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IGCSE Chemistry CIE 

8. The Periodic Table

CONTENTS
8.1 The Periodic Table & Trends
8.1.1 The Periodic Table
8.1.2 Periodic Trends
8.2 Group Properties & Trends
8.2.1 Group I Properties
8.2.2 Group VII Properties
8.2.3 Group VII Displacement Reactions
8.2.4 Transition Elements
8.2.5 Noble Gases

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8.1 The Periodic Table & Trends YOUR NOTES


8.1.1 The Periodic Table

The Periodic Table

There are over 100 chemical elements which have been isolated and identified
Each element has one proton more than the element preceding it
This is done so that elements end up in columns with other elements which have similar
properties
Elements are arranged on the periodic table in order of increasing atomic number
The table is arranged in vertical columns called groups and in rows called periods
Period: These are the horizontal rows that show the number of shells of electrons an atom
has and are numbered from 1 - 7
E.g. elements in period 2 have two electron shells, elements in period 3 have three
electron shells
Group: These are the vertical columns that show how many outer electrons (also known as
valency electrons) each atom has and are numbered from I – VII, with a final group called
Group 0 (instead of Group VIII)
E.g. Group IV elements have atoms with 4 electrons in the outermost shell, Group VI
elements have atoms with 6 electrons in the outermost shell and so on
The group number can help determine the charge that metal and non-metal ions form
For metals, the group number corresponds to the number of electrons it will lose to achieve
a full outer shell and the charge of the metal ion
E.g. sodium is in Group I, it will lose 1 electron and form an ion with a 1+ charge
Magnesium is in Group II, it will lose 2 electrons and form an ion with a 2+ charge
For non-metals in Group VII and VI, they will gain 1 and 2 electrons respectively to gain a full
outer shell
E.g. non-metals in Group VII gain 1 electron to form ions with a 1- charge
Non-metals in Group VI gain 2 electrons to form ions with a 2- charge

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YOUR NOTES


All elements are arranged in the order of increasing atomic number from left to right
Valency
Valency (or combining power) tells you how many bonds an atom can make with another
atom or how many electrons its atoms lose, gain or share, to form a compound
E.g. carbon has a valancy of 4 as it is in Group IV so a single carbon atom can share 4
electrons to make 4 single bonds or 2 double bonds
The following valencies apply to elements in each group:

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YOUR NOTES
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 Exam Tip
An easier way of remembering which number is the mass number and which is the
atomic is:
Mass Number = The massive number i.e the larger of the two numbers.
The atomic number must be the smaller number.

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8.1.2 Periodic Trends YOUR NOTES


The Metallic Character of Elements
The metallic character of the elements decreases as you move across a Period on the
Periodic Table, from left to right, and it increases as you move down a Group
This trend occurs due to atoms more readily accepting electrons to fill their valence shells
rather than losing them to have the previous, already full, electron shell as their outer shell
Metals occur on the left-hand side of the Periodic Table and non-metals on the right-
hand side
Between the metals and the non-metals lie the elements which display some properties of
both
These elements are referred to as metalloids or semi-metals
Properties of metals and non-metals

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YOUR NOTES


A zig-zag line in this diagram separates the metals on the left, from the non-metals on the
right

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Periodic Trends & Electronic Configuration YOUR NOTES

The electronic configuration is the arrangement of electrons into shells for an atom (e.g: the 
electronic configuration of carbon is 2,4)
There is a link between the electronic configuration of the elements and their position on
the Periodic Table
The number of notations in the electronic configuration will show the number of occupied
shells of electrons the atom has, showing the period
The last notation shows the number of outer electrons the atom has, showing the group
number
Example: Electronic configuration of chlorine:

The electronic configuration of chlorine as it should be written

Period: The red numbers at the bottom show the number of notations which is 3, showing that a
chlorine atom has 3 shells of electrons.
Group: The final notation, which is 7 in the example, shows that a chlorine atom has 7 outer
electrons and is in Group VII

The position of chlorine on the Periodic Table

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YOUR NOTES
Elements in the same group in the Periodic Table have similar chemical properties 
When atoms collide and react, it is the outermost electrons that interact
The similarity in their chemical properties stems from having the same number of electrons
in their outer shell
For example, both lithium and sodium are in Group I and can react with elements in Group
VII to form an ionic compound (charges of Group I ions are 1+, charges of Group VII ions are
1-) by reacting in a similar manner and each donating one electron to the Group VII element
As you look down a group, a full shell of electrons is added to each subsequent element
Lithium's electronic configuration: 2,1
Sodium's electronic configuration: 2,8,1
Potassium's electronic configuration: 2,8,8,1

 Exam Tip
Electronic configurations can be shown with the numbers separated by commas or
by full stops. In this course commas are used, but you will often see full stops used
elsewhere. Both are accepted.

Predicting Properties
Because there are patterns in the way the elements are arranged on the Periodic Table,
there are also patterns and trends in the chemical behaviour of the elements and their
physical properties
These trends in properties occur down groups and across the periods of the Periodic Table
As a result, we can use the Periodic Table to predict properties such as:
boiling point
melting point
density
reactivity
Some common properties / trends in properties include:
Group I elements react very quickly with water
Noble gases are unreactive
Transition elements are denser than Group I elements
Reactivity decreases going down Group VII
Melting point decreases going down Group I
In this way the Periodic Table can be used to predict how a particular element will behave

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Identifying Trends YOUR NOTES

EXTENDED 
Using given information about elements, we can identify trends in properties
An example of when this might be used is to determine the trend in reactivity of Group I
metals
The table below shows the reactions of the first three elements in Group I with water
Observations of Lithium, Sodium, and Potassium with Water

The observations show that reactivity of the Group I metals increases as you go down the
group
Using this information we can predict the trend going further down Group I for the elements
rubidium, caesium and francium
As the reactivity of alkali metals increases down the group, rubidium, caesium and francium
will react more vigorously with air and water than lithium, sodium and potassium
Lithium will be the least reactive metal in the group at the top, and francium will be the most
reactive at the bottom
Francium is rare and radioactive so is difficult to confirm predictions
Table to Show the Predicted Reaction of other Group I Elements with Water

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YOUR NOTES


 Exam Tip
For the extended course you may be asked to identify other trends in chemical or
physical properties of Group I metals, given appropriate data.
Firstly, ensure that the metals and associated data are written in either descending
or ascending order according the their position in the Group. Then look for general
patterns in the data.

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8.2 Group Properties & Trends YOUR NOTES


8.2.1 Group I Properties

Group I Properties & Trends: Basics

The Group I metals
The Group I metals are also called the alkali metals as they form alkaline solutions with high
pH values when reacted with water
Group I metals are lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium and francium
They all contain just one electron in their outer shell
Physical properties of the Group I metals
The Group I metals:
Are soft and easy to cut, getting even softer and denser as you move down the Group
(sodium and potassium do not follow the trend in density)
Have shiny silvery surfaces when freshly cut
Conduct heat and electricity
They all have low melting points and low densities compared to other metals, and the
melting point decreases as you move down the Group; some would melt on a hot day

The alkali metals lie on the far left-hand side of the Periodic Table
Chemical properties of the Group I metals
They react readily with oxygen and water vapour in air so they are stored under oil to stop
them from reacting
Group I metals will react similarly with water, reacting vigorously to produce an alkaline
metal hydroxide solution and hydrogen gas
The Group I metals get more reactive as you look down the group, so only the first three
metals are allowed in schools for demonstrations
Reactions of the Group I metals and water

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

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Predicting the Properties of Group I Elements YOUR NOTES

Knowing the reactions of elements at the top of the group allows you to predict the 
properties of other elements further down Group I
Properties of other Alkali Metals (Rubidium, Caesium and Francium)
As the reactivity of alkali metals increases down the group, rubidium, caesium and francium
will react more vigorously with air and water than lithium, sodium and potassium
Lithium will be the least reactive metal in the group at the top, and francium will be the most
reactive at the bottom
Francium is rare and radioactive so is difficult to confirm predictions
For example the reactions with water can be predicted:
Predicting the Reaction with Water

You can also look at other properties such as boiling point, melting point and density of
Group I elements and use them to predict whether the other properties are likely to be larger
or smaller going down the group

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8.2.2 Group VII Properties YOUR NOTES


Group VII Properties & Trends
The halogens
These are the Group VII non-metals that are poisonous and include fluorine, chlorine,
bromine, iodine and astatine
Halogens are diatomic, meaning they form molecules of two atoms
The formulae of the halogens are F2, Cl2, Br2, I2 and At2
All halogens have seven electrons in their outer shell
They form halide ions by gaining one more electron to complete their outer shells
Fluorine is not allowed in schools so observations and experiments tend to only involve
chlorine, bromine and iodine
Properties of the halogens
At room temperature (20 °C), the physical state of the halogens changes as you go down
the group
Chlorine is a pale yellow-green gas, bromine is a red-brown liquid and iodine is a grey-
black solid
This demonstrates that the density of the halogens increases as you go down the group:

The physical state of the halogens at room temperature

Reactivity of Group VII non-metals increases as you go up the group (this is the opposite
trend to that of Group I)
Each outer shell contains seven electrons and when the halogen reacts, it will need to gain
one outer electron to get a full outer shell of electrons
As you go up Group VII, the number of shells of electrons decreases (period number
decreases moving up the Periodic Table)
This means that the outer electrons are closer to the nucleus so there are stronger
electrostatic forces of attraction, which help to attract the extra electron needed
This allows an electron to be attracted more readily, so the higher up the element is in Group
VII then the more reactive it is

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Diagram showing the electronic configuration of the first three elements in Group VII

 Exam Tip
Solid iodine, iodine in solution and iodine vapour are different colours. Solid iodine is
dark grey-black, iodine vapour is purple and aqueous iodine is brown.

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Predicting Group VII Properties YOUR NOTES

You may be given information about some elements and asked to predict the properties of 
other elements in the group
The information you might be given could be in relation to melting/boiling point or physical
state/density so it is useful to know the trends in properties going down the group
Melting and boiling point
The melting and boiling point of the halogens increases as you go down the group
Fluorine is at the top of Group VII so will have the lowest melting and boiling point
Astatine is at the bottom of Group VII so will have the highest melting and boiling point
Physical states
The halogens become denser as you go down the group
Fluorine is at the top of Group VII so will be a gas
Astatine is at the bottom of Group VII so will be a solid
Colour
The colour of the halogens becomes darker as you go down the group
Fluorine is at the top of Group VII so the colour will be lighter, so fluorine is yellow
Astatine is at the bottom of Group VII so the colour will be darker, so astatine is black

 Exam Tip
If you are doing the supplement / extended course you can be asked to identify
trends in chemical or physical properties of the Group VII elements, given
appropriate data.
Firstly, make sure that you have placed the elements and associated data in either
ascending or descending order according to their position in Group VII. Then look for
any general patterns in the data.

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8.2.3 Group VII Displacement Reactions YOUR NOTES


Group VII Displacement Reactions
A halogen displacement reaction occurs when a more reactive halogen displaces a less
reactive halogen from an aqueous solution of its halide
The reactivity of Group VII non-metals increases as you move up the group
Out of the three commonly used halogens, chlorine, bromine and iodine, chlorine is the
most reactive and iodine is the least reactive
Colour of Halogens in Aqueous Solutions

Halogen displacement reactions

Chlorine and bromine
If you add chlorine solution to colourless potassium bromide solution, the solution
becomes orange as bromine is formed
Chlorine is above bromine in Group VII so is more reactive
Chlorine will therefore displace bromine from an aqueous solution of the metal bromide
The least reactive halogen always ends up in the elemental form
potassium bromide + chlorine → potassium chloride + bromine
2KBr (aq) + Cl2 (aq) → 2KCl (aq) + Br2 (aq)
Bromine and iodine
Bromine is above iodine in Group VII so is more reactive
Bromine will therefore displace iodine from an aqueous solution of metal iodide
The solution will turn brown as iodine is formed
magnesium iodide + bromine → magnesium bromide + iodine
MgI2 (aq) + Br2 (aq) → MgBr2 (aq) + I2 (aq)
Summary table of displacement reactions

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YOUR NOTES


 Exam Tip
Iodine solid, solution and vapour are different colours. Solid iodine is dark grey-
black, iodine vapour is purple and aqueous iodine is brown.

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8.2.4 Transition Elements YOUR NOTES


Transition Elements
General properties of the transition elements
They are very hard and strong metals and are good conductors of heat and electricity
They have very high melting points and are highly dense metals
For example, the melting point of titanium is 1,688ºC whereas potassium in Group I melts at
only 63.5ºC, slightly warmer than the average cup of hot chocolate!
The transition elements form coloured compounds and often have more than one
oxidation state, such as iron readily forming compounds of both Fe2+ and Fe3+
These coloured compounds are responsible for the pigments in many paints and the
colours of gemstones and rocks
Transition elements, as elements or in compounds, are often used as catalysts to improve
the rate or reaction in industrial processes
Transition element catalysts of platinum or rhodium are also used in car exhausts in the
'catalytic convertor' to reduce the levels of nitrous oxides and carbon monoxide
produced

The transition elements on the Periodic Table

 Exam Tip
Although scandium and zinc are in the transition element area of the Periodic Table,
they are not considered transition elements as they do not form coloured
compounds and have only one oxidation state.

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Transition Elements Oxidation Numbers YOUR NOTES

EXTENDED 
The transition elements have more than one oxidation number, as they can lose a different
number of electrons, depending on the chemical environment they are in
For example. iron either:
Lose two electrons to form Fe2+ so has an oxidation number of +2
Loses three electrons to form Fe3+ so has an oxidation number of +3
Compounds containing transition elements in different oxidation states will have different
properties and colours

Ions of the same element can have different oxidation numbers forming different colours
Uses of the transition elements
The transition elements are used extensively as catalysts due to their ability to interchange
between a range of oxidation states
This allows them to form complexes with reagents which can easily donate and accept
electrons from other chemical species within a reaction system
They are used in medicine and surgical applications such as limb and joint replacement
(titanium is often used for this as it can bond with bones due to its high biocompatibility)
They are also used to form coloured compounds in dyes and paints, stained glass
jewellery

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8.2.5 Noble Gases YOUR NOTES



Noble Gases Properties & Electronic Configuration

The Noble Gases
The noble gases are in Group VIII (or Group 0); they are non-metals and have very low
melting and boiling points
They are all monoatomic, colourless gases
The Group 0 elements all have full outer shells
This electronic configuration is extremely stable so these elements are unreactive and are
inert
Electronic configurations of the noble gases:
He: 2
Ne: 2,8
Ar: 2,8,8
Kr: 2,8,18,8
Xe: 2,8,18,18,8

Noble gases are inert (unreactive) as they have a full outer shell of electrons so do not
easily lose or gain electrons

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