behavior, and punishments decrease targeted
behaviors.

Operant Conditioning Examples for the Classroom

 Positive Reinforcement: Students who line up quietly receive a smiley sticker.

 Negative Reinforcement: The teacher ignores a student who shouts out answers but calls
on him when he raises his hand.
 Positive Punishment: A student gets detention after being late for class too many times.
 Negative Punishment: The teacher moves a student away from her friend because she
was talking during a test.

The principles of classical conditioning help understand the classical conditioning process. Those
principles are: acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, stimulus generalization, and
stimulus discrimination

Acquisition

Acquisition is the first stage of classical conditioning, where the response to a stimulus is
established for the first time and begins to strengthen gradually over time. A stimulus is paired
with another stimulus repeatedly until the presence of the stimuli elicits the same response.
When this happens, the desired response has been acquired. For example, in Pavlov's
experiment, he repeatedly paired the presence of food with the sound of a bell. The presence of
food already caused the dogs to salivate, but the bell did not. As he repeatedly paired them
together, the dogs began to salivate at the sound of the bell.

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Extinction

Extinction happens when the conditioned response is no longer present. For example, if Pavlov
stopped ringing the bell with the presence of food, eventually, the sound of the bell ringing
would not be associated with being fed.

Spontaneous Recovery

Spontaneous recovery happens when a conditioned response comes back after being extinct for
some time. For example, if the salivation when ringing a bell stopped, and later a bell rang and
salivation occurred again, this would be considered spontaneous recovery. If spontaneous
recovery occurs, extinction usually happens quickly after.

Stimulus Generalization

Stimulus generalization occurs when a person or animal has the same response to a stimulus
that is similar to the original stimulus. For example, if the dogs are conditioned to salivate at the
sound of a bell, they may also salivate at the sound of other things that sound similar.

Stimulus Discrimination

Stimulus discrimination is the ability to discriminate between different stimuli. For example, if
the conditioned stimuli were the ring of a bell, that particular bell would be the only sound that
would elicit salivation. The dogs would be able to discriminate between that bell and all other
sounds.

5 Key Elements of Classical Conditioning

There are five key elements of classical conditioning: neutral stimulus, unconditioned stimulus,
conditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, and conditioned response. Understanding these
elements is necessary to understanding classical conditioning.

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Neutral Stimulus

A neutral stimulus is a stimulus that does not cause a reaction at first. However, when it is
continually repeated, it will cause a reaction and eventually become a conditioned stimulus. The
bell in Pavlov's experiment would be considered a neutral stimulus.

Unconditioned Stimulus

An unconditioned stimulus is an element in the experiment that elicits an automatic response. In

Pavlov's experiment, the unconditioned stimulus was the food because the dogs automatically
salivated when food was in their presence.

Conditioned Stimulus

The conditioned stimulus is the stimulus that is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned
stimulus until it eventually causes the same response. For example, in Pavlov's experiment, the
bell before the food was the conditioned stimulus because the dogs eventually began to salivate
at the sound of the bell.

The difference between an unconditioned stimulus and a conditioned stimulus is that an

unconditioned stimulus causes an automatic response, while a conditioned stimulus must be
paired with the unconditioned stimulus to elicit a reaction.

Unconditioned Response

An unconditioned response is a response that naturally occurs. In Pavlov's classic experiment

with his dogs, drooling was the unconditioned response because it happened naturally as a
response to the smell of food.

Conditioned Response

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A conditioned response is a response that is taught through the experiment. In Pavlov's
experiment, it would be the dogs learning to salivate at the sound of the bell just as they do in the
presence of food.

The difference between unconditioned responses and conditioned responses is that unconditioned
responses are naturally occurring and conditioned responses are learned behavior through
exposure to stimuli.

Operant conditioning describes how people or animals will behave in ways that cause them to
be rewarded instead of punished. Classical conditioning is based on naturally occurring reflexes,
while operant conditioning uses non-reflexive behavior shaping.

For example, B.F. Skinner designed an experiment that led to the development of operant
conditioning. He placed a rat inside a box and waited for it to discover the lever inside that
would release food when pushed. The rat eventually discovered the lever, pushed it, and was fed.
After a while, the rat would continually return to the lever over periods of time as it desired food.
Eventually, he found that after rats understood that the lever gave them food, they would
immediately push the lever when they entered the box.

Conditioning in the Classroom: 4 Examples

The last class before lunchtime can be difficult for students and their growing bodies. They may
sense that lunchtime isn’t far off, and their tummies begin to rumble

Perhaps students have music class before lunch every day. Halfway through music class, their
stomachs may begin to rumble, similar to the salivation of the dogs in Pavlov’s experiment. The
children may actually start to associate music class with hunger.

 Neutral stimulus (NS): After music class

 Unconditional stimulus (US): Eating lunch
 Unconditional response (UR): Feeling hungry
 Conditional stimulus (CS): Music class

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As a child, perhaps you were given a special treat or privilege upon earning good grades on
report cards or progress reports. You may have begun to associate good grades with a special
treat.

Research has shown that parents’ perceptions have a stronger influence over children’s sense of
self and task perceptions, even more so than their own grades (Frome & Eccles, 1998). Let’s
break it down in the following example:

 NS: Good report card grades

 US: Going for ice cream
 UR: Feeling excited
 CS: Good report card grades
 CR: Feeling excited

It comes as no surprise that mistreatment, which can include public humiliation, may lead to
student burnout and poor mental health (Markman, Soeprono, Combs, & Cosgrove, 2019).

Being humiliated by a teacher could still be haunting you today. Let’s say that a math teacher
embarrassed a student. That student may develop a dislike for the subject that follows them even
into adulthood.

 NS: Student performs poorly in math class

 US: Getting lectured by the math teacher
 UR: Feeling embarrassed
 CS: Math
 CR: Feeling embarrassed

Classical conditioning can also be exhibited in forms of technology. Computer games that play
different sounds when you get the correct or incorrect answer are prime examples. Baccus,
Baldwin, and Packer (2004) designed a study that demonstrated that implicit self-esteem can be
increased using a computer game that repeatedly pairs self-relevant information with smiling
faces.

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  NS: Getting the correct answer
 US: Hearing a high-pitched “ding!”
 UR: Feeling pleased with yourself
 CS: The high-pitched “ding!”
 CR: Feeling pleased with yourself

ii. Relevance/application of classical conditioning theory in learning

Teachers can apply classical conditioning in the class by creating a positive classroom
environment to help students overcome anxiety or fear. Pairing an anxiety-provoking
situation, such as performing in front of a group, with pleasant surroundings helps the student
learn new associations. instead of feeling anxious and tense in these situations, the child will
learn to stay relaxed and calm.

Task: Explain the application of classical conditioning to the teaching-learning process

today
 The learning environment

From classical conditioning, we learn that it is important to provide a conducive learning

environment. The belief is that all behavior is controlled by environmental conditions and
demands. The learning environment should be enriched enough. It should be arranged in manner
that makes learning probable. It is true that if Ivan Pavlov had not provided the right
environment for learning the dog would never have been conditioned to learn the association
between the bell and the food

 The principle of contiguity

This principle states that events that occur together in time and in space are associated together.
These are the events that are paired. When we look at the school situation we are concerned with
the events that are paired. If the teacher pairs pleasant experiences with the school experiences
the students learn to approach school with enthusiasm. They learn to enjoy school and learning.

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On the other hand the teacher who pairs the school experiences with unpleasant events makes
pupils to fear and hate school. There are many unpleasant events that can be present in school.
These include the use of harsh words, insulting language and punitive events. These negative
events affect the pupil adjustment to school and performance.

They also create negative feelings and attitudes towards the teacher, the subject he teaches and
school in general. Teachers are therefore advised to pair school experiences with pleasant events.

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How to Apply Classical Conditioning in the Classroom

There are several excellent ways to apply classical conditioning in school, and we review a few
of the options.

Attention-getters

Attention-getters such as turning off the lights, rhyming, student callbacks, hand signals, a bell,
music, or when the teacher simply stops talking could be used to obtain students’ attention.

For example, a teacher may say, “Class, class!” and the class is expected to call back, “Yes,
yes!” and then wait for the teacher’s next direction. Modeling this behavior will be crucial to
beginning the conditioning process.

Transition notifications

Transition notifications such as a bell, gong, chimes, music, or a clap may sometimes be used to
notify students of a transition. As an example, a teacher may strike a gong to alert students it is
time to switch centers and move on to the next activity.

Creating a procedure for quick transitions will grant the teacher additional instructional time. Just
as with the attention-getter, the teacher will want to explicitly model the expected behavior and
review the expectations often. Please see how to play a transition game below.

Positive feedback

Positive feedback is an easy way to keep the students who are doing the right thing on track
while motivating students who are off-track to switch courses.

The students who receive the positive feedback will associate the activity they are being praised
for with a good feeling. Most students will continue to demonstrate the behavior.

The students who may not be showing the desired behavior may hear the positive feedback
toward the other students and wish to receive the positive feedback as well. They will then, most

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likely, exhibit the desired behavior. Of course, there are always exceptions. This concept borders
operant conditioning with positive reinforcement.

Answer cueing

Answer cueing may be used to provide students a procedure for answering questions, as well as
grant students additional “think time.” This technique prevents fast-paced students from shouting
out the answers to questions before the other students can process the question and formulate an
answer.

For example, a teacher may raise their hands up while asking the question, keep the hands up an
extra few seconds, and then bring the hands down with palms facing upward, signaling students
they are now permitted to answer the question.

While this “think time” typically lasts only 1.5 seconds, research has shown that waiting three
seconds or more will benefit the students (Stahl, 1994). This additional processing time can
encourage more students to contribute to the lesson and answer the question presented by the
teacher.

Unfortunately, classical conditioning can also hinder learning. As demonstrated, a bad

experience in a certain class or with a specific teacher may cause a student to dislike that
particular subject in general.

To make classical conditioning more concrete for students or support the learning even more,
classical conditioning can be paired with operant conditioning. The pairing of classical
conditioning and operant conditioning would involve the use of reinforcements.

7.3 social learning theories (1 hr)

 Evaluate the principles of social learning theory and its relevance in learning
 Demonstrate the principles of social learning theory and their relevance in learning
i. principles of social learning theory

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 Albert Bandura, a social psychologist, developed a theory surrounding this type of
collaborative learning. Bandura’s Social Learning Theory posits that learning is impacted by
our environments and the interactions that we have. This learning theory, which is also
known as observational learning, focuses on how humans can learn through observation and
imitation.
Bandura proposes five essential steps in order for the learning to take place: observation,
attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

1. Learning through observation

The key to the social learning theory is that we observe certain behaviours and then, after a
few mental processes that we will see down below, we imitate them. However, according to
Bandura, observation in itself does not always guarantee the behaviour to be learned. In addition
to observing, he also added other four mediational processes.

2. attention

The learner needs to pay attention. If he or she is distracted, it will probably affect the quality of
learning. Being focused on the task at hand becomes the first step for retaining the
information and getting to acquire the knowledge. In this way, the behaviour that we are
trying to imitate has to grab our attention, so that no external factors become distractions.

3. Retention

How much do you remember from what you have observed in order to reproduce it? This is
what retention is based on, on how well that behaviour is remembered. It is important to
have a good memory of the behaviour we are trying to imitate that we can refer to.

4. Reproduction

All of the steps above bring us to this final one, the reproduction of the behaviour/task that we
have observed. After having observed, paid attention to and remembered the behaviour/task, we

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should be able to perform it ourselves. However, following all these steps will not guarantee the
correct reproduction of the behaviour since other factors may influence the performance, such as
the limitation of our physical ability.

5. Motivation

Of course, reproduction of the behaviour/task would not be possible without the will to do
it. Motivation could be considered one of the most important principles of the social
learning theory; all of the rest rely on it. Here, both reinforcement and punishment play an
essential role. If the observer does not see a favourable outcome of the behaviour he or she is
paying attention to, he or she will not be motivated towards imitating it.

Now that we have seen how Bandura's theory works, and in order to conclude, let's see how it
can be applied to the real world, or, more concretely, to the world of education. There is no doubt
that the social learning theory is highly beneficial for the educational field since teachers can
provide students with positive role models for them to follow in a motivational environment.
Another concept that comes from the social learning theory and which also becomes key in the
learning of the students is self-efficacy. The concept, which basically means the belief in one's
abilities, is highly regarded by Bandura, who says:
“In order to succeed, people need a sense of self-efficacy, to struggle together with resilience to
meet the inevitable obstacles and inequities of life.”

To better understand the Social Learning Theory, let’s reduce the theory to Bandura’s 4
principles of social learning theory:

1. Attention
It is difficult to learn if you are not focused on the task at hand. We typically lose attention if we
do not believe that the materials at hand can present new, novel information or if they do not
seem to benefit us in any way. Bandura’s theory suggests that learners can also maintain focus
within group contexts, e.g., if the group is focused, the individual is focused.
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2. Retention
Learning takes place when we can collect and recall information. To be able to perform an action
or recall information, a learner must have a memory of that act or information. Without retention,
the memory of that action or information is lost. Learners can collect this information via
observation of others; it does not always have to be self-taught

3. Reproduction
There’s a Latin proverb, repetitio est mater studiorum (repetition is the mother of learning),
which speaks to this pillar of Bandura’s theory. We reproduce previously learned behaviors,
knowledge, and skills when it is required of us, and repetition of these things allows us to master
them cognitively.

4. Motivation
Simply put, motivation drives action. If we observe the actions of others and recognize how they
are rewarded or punished for their actions, we are motivated to imitate them or do differently.

Application/ implications of social learning theory to learning

As teachers, we want our students to be successful and to learn to the best of their ability. The
way we teach and the strategies we employ, as well as our classroom environment, all have an
impact on teaching and learning.
Let’s look at a few ways in which we can utilise Bandura’s social learning theory in our
classroom.

Behavior

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Good classroom management is key to successful teaching and learning. Without it, chaos can
ensue and this will hinder both the teacher and the students.

Social learning theory can be used to encourage and teach desirable behaviors in the classroom
through the use of positive reinforcement and rewards.

For example, a student who is praised for raising their hand to speak will more than likely repeat
that behavior. Additionally, other students will follow suit and raise their hands after observing
that the behavior elicited a positive outcome.

Conversely, a student who is reprimanded for an undesired behavior is less likely to repeat that
behavior, as are their peers who will also wish to avoid the negative consequence of replicating
the action.

Teaching

As previously stated, one the prerequisites for observational learning to be successful is that the
observer’s attention is focused on the behavior.

Therefore, before demonstrating or modelling something to our students, it is paramount that we

have their full attention. Ensuring that lessons are level appropriate and as engaging as possible
will help sustain students’ attention.

Retention of the behavior or information modelled is also key to successful learning. As we

know, individual students learn in a variety of ways.

One of the ways we can help our students to retain information and behaviors is to incorporate as
many different activities into our lesson as possible. A multisensory approach to learning helps
to increase retention.

For example, while teaching a lesson verbally, we can use visual aids to help reinforce the
information.

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Motivating Students

As Bandura identified, in order for observational learning to be successful, the observer must be
motivated to reproduce the behavior.

Studies show that teachers who are enthusiastic and passionate when teaching can motivate
students to learn as they are likely to imitate their teacher.

Teachers can motivate students extrinsically through positive reinforcement and rewards. They
can also help boost a student’s intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy through verbal persuasion,
positive reinforcement and constructive feedback.

Bandura’s self-efficacy theory is rooted in the social learning theory. If a student has confidence
and believes that they have the ability to reproduce a certain behavior then they are more likely
to try and to succeed.

Conversely, if a student lacks confidence and does not believe that they have the ability to carry
out a task, then they are less likely to exert effort into the task and may ultimately end up failing.

As educators, it is our job to find different ways of motivating our students to learn.

Pair and Group Work

In our classroom, learning does not solely take place through students observing their teacher.

Learning also takes place through observing their peers which is why using pair work and group
work in the classroom can have many benefits.

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For example, pairing a higher ability student with a student that is struggling allows for peer
coaching to occur.

This is a very useful and effective strategy used in classrooms today. Students are often more
likely to pay attention to their peers than to another adult.

When facilitating group work, a teacher may place a less motivated student in a group with a
highly motivated student with the intention that their influence will motivate the other student to
take on some responsibility, helping the unmotivated student learn.

Each member of the group can act as a model and members of the group can learn through
observing the behaviors and attitudes of their peers.

There you have it; if we motivate students and help them build their self-efficacy, they will
approach the challenges in a better light and will be encouraged to keep growing. And, although
self-belief does not always ensure success, it surely adds more ballots to the lottery.
How Are These Principles learning
A simple way to incorporate the principles of the Social Learning any learning courses is to run
an audit of your current training course alongside the Social Learning Theory. For example:

 ATTENTION: Is the learning conducted within a group? Should it be conducted within

a group? Does the learning hold the collective attention of the group?
 RETENTION: What aspects of the learning are memorable? Are learners having a
difficult time retaining information?
 REPRODUCTION: Can learners act out the learning objectives? Can learners observe
and reproduce the desired act or provide the desired information?
 MOTIVATION: Are learners being recognized/awarded for their successes and
corrected for their missteps?

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7.4 Information Processing Learning Theory (1 hr)
 defend the principles of Information Processing Learning Theory
 demonstrate the principles of Information Processing Learning Theory and its relevance
in learning
i. the principles of Information Processing Learning Theory
The basic idea of Information processing theory is that the human mind is like a computer or
information processor — rather than behaviorist notions that people merely responding to
stimuli.
These theories equate thought mechanisms to that of a computer, in that it receives input,
processes, and delivers output. Information gathered from the senses (input), is stored and
processed by the brain, and finally brings about a behavioral response (output).

Information processing theory has been developed and broadened over the years. Most notable in
the inception of information processing models is Atkinson and Shriffin’s ‘stage theory,’
presenting a sequential method, as discussed above, of input-processing-output[2]. Though
influential, the linearity of this theory reduced the complexity of the human brain, and thus
various theories were developed in order to further assess the inherent processes.

Following this line of thought, Craik and Lockhart issued the ‘level of processing’ model[3].
They emphasize that information s expanded upon (processed) in various ways (perception,
attention, labelling, and meaning) which affect the ability to access the information later on. In
other words, the degree to which the information was elaborated upon will affect how well the
information was learned.

Bransford broadened this idea by adding that information will be more easily retrieved if the way
it is accessed is similar to the way in which it was stored[4]. The next major development in
information processing theory is Rumelhart and McClelland’s connectionist model, which is
supported by current neuroscience research[5]. It states that information is stored simultaneously
in different areas of the brain, and connected as a network. The amount of connections a single
piece of information has will affect the ease of retrieval.

The general model of information processing theory includes three components:

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Sensory memory

In sensory memory, information is gathered via the senses through a process called transduction.
Through receptor cell activity, it is altered into a form of information that the brain could
process. These memories, usually unconscious, last for a very short amount of time, ranging up
to three seconds. Our senses are constantly bombarded with large amounts of information. Our
sensory memory acts as a filter, by focusing on what is important, and forgetting what is
unnecessary. Sensory information catches our attention, and thus progresses into working
memory, only if it is seen as relevant, or is familiar.

Working memory/short term memory

Baddeley (2001) issued a model of working memory as consisting of three components[6]. The
executive controls system oversees all working memory activity, including selection of
information, method of processing, meaning, and finally deciding whether to transfer it to long
term memory or forget it. Two counterparts of this system are the auditory loop, where auditory
information is processed, and the visual-spatial checkpad, where visual information is processed.
Sensory memories transferred into working memory will last for 15-20 seconds, with a capacity
for 5-9 pieces or chunks of information. Information is maintained in working memory through
maintenance or elaborative rehearsal. Maintenance refers to repetition, while elaboration refers
to the organization of information (such as chunking or chronology).

The processing that occurs in working memory is affected by a number of factors. Firstly,
individuals have varying levels of cognitive load, or the amount of mental effort they can engage
in at a given moment, due to individual characteristics and intellectual capacities. Secondly,
information that has been repeated many times becomes automatic and thus does not require
much cognitive resources (e.g. riding a bike). Lastly, according to the task at hand, individuals
use selective processing to focus attention on information that is highly relevant and necessary.

Long term memory

Long term memory includes various types of information: declarative (semantic and episodic),
procedural (how to do something), and imagery (mental images).

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As opposed to the previous memory constructs, long term memory has unlimited space. The
crucial factor of long term memory is how well organized the information is. This is affected by
proper encoding (elaboration processes in transferring to long term memory) and retrieval
processes (scanning memory for the information and transferring into working memory so that it
could e used). As emphasized in Bransford’s work, the degree of similarity between the way
information was encoded and the way it is being accessed will shape the quality of retrieval
processes. In general, we remember a lot less information than is actually stored there.

Principles of information processing theory

1. the limited capacity of a neutral system- our mind can only process only limited
information at a time since our mind has its capacity
2. The requirement of the control system- man does not use his whole capacity all
the time. when learning a new skill he does so with full concertation and higher
capacity compared to a person who is doing the task over a long period
3. Two-way flow of information. There are 2 ways of processing information i.e.
bottom-up processing and top-down processing. Bottom up processing implies
gathering information and store it for later use as and when required. top down
processing means the information which is already stored our memory and is part
of our thinking style
4. Generic preparation of human organisms- human being is born with basic abilities
and instincts regardless where he lives globally and culture. Few things are
common in everybody.

Summary
Information Processing Theory uses a computer model to describe human learning.
Information comes in, it gets processed, and then it gets stored and retrieved.
Of course this is an oversimplification of human learning, but it gives us a good overview and
simile by using the computer model. (In other words, this theory takes advantage of our
computer schemas to help us understand it.) Here is a simplified breakdown of the process:

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Step 1: Information is sensed and registered. In human terms, this means that we sense, or
perceive, something in our environment and it and a decision is made as to whether or not to
attend to it. Is it important? Is it stimulating? Is it perceivable?
Step 2: Information is momentarily held in short-term, or working, memory. Fairly robust
research indicates that we can hold approximately 7 "chunks" of information at any one time in
working memory. If the information is not rehearsed or otherwise actively used, it is likely to be
lost.
Step 3: Information is encoded and put in long-term memory. Encoding occurs while
information is in working memory, often by connecting it to existing knowledge (or schemas).
Well-organized information is easier to encode because it will be "filed" in a more easily
findable location.
Step 4: Information is retrieved. Depending on how well it was encoded (which largely has to
do with how much it was worked with in working memory), information is retrieved with the
right environmental cues.

ii. Implications /application of information processing learning theory on learning

What can I do to ensure information is stored and retrievable?

1. Work to sustain students' attention.

 Provide a "break" every 10-15 minutes. Even the best students' attention wanes after
about 15 minutes. Try to plan class time or lectures in "chunks" of about 15 minutes, at
which point you should provide students with a break. The "break" does not mean a break
from thinking - simply a break from one activity by beginning another. For example, you
might show a demonstration of your concept on a DVD or internet clip, or you could
have students discuss the concept with one another for a few minutes. Taking breaks
serves to hit the "refresh" button on students' attention.
 Keep students active in the learning process. Instead of just listening to information,
are there ways they can learn it more actively? For example, you might have a discussion
about the concept, coaching students as they work through their understanding. You
might have them try to find the solution to the problem. When students are active, they
will naturally be more attentive.

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  Explicitly draw attention to the most important concepts. By simply stating, "This is
important - you need to understand this," students' attention will at least momentarily
become focused. (Warning: Although, "This will be on the test," will certainly gain
students' attention, it promotes an extrinsic motivation orientation rather than
anintrinsically motivated mastery orientation. It is better practice to emphasize the
information's importance because of the value of the knowledge to the individual.)
2. Get the working memory working.
 Provide opportunities for students to actively work with the course information. In
class, out of class, or online, there are many strategies that can get students to think more
deeply about information. Some possibilities include: Discussions (in pairs, small groups,
or with the whole class), worksheets, informal quizzes, written student summaries (e.g.,
1-minute papers), case studies, problem sets, and larger projects.
 Encourage student organization of their thoughts. As a method that both gets students
thinking about material and helps them organize it, consider having them chart, map, or
write an outline of the concept - some activity that requires them to organize the
information.
"Memory is the residue of thought."(Willingham, 2009)
3. Organize information for better storage and retrieval.
 Provide an overview of the lesson. For example, you might wish to put up an outline of
the lesson for the day.
 Map concepts as you go. This need not be done in a formal map; simply organize
information visually for students using circles, lines, and boxes (or tables) to assist them
with understanding the relationships among concepts.
 Explicitly point out relationships between new information and information
students already know. This strategy helps students understand how new concepts fit
into the organization of concepts with which they are already familiar.

7.5 memory theories (1 hr) Term 6

 examine factors that influence forgetting among learners
 analyze theories of forgetting to establish causes of forgetting –disuse/decay theory &
interference theory

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 i. factors that influence forgetting among learners
The following points highlight the eight main causes of forgetting. The causes are: 1. Inadequate
Impression at the Time of Learning 2. Laps of Time 3. Interference 4. Lack of Rest and Sleep 5.
Poor Health and Defective Mental State 6. Nature of the Material Learned 7. Methods Used to
Learn 8. Raise in Emotion.
Cause 1. Inadequate Impression at the Time of Learning:
The reason for inadequate impression is lack of attention and inadequate learning will is
necessary for good memory. Forced learning results in no learning because forced learning
distracts our attention.

Cause 2. Laps of Time:

With the passage of time what is learned or experienced is forgotten. This is a passive decay. The
memory traces formed in the brain gets faded and becomes weather with the passage of time.

Cause 3. Interference:
One type of learning interface with the learning of another type is called theory of interference.

There are two types of interface, proactive interface and retroactive interface:
(a) Proactive interference:
When something learnt earlier distrusts recall of something you are learning how. In other words,
it can be explained as the interference of past-learnt material in recalling the newly learnt
material.

(b) Retroactive interference:

When learning now makes it harder to recall something you learned earlier. Here recently learnt
material interferences in recalling of past-learnt material.

Cause 4. Lack of Rest and Sleep:

Continuous learning without rest and sleep may lead to greater forgetting due to inefficient
consolidation. Experimental studies have shown that sleep following learning favours retention,
it has also been found that saving is definitely greater after sleep especially with 8 hours interval.
Forgetting is slow during sleep.

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Cause 5. Poor Health and Defective Mental State:
Memory traces are essential for remembering only when we pay attention to the information that
has to be stored can be saved but poor health and mental tension effect own attention, which in
turn affects the effective learning and receiving.

Cause 6. Nature of the Material Learned:

Amount of forgetting also varies with the nature of the material learned. Ebbing Hans and others
have verified the fact that humans remember things that are meaningful better than things that
are not.

Cause 7. Methods Used to Learn:

Apart from the nature of the material we learn, systematic and efficient methods used in learning
also influence our rate of forgetting.

Cause 8. Raise in Emotion:

Emotion plays an important role in learning and forgetting. Sudden rise of emotions blocks the
recall. During the high emotional state, blood sugar level is impaired. To maintain the balance
internal gland produces cartisole that disturbs memory cells.

Hence we experience mental block leading to description in thinking, reasoning and perception,
etc. For instance, students having the fear of examination cannot recall anything. Emotional
shocks that occur during, before or after learning also have an impact on retention.

Apart from the external causes; internal causes, that is functional and organic factors, also cause
forgetting. They are nothing but the condition that disturbs memory referred to as amnesia.

Amnesia is a condition in which memory is disturbed. The causes of amnesia are organic or
functional. Organic causes include damage to the brain through trauma or disease or use of
certain drugs. Functional causes are psychological factors such as defense mechanisms.

Amnesia may also be spontaneous, in the case of transient global amnesia. This global type of
amnesia is more common in middle-aged to elderly people, particularly makes and usually lasts

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less than 24 hours. Types of amnesia are dissociative amnesia, childhood amnesia, psychogenic
amnesia, global amnesia, etc..

Lack of sleep. Not getting enough sleep is perhaps the greatest unappreciated cause of
forgetfulness. Too little restful sleep can also lead to mood changes and anxiety, which in turn
contribute to problems with memory.

Medications. Tranquilizers, antidepressants, some blood pressure drugs, and other medications
can affect memory, usually by causing sedation or confusion. That can make it difficult to pay
close attention to new things

Underactive thyroid. A faltering thyroid can affect memory (as well as disturb sleep and cause
depression, both of which can be causes of forgetfulness). A simple blood test can tell if your
thyroid is doing its job properly.

Alcohol. Drinking too much alcohol can interfere with short-term memory, even after the effects
of alcohol have worn off. Although "too much" varies from person to person, it’s best to stick
with the recommendation of no more than two drinks per day for men and no more than one a
day for women. One drink is generally defined as 1.5 ounces (1 shot glass) of 80-proof spirits, 5
ounces of wine, or 12 ounces of beer.

Stress and anxiety. Anything that makes it harder to concentrate and lock in new information
and skills can lead to memory problems. Stress and anxiety fill the bill. Both can interfere with
attention and block the formation of new memories or the retrieval of old ones.

Depression. Common signs of depression include a stifling sadness, lack of drive, and lessening
of pleasure in things you ordinarily enjoy. Forgetfulness can also be a sign of depression — or a
consequence of it.

ii. Theories of forgetting–disuse/decay theory & interference theory

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Trace Decay Theory of Forgetting

The trace decay theory was formed by American psychologist Edward Thorndike in 1914, based
on the early memory work by Hermann Ebbinghaus. The theory states that if we don’t access
memories, they will fade over time.
When we learn something new, the brain undergoes neurochemical changes called memory
traces. Memory retrieval requires us to revisit those traces that the brain formed when encoding
the memory. The trace decay theory implies that the length of time between the memory and
recalling determines whether we will retain or forget a piece of information. The shorter the time
interval, the more we will remember, and vice versa.

Trace decay theory states that forgetting occurs as a result of the automatic decay or fading of the
memory trace. Trace decay theory focuses on time and the limited duration of short term
memory.

This theory suggests short term memory can only hold information for between 15 and 30
seconds unless it is rehearsed. After this time the information / trace decays and fades away.

No one disputes the fact that memory tends to get worse the longer the delay between learning
and recall, but there is disagreement about the explanation for this effect.
According to the trace decay theory of forgetting, the events between learning and recall have no
affect whatsoever on recall. It is the length of time the information has to be retained that is
important. The longer the time, the more the memory trace decays and as a consequence more
information is forgotten.
Interference Theory of Forgetting

The interference theory was the dominant theory of forgetting throughout the 20th century. It
asserts that the ability to remember can be disrupted both by our previous learning and by new
information. In essence, we forget because memories interfere with and disrupt one another. For

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example, by the end of the week, we won’t remember what we ate for breakfast on Monday
because we had many other similar meals since then.

Proactive interference (Example)

Proactive interferences take place when old memories prevent making new ones. This often
occurs when memories are created in a similar context or include near-identical items.
Remembering a new code for the combination lock might be more difficult than we expect. Our
memories of the old code interfere with the new details and make them harder to retain.

Retroactive interference (Example)

Retroactive interferences occur when old memories are altered by new ones. Just like with
proactive interference, they often happen with two similar sets of memories. Let’s say you used
to study Spanish and are now learning French. When you try to speak Spanish, the newly
acquired French words may interfere with your previous knowledge.

iii. How to enhance remembering

The following are research-proven strategies can effectively improve memory, enhance recall,
and increase retention of information.
Focus Your Attention

Attention is one of the major components of memory. In order for information to move from
your short-term memory into your long-term memory, you need to actively attend to this
information. Try to study in a place free of distractions such as television, music, and other
diversions.

Getting rid of distractions might be a challenge, especially if you are surrounded by boisterous
roommates or noisy children.

Set aside a short period of time to be alone.

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Avoid Cramming
Studying materials over a number of sessions gives you the time you need to adequately process
information. Research has continuously shown that students who study regularly remember the
material far better than those who do all of their studying in one marathon session
Structure and Organize
Researchers have found that information is organized in memory in related clusters. 2 You can
take advantage of this by structuring and organizing the materials you're studying. Try grouping
similar concepts and terms together, or make an outline of your notes and textbook readings to
help group related concepts.
Utilize Mnemonic Devices
Mnemonic devices are a technique often used by students to aid in recall. A mnemonic is simply
a way to remember information. For example, you might associate a term you need to remember
with a common item that you are very familiar with. The best mnemonics are those that utilize
positive imagery, humor, or novelty.

Come up with a rhyme, song, or joke to help remember a specific segment of information.
Elaborate and Rehearse

In order to recall information, you need to encode what you are studying into long-term memory.
One of the most effective encoding techniques is known as elaborative rehearsal.

An example of this technique would be to read the definition of a key term, study the definition
of that term, and then read a more detailed description of what that term means. After repeating
this process a few times, you'll probably notice that recalling the information is much easier.

Visualize Concepts

Many people benefit greatly from visualizing the information they study. Pay attention to the
photographs, charts, and other graphics in your textbooks. If you don't have visual cues to help,
try creating your own. Draw charts or figures in the margins of your notes or use highlighters or
pens in different colors to group related ideas in your written study materials.

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Sometimes even just making flashcards of various terms you need to remember can help cement
information in your mind.
Relate New Information to Things You Already Know
When you're studying unfamiliar material, take the time to think about how this information
relates to what you already know. By establishing relationships between new ideas and
previously existing memories, you can dramatically increase the likelihood of recalling the
recently learned information.
Read Out Loud
Research published in 2017 suggests that reading materials out loud significantly improves your
memory of the material. Educators and psychologists have also discovered that having students
actually teach new concepts to others enhances understanding and recall.
Use this approach in your own studies by teaching new concepts and information to a friend or
study partner
Pay Extra Attention to Difficult Information

Have you ever noticed how it's sometimes easier to remember information at the beginning or
end of a chapter? Researchers have found that the order of information can play a role in recall,
which is known as the serial position effect.4

While recalling middle information can be difficult, you can overcome this problem by spending
extra time rehearsing this information. Another strategy is to try restructuring what you have
learned so it will be easier to remember. When you come across an especially difficult concept,
devote some extra time to memorizing the information.

Vary Your Study Routine

Another great way to increase your recall is to occasionally change your study routine. If you're
accustomed to studying in one specific location, try moving to a different spot during your next
study session. If you study in the evening, try spending a few minutes each morning reviewing
the information you studied the previous night.

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By adding an element of novelty to your study sessions, you can increase the effectiveness of
your efforts and significantly improve your long-term recall.

Get Some Sleep

Researchers have long known that sleep is important for memory and learning. Research has
shown that taking a nap after you learn something new can actually help you learn faster and
remember better.

In fact, one study published in 2014 found that sleeping after learning something new actually
leads to physical changes in the brain. Sleep-deprived mice experienced less dendritic growth
following a learning task than well-rested mice

So the next time you're struggling to learn new information, consider getting a good night's sleep
after you study.

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7.7 Motivational Theories (1 hr) TERM 6
 Examine the types of motivation and their relevance on learning
 Apply different the types of motives and motivation to stimulate learning
i. Types of motivation and their relevance on learning
-Motivation is an internal desire or willingness to do something. Motivation is what encourages
people to set goals and then to take action to work toward achieving those goals. Motivation
plays an important role in the behaviors and choices of all people, but also in education and
learning.

-Motivation in Education

One thing teachers try to do at the start of a new class or school year is get to know their
students. This serves multiple purposes, one of which is to get to know what they enjoy and what
their interests are—what motivates their students.

Motivation plays a key role in education. There are two types of motivation:

 Intrinsic Motivation – When someone is motivated by internal reasons

 Extrinsic Motivation – When someone is motivated by reasons outside of internal
rewards

Intrinsic motivation involves doing something because it's personally rewarding to you. Extrinsic
motivation involves doing something because you want to earn a reward or avoid punishment.

Intrinsic motivation involves

When you're intrinsically motivated, your behavior is motivated by your internal desire to do
something for its own sake -- for example, your personal enjoyment of an activity, or your desire
to learn a skill because you're eager to learn.

Intrinsic motivation is when you engage in a behavior because you find it rewarding. You are
performing an activity for its own sake rather than from the desire for some external reward. The
behavior itself is its own reward

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Intrinsic motivation theory

There have been a number of different proposed theories to explain intrinsic motivation and how
it works. Some experts believe that all behavior is driven by external reward, such as money,
status, or food. In intrinsically motivated behaviors, the reward is the activity itself.

The most recognized theory of intrinsic motivation was first based on people’s needs and drives.
Hunger, thirst, and sex are biological needs that we’re driven to pursue in order to live and be
healthy.

Just like these biological needs, people also have psychological needs that must be satisfied in
order to develop and thrive. These include the need for competence, autonomy, and relatedness.

Along with satisfying these underlying psychological needs, intrinsic motivation also involves
seeking out and engaging in activities that we find challenging, interesting, and internally
rewarding without the prospect of any external reward.

Examples of intrinsic motivation could include:

Some examples of intrinsic motivation are:

 participating in a sport because it’s fun and you enjoy it rather than doing it to win an
award

 learning a new language because you like experiencing new things, not because your job
requires it

 spending time with someone because you enjoy their company and not because they can
further your social standing

 cleaning because you enjoy a tidy space rather than doing it to avoid making your spouse
angry

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  playing cards because you enjoy the challenge instead of playing to win money

 exercising because you enjoy physically challenging your body instead of doing it to lose
weight or fit into an outfit

 volunteering because you feel content and fulfilled rather than needing it to meet a school
or work requirement

 going for a run because you find it relaxing or are trying to beat a personal record, not to
win a competition

 taking on more responsibility at work because you enjoy being challenged and feeling
accomplished, rather than to get a raise or promotion

 painting a picture because you feel calm and happy when you paint rather than selling
your art to make money

Intrinsic motivation factors

Understanding the factors that promote intrinsic motivation can help you see how it works and
why it can be beneficial. These factors include:

 Curiosity. Curiosity pushes us to explore and learn for the sole pleasure of learning and
mastering.

 Challenge. Being challenged helps us work at a continuously optimal level work toward
meaningful goals.

 Control. This comes from our basic desire to control what happens and make decisions
that affect the outcome.

 Recognition. We have an innate need to be appreciated and satisfaction when our efforts
are recognized and appreciated by others.

 Cooperation. Cooperating with others satisfies our need for belonging. We also feel
personal satisfaction when we help others and work together to achieve a shared goal.

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  Competition. Competition poses a challenge and increases the importance we place on
doing well.

 Fantasy. Fantasy involves using mental or virtual images to stimulate your behavior. An
example is a virtual game that requires you to answer a question or solve a problem to
move to the next level. Some motivation apps use a similar approach

What Is Extrinsic Motivation?

When you're extrinsically motivated, your behavior is motivated by an external factor pushing
you to do something in hopes of earning a reward -- or avoiding a less-than-positive outcome.

What Is Extrinsic Motivation?

Extrinsic motivation is a motivation that is driven by external rewards. These can be tangible,
such as money or grades, or intangible, such as praise or fame. Unlike intrinsic motivation,
which arises from within the individual, extrinsic motivation is focused purely on outside
rewards.

People who are extrinsically motivated will continue to perform a task even though it might not
be in and of itself rewarding. For example, they will do something at their job that they don't find
enjoyable in order to earn a wage.

Extrinsic motivation is involved in operant conditioning, which is when someone or something is

conditioned to behave a certain way due to a reward or consequence

Examples of extrinsic motivation could include:

 Competing for a trophy or prize, such as in a sporting event

 Doing schoolwork to earn a good grade
 Working hard at a task or project to receive praise and recognition
 Shopping with a store loyalty card to gain points, discounts, and prizes
 Doing homework to earn a reward such as a special treat or toy
 Performing tasks at work that you dislike in order to keep getting a steady paycheck

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  Using a particular credit card in order to receive airline miles

9 Examples of extrinsic motivation

Here are some common examples of extrinsic motivation:

1. Commission

A commission is a sum of money that employees receive for completing a task or portion of a
task. The commission is usually a percentage of the amount the employee generates.
Commissions are a great form of extrinsic motivation because they're directly proportional to the
employee's work. Workers can calculate their commission and motivate themselves.

2. Bonuses

A bonus is usually a discretionary sum of money that employers give employees who meet
certain criteria. Many employers use bonuses to encourage diligence among employees.
However, there are different bonuses, some of which companies provide to employees as an act
of goodwill and appreciation. Here is a description of some types of bonuses:

 Retention: Some employers offer bonuses to employees who complete a certain number
of days of employment. For example, to show their appreciation, a manager may give
employees $1,000 when they've worked for the organization for one year.
 Holiday: Companies may offer their employees holiday bonuses. It would be a holiday
bonus if, for example, a company paid each employee $200 around Christmas.
 Spot: A spot bonus is one that employers usually provide based on an employee's
behaviour or action they take, and they usually offer it at the moment they exhibit the
behaviour or action. For example, if an employee exceeds expectations by offering
premier customer service, a manager may approach the employee and offer a $25 gift
card as recognition.

3. Awards and recognition

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Awards are a popular example of extrinsic motivation. They can be intangible like an
announcement or tangible like a plaque or premium parking space in the office complex. In
addition, you can attach the award or recognition to a particular task or period of time. For
example, you can recognize the best-performing employee in a given month as the employee of
the month.

4. Gifts

Gifts refer to a range of items that you can give employees as a reward for their work. Your gift
can be material like company souvenirs, a phone, or a laptop. It can also be for a service, such as
a paid vacation or dinner with colleagues. Gifts allow you to be more sentimental and specific to
individuals.

5. Promotion

Promotions are one of the most common and effective forms of extrinsic motivation. Using
promotions is also great because it serves the dual purpose of motivating employees and
promoting merit. For example, if there's an open position, you can promote it to employees and
mention that you're choosing a replacement based on work performance.

6. Office privileges

You can also motivate employees by rewarding them with office privileges. This can be
providing sought-after desk space or access to a facility that's ordinarily unavailable to them.
Using office privileges to reward employees is a great way to save costs.

7. Paid time off

You can also motivate employees by offering them leave from work with pay. This is
particularly great in workplaces that involve rigorous work. Employees are likely to appreciate
the rest time, which also comes at minimal cost to you.

8. Query letter

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This is a letter that requires someone to explain the reason for their negative behaviour and often
has a negative psychological effect. Usually, query letters also contain a warning about
subsequent steps if the problematic behaviour continues. This can motivate employees to
improve their character and performance.

9. Demotion

Demotion involves transferring an employee to a lower role or discontinuing them from a

project. It offers the person a chance to perform better and recover their previous position. You
can reserve this consequence for more serious offenses or repetitive refusal to follow directions.

4 Types of extrinsic motivation

Here are the four different types of extrinsic motivation:

1. External regulation

This refers to when a person performs an action or task to receive an external reward. This is the
most common type of extrinsic motivation. For example, employers may offer employees a cash
bonus for completing a task within a specified time.

2. Introjected regulation

This refers to extrinsic motivation that originates internally because of external pressures. While
the individual personally decides to take action, it's due to pressure from external circumstances.
For example, an employee may work overtime because they notice others are also doing so, and
they want to avoid being the only one who leaves work.

3. Regulation through identification

This refers to motivation from an external reward that they consider important. The major
characteristic of this type of extrinsic motivation is that the individual selects their external
reward. For example, an employee may arrive 15 minutes before work because they like people
perceiving them as punctual.

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4. Integrated regulation

For this type of regulation, the individual accepts the necessity of the action or task. Their focus
then changes from the reward to the task itself. Integrated regulation is externally motivated
intrinsic motivation. For example, an employer may value assisting coworkers without any
reward.

Sometimes, the external reward may be avoiding punishment or a negative outcome. For
example, someone may engage in a behavior to avoid being shamed or judged, or to avoid being
assessed a fine

How to Use Extrinsic Motivation

It's important to look at the specific situation to determine if extrinsic rewards might help
motivate behavior. Below are some example scenarios when extrinsic rewards may be most
effective:

 When people have little interest in the activity

 When people lack the skills to get started
 When a short-term motivator for a specific purpose is needed
 When people are working on a long-term project and need small incentives to keep them
going

Extrinsic Motivation
 Participating in a sport to win awards
 Cleaning your room to avoid being reprimanded by your parents
 Competing in a contest to win a scholarship
 Studying because you want to get a good grade
Intrinsic Motivation
 Participating in a sport because you find the activity enjoyable

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  Cleaning your room because you like tidying up
 Solving a word puzzle because you find the challenge fun and exciting
 Studying a subject you find fascinating

What is Motivation in Education?

Motivation is defined as our enthusiasm for doing something. It is the ‘why’ behind every action.
Motivation is the reason – or reasons – for acting or behaving in a particular way. It helps us to
set a goal and reach it. The term ‘motivation’ is derived from the Latin verb ‘movere’, so quite
literally, it’s what keeps us moving.

In education, motivation helps children and young people to focus their attention on a key goal
or outcome. In doing so, they are unfazed by possible distractions, and are therefore able to
maintain their attention during longer periods of time. Students who are motivated display goal-
orientated behaviours. They take initiative, show resilience, harness their curiosity, and care for
and respect their work. They are equipped to orchestrate their own learning journey.

Discovering ways to increase motivation in the classroom is vital, as it enables us to:

 Change behaviour.
 Develop competencies.
 Spark curiosity.
 Set goals.
 Develop interests.
 Plan for the future.
 Blossom talents.
 Increase engagement.

Getting students engaged in a lesson or unit of work is something a talented teacher can achieve,
but motivating them to become better learners, who strive to achieve their true potential, can be

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incredibly challenging, especially as our experience of motivation is often unconscious.
Unmotivated students are often disengaged or disaffected, which can lead to challenging
behaviour.

Intrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivation is a self-summoned willingness to learn. Those who are intrinsically

motivated don’t require sanctions or rewards to help steer their efforts. Very young children are
often naturally intrinsically motivated, and are led by their innate curiosity. This form of
motivation often encourages more efficient and successful learners in the classroom. There are
many studies which suggest that children who are intrinsically motivated are better at learning.
In fact, intrinsic motivation is often shown as one of the most powerful predictors of academic
achievement.

Many students experience a decline in intrinsic motivation during adolescence. Keeping this
thirst for learning alive in children can be a challenging task. It’s not only the learning
environments and universal provision available within schools that help to inspire intrinsic
motivation – parenting, biology, age, gender, wellbeing, and peer relationships can also affect to
what extent students feel engaged in their learning.

Extrinsic Motivation

Education providers often cultivate intrinsic motivation through extrinsic means. Vansteenkiste
et al. (2006) define extrinsic motivation as the desire of people to participate in activities in
order to gain something different from the task itself. Examples of extrinsic motivation include
medals for the winners of a race, chocolate for good attendance, extra break time for positive
behaviour, vouchers for reading for pleasure, and completing homework in order to avoid a
detention.

It is possible to boost intrinsic motivation through extrinsic means. This may be particularly
effective for students with particular needs, or disaffected learners, whose background,
relationships, or previous experience of education has resulted in a lack of faith in the system.

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Cameron (2001) argues that external motives can promote children’s willingness to learn, and
that they are not harmful to students’ intrinsic motivation.

However, once this process of extrinsically motivating through rewards becomes habitual, it can
become challenging to disassociate success with praise and reward, as the individual’s attitude
becomes controlled by the stimulus alone. Some studies suggest that if there is no genuine desire
that steers individuals to engage in the activity, then deep learning must be limited.

Professor Frédéric Guay, an expert in motivation at Laval University in Québec, states: “Rather
than focusing on rewards, focus on the quality of relationship with the students. Students who
find learning important, even if they don’t enjoy it, will bring about the same kind of positive
outcomes as you see with those with high intrinsic motivation.” Guay suggests that educators
should encourage children to express their emotions, and share their experiences towards
learning. Their responses can be used to help teachers redefine their practice, and therefore
improve the learning experience for all pupils.

How Does Motivation Impact Behaviour and Performance?

Motivation pushes children to work hard and aim high in everything they set their minds to.
When students are surrounded by a culture of warmth, diversity, and high expectations, they are
much more likely to display positive behaviours. Children who are motivated are also more
likely to find pleasure in satisfying their academic curiosity. Intrinsic motivation links strongly to
performance merely for the enjoyment of engaging in activities. This pleasure is often the reason
that pupils take part in academic tasks.

How Motivation Affects Academic Performance

We know that students who are intrinsically motivated are much more likely to be successful in
their education, but can extrinsic motivation help to improve performance?

In a research project run by the Education Endowment Foundation, students in KS4 were
offered an incentive for achieving their set GCSE targets. Participants were extrinsically
motivated through either a financial reward, or access to a paid trip. Where students were offered

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a monetary incentive, there was a significant improvement in classwork effort seen within
English, maths, and science. However, there was no evidence of a significant positive impact on
attainment. Therefore, extrinsic motivation can prove to be successful in improving engagement,
but as this study proves, there is limited evidence to suggest that it boosts attainment, or would
help to maintain effort over a long period of time.

Enjoyment in lessons has been found to be strongly linked to high levels of student motivation.
Studies assessing motivation in physical education found that enjoyment is a valuable predictor
of two situations – a child’s willingness to begin a physical activity, and how long they will
maintain it once it’s begun (Navarro-Patón, 2018). When students have fun and find success,
they experience improved self-worth and self-belief, which are key drivers in developing a self-
summoned desire to achieve.

Similarly, when assessing pedagogy in physical education, a Public Health study found that class
settings, a sense of connectedness, and social dynamics need to be considered if educators are to
enhance pupils’ motivation, self-determination, and engagement (Lamb and Kirk, 2021). It also
found that developing pedagogies which support young people’s mental health and wellbeing
and improving relationships with teachers were key motivating factors in pupils’ engagement in
the subject.

Motivation drives learning. Without it, completing even the simplest of actions can prove
challenging, or even impossible. Therefore, it’s crucial to understand how to accommodate and
facilitate motivation in the classroom. There is a place for both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
in education: both forms can complement one another. It may be that methods to extrinsically
motivate children are initially required in order to build a culture of achievement and success.
Once schools have created an environment conducive to learning, they can gradually begin to
replace external motivations in order to further inspire their students’ intrinsic desire to learn.

Why is Motivation in Children Important?

Motivation is the force that keeps children going, even when they face barriers or challenges. It
charges them with the energy required to fulfil their potential. A child who is motivated is

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committed, energetic, and innovative: they see the value in what they are learning, and are
determined to achieve their goals.

There are innumerable benefits of motivation in learning. These include:

 Increased persistence.
 Increased wellbeing.
 Improved performance and outcomes.
 Enhanced cognitive processing.
 Increased effort in lessons.
 Higher levels of attendance.
 Increased creativity and innovation.

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8.0 guidance and counseling
8.1 overview of guidance and counselling (1 hr)
 differences between guidance and counselling
 describe the importance of guidance and counselling for the learner
 discuss causes of socio-emotional & psychological issues and how they affect young
learners
 describe guidance and counselling theories and their relevance to learning
i. differences between guidance and counselling

Guidance refers to advise and instructions given to a person by a person with more experience or
authority on a variety of issues. It is a process in which a person (often more knowledgeable or
experienced than the one receiving the guidance) offers instructions and advice on the best ways
or solutions to find the correct answer to a problem faced by a person.

Guidance occurs in almost all fields; however, it is in education where counseling is most
common. Teachers, professors, or professors guide students on their educational paths. For
example, college lectures or professors can guide college students to better career paths by
showing them the pros and cons of different paths they can pursue once they graduate.

What is Counselling?

Counseling is a counselor’s professional advice based on individuals’ personal or psychological

problems. In short, counseling is a form of psychological guidance for an individual.

Therefore, unlike the general counseling that can be received, counseling is primarily intended to
help people deal with their mental problems. To become a professional counselor, one must have

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extensive academic knowledge and training in psychology and a natural predisposition to help
people. A counselor deals directly with someone who needs psychological assistance to alleviate
their life condition.

In addition, since counseling aims to treat and rehabilitate mentally disturbed patients, it covers
extensive fields such as research to provide the most accurate psychological supervision,
training, and guidance for patients or people with psychological problems. Thus, unlike
guidance, counseling is more therapeutic.

Purposes of Guidance and Counseling

Guidance helps you to restrain yourself from going down the wrong path. Make lousy career
decisions, enroll in bad deals, choose the wrong career path, etc. Seeking the expertise of an
expert on such issues is a wise move.

On the other hand, counseling is curative. Counselors address mental health problems and use
techniques to restore your mind to its healthy state. The solutions enhance healing. Counseling
can steer you to embrace the right attitude, a healthy perspective, and a better mentality.

Through guidance, you get the best alternatives and a clear picture of the implications of each
choice available. It is a way of acquiring answers to specific issues. For instance, a finance
expert can advise you on the right places to invest your money. On the other hand, a teacher can
assist a student pick suitable electives based on their performance or passion.

Counseling opens new possibilities for dealing with a challenging situation and has a more
realistic and solvable approach. A counselor offers well-informed solutions to mental health
issues, while a therapist guides you through the process to keep you from falling into the same
problem

ii. the importance of guidance and counselling for the learner

Guidance and counselling are important for children, and schools have a huge role in bringing
out the best in children. Good conduct is coveted, but sometimes young minds need guidance to
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polish their personality. Through counselling, children are given advice on how to manage and
deal with emotional conflict and personal problems.

Proper counselling will help incorporate valuable lessons in their daily life. Some sessions
should involve career guidance, where the students are advised on the selection of courses and
different career paths. It’s important to prepare them for life after school and what to expect in
the different fields they might opt for

Benefits of Effective Guidance & Counselling:

1. Students are given proper guidance on how to deal with psychological problems which can
badly impact their studies. Through these sessions, the students will be able to develop certain
problem-solving skills which to an extent help them deal with particular issues surrounding their
lives.

2. The students are advised on how to cope with different situations they tend to face in their
school life. For instance, how should they talk politely or relate with their peers? This advice will
give them perspective on how should they behave in certain scenarios.

3. It helps to shape a student’s behaviour and also instil enough discipline in them. Proper
guidance helps them achieve their goals, well guided & counselled students to know what to do
and how to do things in the best possible way.

4. Students learn how to live in peace and harmony with others in the school community.
Thereby, they also learn to appreciate other people in their class.

5. It helps to bridge the gap between students and the school administration, since they are able
to guide their problems through a proper counselling channel in the office.

6. Students get comprehensive advice on careers, courses and jobs that enable them to make a
proper and informed choice and understand what they can do after they are done with school.

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7. It allows students to talk to teachers about various experiences that make them uncomfortable.
They can openly share problems that they cannot share with their parents.

8. Talks related to alcohol, drugs, personal feelings or any kind of abuse, can be openly
discussed. Guidance and counselling also make students better human beings since they are
counselled on how to act and behave in a particular situation

9. It enables students undergoing certain difficulties in their lives, to ask questions and clarify
them through guiding and counselling. Therefore, counselling helps them ask without any fear
since the person in charge is willing to help.

ii. Causes of socio-emotional & psychological issues on learners

Many factors may affect the way children express their social skills or emotional competencies
or the rate at which children acquire social skills or emotional competencies. These factors
include:
1) environmental risk factors such as living in an unsafe community, receiving care within a
low-quality child care setting, lack of resources available in the community or lack of policies
supporting children and families, etc,
2) family risk factors such as maternal depression or mental illness in the family, parental
substance abuse, family violence, poverty, etc. and
3) within-child risk factors such as a fussy temperament, developmental delay, and serious health
issues. All of these factors need to be taken into careful consideration when gathering
information to fully understand and support children's social and emotional health through a
comprehensive, ecological approach. This particular tutorial will focus on the individual
child aspects of social and emotional development to include milestones, risk factors and
strategies to support children
-Causes of psychological issues on learners
The important psychological problems that students experience are, depression, stress, pressure
and anxiety

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The major causes of psychological problems among students are, experience setbacks within the
course of their academic performance, learning disabilities, scarcity of learning materials,
unfavourable home environmental conditions and so forth.
Researchers have tried to define psychosocial dysfunction in many ways, but confusion remains.
However, understanding regarding psychosocial dysfunction concludes that it is a state of
emotional and behavior disorders synonymous with internalizing and externalizing conditions,
respectively. Most common disorders include depression and anxiety (internalizing disorders),
and delinquency, aggression, educational difficulties, and truancy (externalizing disorders) (2).
Adolescence is mainly affected by home and school environments. Schools play a vital role in
the development of an adolescent, as they spend much time attending school, engaging in
extracurricular activities, and completing scholastic work at home. School represents an
institution that contributes to the overall educational and socialization processes, critical in
personality development of an adolescent.

Psychological problems are an integral part of an individual’s life. Individuals usually

experience psychological problems in one’s work, maintaining relationships, health problems
and when they feel overwhelmed due to certain factors, such as, workload, unable to obtain
adequate sleep, nutrition and so forth. When psychological problems, experienced by
individuals are affecting them to a major extent, then it is vital for them to seek solutions. The
various kinds of psychological problems that are experienced by individuals are, depression,
stress and anxiety. In educational institutions at all levels, students do experience psychological
problems. A student’s life is subjected to various aspects that cause psychological problems. The
major ones include, pressure of academics with the obligation of success, and uncertain future
and difficulties, envisaged for integration into the system, learning disabilities, difficulties in
understanding academic concepts, financial problems, health problems, exam stress, and
experiencing discriminatory treatment or any form of violent and criminal acts within
educational institutions. Measures in an appropriate manner. The main aspects that have been
taken into account in this research paper include, causes of psychological problems, strategies to
cope with psychological problems, and recommendations.

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1. Depression

Depression is a mood disorder that involves persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and loss of interest in
previously enjoyable activities.

Symptoms of Depression

Symptoms of depression can vary depending on the person. The way one person exhibits signs of depression
is not necessarily the same way symptoms may emerge in someone else.

According to the American Psychological Association, symptoms of depression can include:

 Changes in sleep habits and/or appetite

 Feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and/or powerlessness
 Changes in social behavior, such as withdrawing from others and isolating oneself
 Increased pessimism (e.g., seeing the glass as half empty)
 Trouble concentrating or paying attention
 Difficulty comprehending and completing tasks in school or at work

Displaying some of these symptoms does not necessarily mean you're depressed. However, if you begin to
experience these symptoms with some regularity, you should consider seeking professional help.

Signs That Someone May Have Depression

Everyone has off days when they feel overwhelmed or down about life. But when these days become weeks
and simply getting out of bed becomes a struggle, such symptoms become cause for concern.

Here are some signs of depression to look for in peers, friends, and loved ones:

 They're not enjoying activities they once loved

 They no longer attend classes or social outings
 They're experiencing extreme anger or sadness over a relationship in their life
 They react negatively or with apathy to most things
 They often talk about death or suicide

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Words of encouragement can show that person you're a source of support. However, avoid telling someone to
"cheer up" or "snap out of it." Many people experiencing depression are aware of their condition, and telling
them to get over it is not helpful.

If you believe someone you know is at risk, gently encourage them to seek help and offer to accompany them
to a student health center or doctor's appointment. Although talking through their challenges with you may be
helpful, understand that this is not a substitute for professional treatment.

Signs That You May Have Depression

If you think you may have depression, ask yourself the following questions:

 Have you experienced extreme sadness or hopelessness?

 Does your family have a history of depression?
 Have you turned to heavy drinking or drug use to relieve feelings of hopelessness?
 Have you experienced invasive thoughts of death or suicide?

If you answered yes to any of the above questions, consider making an appointment with your primary
healthcare provider or with someone at your student health center for a mental health assessment.

2. Anxiety

Most college students experience anxiety from time to time. However, mounting or ongoing feelings of worry,
tension, and panic can interfere with day-to-day life. When your daily life is disrupted, anxiety becomes a

Below are some of the most common types of anxiety disorders:

 Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): This condition involves constant, severe anxiety
that interferes with day-to-day activities.
 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): People with OCD experience intrusive and
unreasonable thoughts, fears, and obsessions that lead to repetitive behaviors and
compulsions.
 Panic Disorder: This condition is characterized by constant fearfulness and frequent,
sudden attacks of terror and panic.

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  Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): PTSD usually develops after someone
experiences or witnesses a traumatic event. However, individuals can also have trauma
without suffering a major catastrophic event.
 Social Anxiety Disorder: This mental health condition manifests as irrational anxiety,
fear, self-consciousness, and embarrassment in everyday social interactions.

Symptoms of Anxiety

Symptoms of an anxiety disorder are often mistaken for everyday stress or written off as worrying too much.

Depending on how your body responds to increased levels of certain chemicals, panic attacks may be
mistaken for a physical ailment, such as a heart attack or tension headache.

Common symptoms of anxiety can include:

 Feelings of stress, restlessness, apprehension, or fearfulness

 Irritability
 Trouble concentrating
 Excessive sweating and dizziness
 Shortness of breath
 Muscle pain and tension
 Headaches
 Frequent upset stomach or diarrhea

The exact causes of anxiety aren't fully understood but may include a combination of genetics, naturally
occurring brain chemicals, life experiences, and stress.

Signs That Someone May Have Anxiety

Brief, occasional feelings of anxiety or anxiety-driven behaviors do not automatically indicate a mental health
condition. If, however, anxious feelings persist, interfere with your daily life or functioning, or begin to
manifest as obsessive behaviors with an overwhelming sense of fear, it may be time to seek help.

Someone you know may have an anxiety disorder if they display one or more of the following behaviors:

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  Having difficulty developing healthy coping habits after experiencing a traumatic event
 Appearing to live in constant fear of failure
 Extreme discomfort in social settings
 Trouble concentrating or seeming to have a blank mind
 Appearing plagued with guilt or stress
 Visible panic attacks

Refrain from criticizing or belittling the severity of someone's symptoms and encourage them to try coping
strategies that avoid causing further anxiety. You might also encourage your friend or peer to visit campus
mental health services so they can talk with a professional.

Signs That You May Have Anxiety

If you suspect you may have an anxiety disorder, here are some questions to ask yourself:

 Are you experiencing anxious or worrisome thoughts on a daily basis?

 Are you plagued by fears others may find unfounded or irrational?
 Do you avoid everyday social activities because they cause you anxiety?
 Do you experience sudden, heart-pounding panic attacks?
 Is your anxiety interfering with your school work, job, and/or relationships?

If you answered yes to any of the above questions, consider visiting your primary healthcare provider or
someone at your student health center for a mental health assessment.

3. Suicidal Ideation and Intent

Suicidal ideation is defined as a pattern of thinking about or planning one's own death by one's own hand.
Generally, mental health professionals consider overwhelming or highly detailed suicidal thoughts a mental
health emergency.

A 2018 study by Harvard Medical School researchers found that 1 in 5 U.S. college students experienced
thoughts of suicide. More recently, the 2021 Healthy Minds Study reported that 5% of student respondents
had planned to commit suicide (without making an attempt) in the past year.

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Signs of Suicidal Ideation in Others Many students experience stress, frustration, and doubt, but
sometimes those thoughts gain an intense momentum that brings students to a place where they may seriously
consider ending their lives.

Signs of suicidal ideation differ from person to person. According to ADAA, common warning signs can
appear in a person's speech, mood, and/or behavior. These include:

 Speech: People considering suicide may talk about feeling trapped, feeling as if they're a
burden to others, feeling as if they have no reason to go on, and/or wanting to end their
lives.
 Mood: Signs of suicidal ideation and intent in someone can manifest in a variety of
moods, including anxiety, irritability, loss of interest in activities they enjoyed
previously, humiliation, rage, and depression.
 Behavior: Those considering suicide may exhibit specific behaviors, including giving
away prized possessions, withdrawing from friends and family, inexplicably visiting
people to tell them goodbye, and searching online for information about how to commit
suicide. They may also sleep poorly or too often, behave recklessly, act aggressively,
and/or increase their use of drugs and alcohol.

If you notice any of the behaviors listed above in a classmate, friend, or family member, it's important to talk to
them about your concerns as soon as possible. They could be in a fragile state, so make sure to approach them
with patience and kindness.

Signs of Suicidal Ideation in Yourself

Suicidal thoughts often stem from a preexisting mental health condition. Depression, which can cause
distorted thinking, sometimes leads to suicidal thoughts. Feeling utterly overwhelmed and helpless due to
anxiety can also result in suicidal thoughts.

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If you're thinking about ending your life, tell a friend or loved one. You should also contact your mental health
center as soon as possible.

Remember that crisis services are available. Don't hesitate to call the National Suicide Prevention
Lifeline at 988 or 1-800-273-8255 if you're experiencing persistent thoughts of suicide.

However, there are several red flags that are common factors for anorexia, bulimia, and binging, such as the
following:

 Distorted or poor body image

 Excessive exercise
 Irregular heartbeat
 Dehydration
 Feeling like your eating is out of control
 Fear of eating in public
 Constantly making excuses for eating habits

Eating disorders can be life-threatening and contribute to serious health issues if not treated properly, such as
kidney failure, heart problems, stunted growth, loss of menstruation, and failure of the reproductive system.

Signs That Someone May Have an Eating Disorder

We all have days when our self-image isn't at its best. Remember that experiencing a few negative episodes
doesn't necessarily mean you or someone has an eating disorder.

Here are some signs to look for when you suspect someone you know has an eating disorder:

 Are they skipping meals or only eating small portions of food?

 Are they suddenly uninterested in foods they once loved?
 Are they limiting their meals to foods very low in calories?
 Are they taking diet pills excessively or medication that suppresses hunger, such as
Adderall or Ritalin?
 Do they disappear suddenly to the restroom after meals?
 Do their teeth appear noticeably stained?
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  Are they using mints after trips to the bathroom or perfume to mask the smell of vomit?
 Do they appear preoccupied with their body, appearance, and/or weight?
 Do they exercise excessively or have trouble taking rest days from exercise?

Signs That You May Have an Eating Disorder

 Do you refuse to eat food or skip meals?

 Do you fear eating out in public with others?
 Do you count calories out of a need for control?
 Do you follow strict eating habits that you feel guilty and ashamed for breaking?
 Are you obsessed or dissatisfied with your weight or body shape?
 Do you find yourself eating large amounts of food and then purging, making yourself
vomit, or feeling like you have to do something (e.g., exercise) to compensate for the
food you just ate?
 Have you noticed excessive hair growth on your arms and face or the loss of your period?

If you answered yes to any of these questions, seek treatment. Eating disorders can become life-threatening,
and it's important you receive help as soon as possible.

5. Substance Misuse

College students frequently use alcohol and recreational drugs, which can become problematic.

Substance misuse describes a tangible pattern of physical and/or psychological dependence on one or more
substances. This condition typically entails strong cravings and indulgence in substance misuse, despite
knowing the risks and harms of this behavior.

College students have also been found to misuse drugs like marijuana, ecstasy, cocaine, and prescription
painkillers at high rates.

Symptoms of Substance Misuse

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Many students who use alcohol and drugs in college do not develop an addiction. However, they can still feel
the side effects of withdrawal or prolonged use of these substances.

Here are some of the most common symptoms of substance misuse:

 Slurred speech, bloodshot eyes, or impaired coordination

 Fear, anxiety, or paranoia for no apparent reason
 Prone to suspicious behaviors (e.g., frequently getting into fights or getting into trouble
with the law)
 A sudden need for money or a financial crisis
 High tolerance for alcohol and/or drug use (in other words, the person may need to use
more and more of a substance to obtain the same effects)
 Deterioration of physical appearance, such as weight loss or gain, and changes in
personal grooming habits
 A sudden change in friends, activities, or hobbies

Signs That Someone May Have a Substance Use Disorder

It's not always clear when alcohol or drug use has turned from recreational to habitual. Friends and loved ones
who don't want to admit they have a problem may use tactics that evade and undermine your concerns.

If you suspect someone may have a substance use disorder, ask yourself the following questions:

 Do they drink to relieve stress or suppress issues?

 Has their drinking or drug use interfered with their interpersonal relationships?
 Have they withdrawn from activities or school work?
 Does their life revolve around drug or alcohol use?
 Has their personality changed?
 Have you noticed an unusual smell on their breath, body, or clothing?

Those who misuse drugs or alcohol often conceal their symptoms or downplay their addiction. As such, it's
important that you express your concerns as soon as you notice the warning signs.

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When the person is sober, tell them you've noticed their excessive drug or alcohol use. Emphasize the positive
sober behaviors you admire and the destructive behaviors they display when drunk or high that concern you.

Refrain from being accusatory or judgmental, as this might cause them to withdraw and further ignore their
issues. Offer to go with them to seek treatment at your student health center and help them find resources to
support them.

Effects of psychological problems on learners

Mental health problems can affect many areas of students’ lives, reducing their quality of life,
academic achievement, physical health, and satisfaction with the college experience, and
negatively impacting relationships with friends and family members. These issues can also have
long-term consequences for students, affecting their future employment, earning potential, and
overall health.1
Mental health problems can affect a student's energy level, concentration, dependability, mental
ability, and optimism, hindering performance. 2 Research suggests that depression is associated
with lower grade point averages, and that co-occurring depression and anxiety can increase this
association.2 Depression has also been linked to dropping out of school.2
iii. guidance and counselling theories and their relevance to learning
1. Person-centered therapy was developed by Carl Rogers in the 1940s. This type of
therapy diverged from the traditional model of the therapist as expert and moved instead
toward a nondirective, empathic approach that empowers and motivates the client in the
therapeutic process. The therapy is based on Rogers’s belief that every human being strives
for and has the capacity to fulfill his or her own potential. Person-centered therapy, also
known as Rogerian therapy, has had a tremendous impact on the field of psychotherapy and
many other disciplines.
ROGERIAN THEORY IN PSYCHOTHERAPY
Rather than viewing people as inherently flawed, with problematic behaviors and thoughts
that require treatment, person-centered therapy identifies that each person has the capacity
and desire for personal growth and change. Rogers termed this natural human inclination
“actualizing tendency,” or self-actualization . He likened it to the way that other living
organisms strive toward balance, order, and greater complexity. According to Rogers,

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"Individuals have within themselves vast resources for self-understanding and for altering
their self-concepts, basic attitudes, and self-directed behavior; these resources can be tapped
if a definable climate of facilitative psychological attitudes can be provided."

Rogers (1961) rejected the deterministic nature of both psychoanalysis and behaviorism and
maintained that we behave as we do because of the way we perceive our situation. "As no one
else can know how we perceive, we are the best experts on ourselves."

Believing strongly that theory should come out of practice rather than the other way round,
Rogers developed his theory based on his work with emotionally troubled people and claimed
that we have a remarkable capacity for self-healing and personal growth leading towards self-
actualization. He placed emphasis on the person's current perception and how we live in the
here-and-now.

Rogers noticed that people tend to describe their current experiences by referring to themselves
in some way, for example, "I don't understand what's happening" or "I feel different to how I
used to feel".

Central to Rogers' (1959) theory is the notion of self or self-concept. This is defined as "the
organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself". It consists of all the ideas and
values that characterize 'I' and 'me' and includes perception and valuing of 'what I am' and 'what I
can do'.

Consequently, the self-concept is a central component of our total experience and influences both
our perception of the world and perception of oneself. For instance, a woman who perceives
herself as strong may well behave with confidence and come to see her actions as actions
performed by someone who is confident.

The self-concept does not necessarily always fit with reality, though, and the way we see
ourselves may differ greatly from how others see us.

For example, a person might be very interesting to others and yet consider himself to be boring.
He judges and evaluates this image he has of himself as a bore and this valuing will be reflected
in his self-esteem. The confident woman may have high self-esteem and the man who sees

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himself as a bore may have low self-esteem, presuming that strength/confidence are highly
valued and that being boring is not.

Core Conditions

Client-centered therapy operates according to three basic principles that reflect the attitude of the
therapist to the client:

1. The therapist is congruent with the client.

2. The therapist provides the client with unconditional positive regard.

3. The therapist shows an empathetic understanding to the client.

Congruence in Counseling

Congruence is also called genuineness. Congruence is the most important attribute in

counseling, according to Rogers. This means that, unlike the psychodynamic therapist who
generally maintains a 'blank screen' and reveals little of their own personality in therapy, the
Rogerian is keen to allow the client to experience them as they really are.

The therapist does not have a façade (like psychoanalysis), that is, the therapist's internal and
external experiences are one in the same. In short, the therapist is authentic.

Unconditional Positive Regard

The next Rogerian core condition is unconditional positive regard. Rogers believed that for
people to grow and fulfill their potential it is important that they are valued as themselves.

This refers to the therapist's deep and genuine caring for the client. The therapist may not
approve of some of the client's actions, but the therapist does approve of the client. In short, the
therapist needs an attitude of "I'll accept you as you are."

The person-centered counselor is thus careful to always maintain a positive attitude to the client,
even when disgusted by the client's actions.

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Empathy

Empathy is the ability to understand what the client is feeling. This refers to the therapist's
ability to understand sensitively and accurately [but not sympathetically] the client's experience
and feelings in the here-and-now.

An important part of the task of the person-centered counselor is to follow precisely what the
client is feeling and to communicate to them that the therapist understands what they are feeling.

In the words of Rogers (1959), accurate empathic understanding is as follows:

"The state of empathy, or being empathic, is to perceive the internal frame of reference of
another with accuracy and with the emotional components and meanings which pertain thereto as
if one were the person, but without ever losing the 'as if' condition. Thus it means to sense the
hurt or the pleasure of another as he senses it and to perceive the causes thereof as he perceives
them, but without ever losing the recognition that it is as if I were hurt or pleased and so forth. If
this 'as if' quality is lost, then the state is one of identification" (p. 210-211).

application of person centered theory on learning

The person-centred approach based on the work of Carl Rogers (1902–1987) was designed to
promote openness, growth and change in understanding the counseling processes. It is an
approach which is practical and helpful in education, because it can solve some of the problems
outside the curriculum faced by students. For example it provides a way of understanding and
solving issues of relationships, emotional development and ethical behaviour that seem to be at
the root of most of the problems in school and society at large. However, it is essential to
incorporate some accelerating ingredients to inform conditions which facilitate growth. These
include acceptance, empathy and positive regard from others. For example it has been realized
that if an individual is denied acceptance and positive regard they fail to relate the meaning of
their experience to themselves and positive growth in such a relevant way is inhibited. The
person-centred approach, where the student as the client is made responsible of his or her own
behaviour, could be part of the solution. This could be the focus of an educational yet assertive
discipline program.

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Learner-Centered teaching

The application of training has an expansive powerful research custom like that of treatment with
studies having started in the late 1930s and proceeding with today (Cornelius-White, 2007).

Rogers portrayed the way to deal with instruction in Client-Centered Therapy and
composed Freedom to Learn committed only to the subject in 1969.

Opportunity to Learn was reconsidered two times. The new Learner-Centered Model is
comparable in numerous respects to this traditional Person-Centered way to deal with
instruction. Rogers and Harold Lyon started a book preceding Rogers death, entitled On
Becoming an Effective Teacher - Person-focused Teaching, Psychology, Philosophy, and
Dialogues with Carl R. Rogers and Harold Lyon, which was finished by Lyon and Reinhard
Tausch and distributed in 2013 containing Rogers ongoing unpublished works on Person-
Centered teaching.

Rogers had the accompanying five speculations with respect to learner-focused instruction: “A
man can’t instruct someone else specifically; a man can just encourage another's learning”
(Rogers C. , 1951). This is an after-effect of his identity hypothesis, which expresses that
everybody exists and always show signs of change in a universe of involvement in which he or
she is in the middle.

Every individual responds and reacts in light of discernment and experience. The conviction is
that what the learning does is more critical than what the educator does. The emphasis is on the
learning (Rogers, 1951).

Along with these lines, the foundation and encounters of the learner are fundamental to how and
what is found out. Every learning will handle what he or she realises diversely relying upon what
he or she conveys to the classroom. “A person learns significantly only those things that are
perceived as being involved in the maintenance of or enhancement of the structure of self.”
(Rogers, 1951).

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In this manner, the importance of learning is the key to learning. “Experience which, if
assimilated, would involve a change in the organisation of self, tends to be resisted through
denial or distortion of symbolism” (Rogers, 1951).

The research scholar finds in the works of Carl Rogers is that in the event that the substance or
presentation of a course is conflicting with biased data, the learning will take on the off chance
that he or she is interested in differing ideas. Being interested in considering ideas that fluctuate
from one’s own is basic to learning.

Subsequently, tenderly reassuring liberality is useful in connecting with the theory of learning.
Additionally, it is imperative, therefore, that new data be pertinent and identified with existing
knowledge. “The structure and organisation of self-appears to become more rigid under threats
and to relax its boundaries when completely free from threat.” (Rogers, 1951).

In Rogers’ works we see on the off chance that learners trust that ideas are being constrained by
them, they may get to be uncomfortable and dreadful. A hindrance is made by a manner of risk
in the classroom. Along with these lines, an open, cordial environment in which trust is produced
is the key in the classroom. The trepidation of requital for not concurring with an idea ought to
be disposed of. A classroom tone of bolster reduces fears and urges learning to have the mettle to
investigate ideas and convictions that shift from those they convey to the classroom.

Additionally, new data may debilitate the learner’s idea of him or herself; in this way, the less
helpless the learner feels, the more probable he or she will have the capacity to open up to the
learning process. “The educational situation which most effectively promotes significant learning
is one in which (a) threat to the self of the learner is reduced to a minimum and (b) differentiated
perception of the field is facilitated.” (Knowles, HoltonIII, & Swanson, 1998).

The researcher sees that educator ought to be interested in gaining from the learner and
furthermore attempting to interface the learning of the topic. Incessant connection with the
learner will accomplish this objective. The educator’s acknowledgement of being a coach who
directs as opposed to the master who advises is instrumental to learner focused, non-threatening,
and unforced learning.

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2. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Theory
CBT theory suggests that our thoughts, emotions, body sensations, and behavior are all
connected, and that what we think and do affects the way we feel. Thousands of research trials
have demonstrated that CBT is an effective treatment for conditions from anxiety and depression
to pain and insomnia.
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a modern type of short-term psychotherapy that integrates
cognitive and behavioral theories. The CBT approach is effective in the treatment of a wide
range of mental issues and conditions, such as generalized anxiety disorders, general or post-
traumatic stress, panic attacks, depression, eating and sleep dysfunctions, obsessive–compulsive
disorders, and substance dependence. CBT is also effective as an intervention for psychotic,
personality, and bipolar disorders or to approach fatigue and chronic pain conditions especially if
associated with distress. This book explains both theoretical and practical aspects of CBT, along
with case examples, and contains useful tools and specific interventions for different
psychological situations
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a form of psychological treatment that has been
demonstrated to be effective for a range of problems including depression, anxiety disorders,
alcohol and drug use problems, marital problems, eating disorders, and severe mental
illness.

APLLICATION OF CBT THEORY IN LEARNING

The cognitive learning approach gives students the chance to reflect on what they are learning
and how it applies to other material. This helps students develop problem-solving skills they
need to create new connections between what they are learning.
What are the Learning techniques used in behavioral therapy?

Behavioral therapy techniques use reinforcement, punishment, shaping, modeling, and

related techniques to alter behavior. These methods have the benefit of being highly focused,
which means they can produce fast and effective results

BENEFITS OF COGNITIVE LEARNING

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 1. IMPROVES COMPREHENSION

Cognitive learning encourages students to take a hands-on approach to learning. This

allows them to explore the material and develop a deeper understanding.

2. DEVELOPS PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS

The cognitive learning approach teaches students the skills they need to learn effectively.
This helps students build transferable problem-solving and study skills that they can
apply in any subject.

3. PROMOTES LONG-TERM LEARNING

Developing cognitive skills allows students to build upon previous knowledge and ideas.
This teaches students to make connections and apply new concepts to what they already
know.

4. IMPROVES CONFIDENCE

With a deeper understanding of topics and stronger learning skills, students can approach
schoolwork with enthusiasm and confidence.

5. INSTILLS A LOVE OF LEARNING

Giving students the chance to actively engage in learning makes it fun and exciting. This
helps students develop a lifelong love for learning outside of the classroom.

8.2 qualities of effective counsellor ( 1 hr)

 describe the qualities of an effective counsellor
 discuss general counselling techniques
 discuss types and stages of counselling
 analyse the basic skills required for assisting learners to manage their emotional and
psychological challenges in life
i. qualities of an effective counsellor

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These soft skills and interpersonal skills of a counselor will go a long way in helping them excel
in their position. Here are 12 key qualities of a good counselor that you should work to cultivate
as a professional
Communication skills
Communication skills will play a key role in your relationship with your clients. You need to
know how to confidently set boundaries, communicate ideas, and provide guidance to the person
before you without harshness or condemnation. Your communication should help patients
understand they can trust you to listen and provide expert advice.
Patience
Patience will become a critical trait as a counselor. You will encounter clients who struggle to
make progress or who make decisions that do not benefit them. As a counselor, you must have
the patience to walk them through their struggles so that they can find their way to a healthier
life.
Confidence
Counselors must be confident in the services they provide and how they help clients. When
someone comes to you for help with a particular issue, you are there to provide them with clear
guidance and assistance. As a professional, you should always look for ways to improve your
skills and learn about some of the latest breakthroughs in the field. After all, confidence does not
mean knowing everything there is to know. It does mean, however, understanding how to help
your clients and coming to each session with a plan and confidence in your understanding.
Non-judgmental
Counselors also regularly meet with clients who have made choices that they do not agree with.
The counseling session, however, is not about letting the client know what they have done
wrong. Instead, you want to focus on leading the client towards a future where they feel
confident and empowered enough to make positive changes for themselves. If the client feels
judged, it can put a major obstacle to the progress you can make together as a counselor and
client. Instead, you want to nurture a relationship where the client feels comfortable being open.
Observant
Sometimes, as a counselor, you will encounter situations where people might not tell you the
entire truth. Your powers of observation, however, can help you fill in the gaps and find ways to
better help your clients. Learning how to read body language—such as signs of struggles with

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substance abuse and indications of domestic abuse—can also provide you with valuable insight
into your client. It will help you guide conversations and treatment plans so that you can help
them in the most effective way possible.
Listening Skills
Knowing how to sit and really listen to what your client has to say can help to establish trust
and understanding between you and the client. The patient will feel relaxed and able to share
their thoughts, emotions, and experiences. The information you gain as a listener can help you
better understand your client and what has brought them to your office, so that you can start to
determine their treatment path and how to help them.
Trust
Clients who come to your counseling door suffer in some way. Whether they struggle in their
relationships with others, have a mental illness, or have a substance misuse problem, for
example, your clients have to know that the person they choose to open up to is worthy of their
trust. As a counselor, you need to let your client know they can trust you by using good listening
skills, creating a welcoming environment, and demonstrating your dedication to helping them.
Demonstrating your respect for important principles, such as confidentiality and showing that
you prioritize them can also help build this trust.
Respectful
You also need to focus on showing your clients that you respect them as people. Shame can
result in people being more at risk for mental health challenges, such as anxiety or depression.
As a counselor, although you might not be able to prevent a person from being embarrassed by
their actions, your response to such situations, and demonstrating respect regardless of their
mistakes, can help guide them past their shame.
Acceptance
As a counselor, you also need to demonstrate an open and accepting attitude towards your
clients. Everyone who comes into your office should know that you are ready to meet them
where they are. You understand that they have experienced stress and trauma, but as an effective
counselor, you accept them as they are and want to help them heal.
Self-aware
As a counselor, you also need to be well aware of your own struggles. For example, roughly 1 in
7 children experienced some type of abuse or neglect in the past year alone. When dealing with

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these common sources of trauma, the issues your clients struggle with may also be issues you
have intimate experience with, either personally or through someone you are close to. As a
counselor, you must have the self-awareness necessary to know how these stories might impact
you and how to separate your own experiences so that you do not allow them to impact the care
you provide. Many counselors report that their own experiences have encouraged them to enter
the field, so know how you can use these experiences to strengthen your own practice, rather
than allowing it to become a hindrance.
Appreciating of diversity
You will encounter clients from all walks of life. They will likely come from a variety of
different backgrounds culturally, ethnically, and socioeconomically. Differences in gender
expression and identification, as well as sexuality, will also come through your door. As a
counselor, you must be welcoming of this diversity. Being appreciative of this diversity will help
you be open and accepting to each client so you can give them the care they deserve.
Empathetic
Finally, you want to make sure you are empathetic. While boundaries remain important, let your
clients know your compassion and empathy for their situation. Demonstrate your dedication to
guiding them through their struggles so that they can find their way to a healthier situation.

ii. General counselling techniques

Effective Techniques Used by Counselors

Counselors combine several techniques to be effective with clients,

including challenging and reflecting feelings.

Challenging skills

Challenging clients’ existing perceptions can help offer new perspectives, reframing how they
see problems or previous events (Nelson-Jones, 2014).

The following guidelines can help develop the skills of challenging without confronting
(modified from Nelson-Jones, 2014):

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  Reflecting thoughts
Begin by showing the client that they have been heard and understood.
 Helping clients challenge themselves
Sending mixed messages or asking clients to back up their arguments encourages clients
to question their internal frame of reference.
 Challenges should not be put-downs
Avoid messages that begin with “you” that can be taken negatively.
 Avoiding strong challenges
Challenging too hard can create resistance.
 Avoiding threats
Avoid verbal or nonverbal threats, such as pointing or a raised voice.
 Leaving the client responsible
Let the client choose if they move forward with the challenge.
 Neither overdoing nor avoiding challenges
Challenging can be valuable, pushing toward client change. Too much can create the
perception of an unsafe emotional climate.

Reflecting feelings

“Reflecting feelings, rather than reflecting thoughts alone, can establish a climate for initial and
subsequent sessions where clients share rather than bury feelings” (Nelson-Jones, 2014, p. 102).

Unlike paraphrasing, reflecting feelings involves picking up both verbal and nonverbal messages
and requires skills as both a receiver and a sender (modified from Nelson-Jones, 2014).

Receiver skills include:

 Understanding the client’s face, body, vocal, and verbal messages.

 Being in tune with their own emotional reactions.
 Considering the context of the message sent.
 Being aware of both the surface and deeper messages from the client.

Sender skills include:

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  Responding to the client, showing awareness and understanding of feelings.
 Using expressive responses rather than wooden replies.
 Confirming the accuracy of understanding.

iii Types and stages of counselling

Types of Counselling
There is a number of counselling which take place these days. They are mainly divided as per the
various fields. This allows people to choose the counsellor as per their specific problem.
Moreover, this assures the counsellor doing the work is a specialist in their respective field. The
following are the most common types of counselling:

 Marriage and Family Counselling

 Educational Counselling

 Rehabilitation Counselling

 Mental Health Counselling

 Substance Abuse Counselling

Marriage and Family Counselling
People often face a lot of problems in their marriage and family life. Sometimes, these troubled
people find it hard to cope up with their life. This results in constant fights with their partners or
family members. Marriage and family counselling comes in here. In other words, it helps people
with these problems. They take them into confidence and prescribe solutions that will help them
overcome their problems.

Educational Counselling

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A student who is fresh out of school or college is often clueless as to which career to choose.
This is completely normal for kids of that age to feel like that. Furthermore, sometimes even
working individuals feel like that in the midst of their careers. This is nothing to worry about.
Educational counselling helps these people in choosing their career path. They conduct seminars
and orientations or private sessions where they discuss the interest of their client and offer
solutions accordingly.

Rehabilitation Counselling
This type of counselling refers to a practice where the counsellor helps people with their
emotional and physical disabilities. Furthermore, these counsellors teach these people ways to
live independently and maintain gainful employment. It evaluates the strength and limitations of
their patients. In short, they help people in guiding them and assisting them to lead independent
lives.

Mental Health Counselling

Mental illnesses have become very common these days. Awareness has helped people identify
the symptoms of it and visit mental health counsellors. Mental health counselling helps people
deal with issues that impact their mental health and well-being. Some of the mental illnesses are
depression, and more. This counselling focuses on these issues and helps in resolving them for a
healthier life.

Substance Abuse Counselling

Substance abuse counselling is a form of counselling which helps people in treating them and
supporting them from breaking free from their drug and alcohol addiction. It helps people
discuss the cause of this addiction and reach to the root of it. The counsellor thereby suggests
coping strategies which make a positive impact on their lives. Moreover, they also provide them
with practicing skills and behaviors which helps in their recovery.

In conclusion, all types of counselling carry equal importance. They allow people to work
through their problems and lead a happier and healthier life. There is no shame in

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taking counselling sessions as it only helps in the growth of an individual. In addition,
counselling also helps save lives.

-stages of counselling

The Stages of the Counseling Process

While counseling varies in both form and purpose, most counseling theories embody some form
of the following three stages (Krishnan, n.d.): relationship building, problem assessment, and
goal setting.

Counselors and clients must both be aware that the counseling process requires patience. There is
rarely a quick fix, and things may need to get worse before they get better. In addition, the
counseling process is collaborative. The counselor does not fix the client; the work requires
interaction and commitment from both parties (Krishnan, n.d.).

The counseling process is a planned and structured dialogue between client and counselor. The
counselor is a trained and qualified professional who helps the client identify the source of their
concerns or difficulties; then, together, they find counseling approaches to help deal with the
problems faced (Krishnan, n.d.).

Hackney and Cormier (2005) propose a five-stage model for defining the counseling process
through which both counselor and client move (Krishnan, n.d.).

Stage one: (Initial disclosure) Relationship building

The counseling process begins with relationship building. This stage focuses on the counselor
engaging with the client to explore the issues that directly affect them.

The vital first interview can set the scene for what is to come, with the client reading the
counselor’s verbal and nonverbal signals to draw inferences about the counselor and the process.
The counselor focuses on using good listening skills and building a positive relationship.

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When successful, it ensures a strong foundation for future dialogue and the continuing
counseling process.

Stage two: (In-depth exploration) Problem assessment

While the counselor and client continue to build a beneficial, collaborative relationship, another
process is underway: problem assessment.

The counselor carefully listens and draws out information regarding the client’s situation (life,
work, home, education, etc.) and the reason they have engaged in counseling.

Information crucial to subsequent stages of counseling includes identifying triggers, timing,

environmental factors, stress levels, and other contributing factors.

Stage three: (Commitment to action) Goal setting

Effective counseling relies on setting appropriate and realistic goals, building on the previous
stages. The goals must be identified and developed collaboratively, with the client committing to
a set of steps leading to a particular outcome.

Stage four: Counseling intervention

This stage varies depending on the counselor and the theories they are familiar with, as well as
the situation the client faces.

For example, a behavioral approach may suggest engaging in activities designed to help the
client alter their behavior. In comparison, a person-centered approach seeks to engage the
client’s self-actualizing tendency.

Stage five: Evaluation, termination, or referral

Termination may not seem like a stage, but the art of ending the counseling is critical.

Drawing counseling to a close must be planned well in advance to ensure a positive conclusion is
reached while avoiding anger, sadness, or anxiety (Fragkiadaki & Strauss, 2012).

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Part of the process is to reach an early agreement on how the therapy will end and what success
looks like. This may lead to a referral if required.

While there are clear stages to the typical counseling process, other than termination, each may
be ongoing. For example, while setting goals, new information or understanding may surface that
requires additional assessment of the probl

v. basic guidance and counselling skills

Core Counselling Skills

Core listening skills are basic counselling skills, or practiced techniques, that help the counsellor
to empathetically listen to the speaker.

Skills include:

 active listening
 being aware of nonverbal communication
 building rapport
The core counselling skills are described below.

1. Attending

Attending in counselling means being in the company of someone else and giving that person
your full attention, to what they are saying or doing, valuing them as worthy individuals.

2. Silence

Silence in counselling gives the client control of the content, pace and objectives.

This includes the counsellor listening to silences as well as words, sitting with them and
recognising that the silences may facilitate the counselling process.

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3. Reflecting and Paraphrasing

Reflecting in counselling is part of the ‘art of listening’. It is making sure that the client knows
their story is being listened to.

This is achieved by the helper/counsellor by both repeating and feeding a shorter version of
their story back to the client. This known as 'paraphrasing'.

4. Clarifying and the Use of Questions

Questions in counselling are classed as a basic skill. The counsellor uses open questions to
clarify his or her understanding of what the client is feeling.

Leading questions are to be avoided as they can impair the counselling relationship.

5. Focusing

Focusing in counselling involves making decisions about what issues the client wants to deal
with.

The client may have mentioned a range of issues and problems and focusing allows the
counsellor and client together to clear away some of the less important surrounding material
and concentrate on the central issues of concern.

6. Building Rapport

Building rapport with clients in counselling is important, whatever model of counselling the
counsellor is working with.

Rapport means a sense of having a connection with the person.

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7. Summarising

Summaries in counselling are longer paraphrases. They condense or crystallise the essence of
what the client is saying and feeling.

The summary 'sums up' the main themes that are emerging.

8. Immediacy

Using immediacy means that the therapist reveals how they themselves are feeling in response to
the client

9.0 practicum
9.1 developmental milestones (2 hr)
 collect, analyse and report information on developmental milestones at different stages of
child growth and development
 write a report on information collected about developmental milestones in children
9.2 assessment of growth and development (2 hr)
 monitor growth and development in children upto 12 years
 examine trends of growth and development in children
 analyse the findings on how children grow and develop
End of course

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