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CS 3491 – ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND MACHINE LEARNING UNIT 1

CS3491 – ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND MACHINE LEARNING

UNIT 1 – PROBLEM SOLVING

SYLLABUS:
Introduction to AI - AI Applications - Problem solving agents – search
algorithms – uninformed search strategies – Heuristic search
strategies – Local search and optimization problems – adversarial
search – constraint satisfaction problems (CSP)

PART A
1. What is Artificial Intelligence? Or Define Artificial Intelligence.
 Artificial intelligence is a wide-ranging branch of computer science
concerned with building smart machines capable of performing tasks
that typically require human intelligence.
 Artificial Intelligence is the process of building intelligent machines from
vast volumes of data.
 Systems learn from past learning and experiences and perform human-
like tasks.
 It enhances the speed, precision, and effectiveness of human efforts.

2. How Artificial Intelligence is Defined? List the Types Of

Approaches for Artificial Intelligence.
 Thinking humanly: mimicking thought based on the human mind.
 Thinking rationally: mimicking thought based on logical reasoning.
 Acting humanly: acting in a manner that mimics human behavior.
 Acting rationally: acting in a manner that is meant to achieve a
particular goal.

3. What Are The Four Types Of Artificial Intelligence?

 Reactive machines: able to perceive and react to the world in front of it as
it performs limited tasks.
 Limited memory: able to store past data and predictions to inform
predictions of what may come next.
 Theory of mind: able to make decisions based on its perceptions of how
others feel and make decisions.

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 Self-awareness: able to operate with human-level consciousness and

understand its own existence.

4. List the types of Artificial Intelligence-based on capabilities.

 Narrow AI
 General AI
 Super AI

5. List the types of Artificial Intelligence-based on functionalities -

 Purely Reactive or Reactive Machines
 Limited Memory 
 Theory of Mind
 Self Awareness

6. Tabulate the comparison of Artificial Intelligence-based on

functionalities.
Reactive Machines Limited Memory Theory of Mind Self-Awareness
Simple classification Human-level intelligence
Complex classification Understands human
and pattern that can by-pass human
tasks reasoning and motives
recognition tasks intelligence too
Needs fewer examples
Great when all Uses historical data Sense of self-
to learn because it
parameters are known to make predictions consciousness
understands motives

Can’t deal with Next milestone for the

Current state of AI Does not exist yet
imperfect information evolution of AI

7. List the Four possible goals to pursue in artificial intelligence.

• Systems that think like humans.
• Systems that think rationally.
• Systems that act like humans
• Systems that act rationally

8. Point out the subfields of Artificial Intelligence.

 Machine Learning
 Deep Learning
 Neural Networks
 Cognitive Computing
 Computer Vision
 Natural Language Processing

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9. What are the advantages of Artificial Intelligence?

 Reduced human error 
 Risk avoidance
 Replacing repetitive jobs
 Digital assistance

10. List the limitations of Artificial Intelligence

 High cost of creation. 
 No emotions. 
 Box thinking.
 Can’t think for itself. 

11. Differentiate Deep learning vs. machine learning

o Machine Learning
 Machine Learning is the learning in which a machine can learn on its
own from examples and previous experiences.
 It is machine learning that gives AI the ability to learn.
 This is done by using algorithms to discover patterns and generate
insights from the data they are exposed to.
o Deep Learning
 Deep learning, is a subcategory of machine learning, provides AI with
the ability to mimic a human brain’s neural network.
 It can make sense of patterns, noise, and sources of confusion in the
data.
12. Compare Data Science, Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning.

Data Science Artificial Intelligence Machine Learning

Machine Learning is a part of
Data Science is used for data AI combines iterative AI where mathematical models
sourcing, cleaning, processing, processing and intelligent are used to empower a
and visualizing for analytical algorithms to imitate the machine to learn with or
purposes. human brain’s functions. without being programmed
regularly.
AI uses decision trees and
Data Science deals with both Machine Learning utilizes
logic theories to find the
structured and unstructured statistical models and neural
best possible solution to
data for analytics. networks to train a machine.
the given problem.
As a subset of AI, Machine
Some of the popular tools in Some of the popular
Learning also use the same
Data Science are Tableau, SAS2, libraries include Keras,
libraries, along with tools such
Apache, MATLAB, Spark, and Scikit-Learn, and
as Amazon Lex2, IBM Watson,
more. TensorFlow.
and Azure ML Studio.

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AI includes predictive
Data Science includes data
modeling to predict events ML is a subset of Artificial
operations based on user
based on the previous and Intelligence.
requirements.
current data.
It is mainly used in fraud Applications of AI include Online recommendations, facial
detection, healthcare, BI chat bots, voice assistants, recognition, and NLP are a few
analysis, and more. and weather prediction. examples of ML.

13. List the various Applications of Artificial Intelligence or AI

Applications.
 AI Application in E-Commerce
 Personalized Shopping
 AI-powered Assistants
 Fraud Prevention
 AI Application in Education
 Administrative Tasks Automated to Aid Educators
 Creating Smart Content
 Voice Assistants
 Personalized Learning 
 AI Application in Lifestyle
 Autonomous Vehicles
 Spam Filters
 Facial Recognition
 Recommendation System
 AI Application in Navigation
 AI Application in Robotics
 Carrying goods in hospitals, factories, and warehouses
 Cleaning offices and large equipment
 Inventory management
 AI Application in Human Resource
 AI Application in Healthcare 
 AI Application in Agriculture 
 AI Application in Gaming
 AI Application in Automobiles
 AI Application in Social Media
 Instagram
 Facebook
 Twitter
 AI Application in Marketing
 AI Application in Chatbots

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14. Define an Agent and list its types.

Agent
 An agent is anything that can be viewed as perceiving its environment
through sensors and acting upon that environment through actuators. 

Types of Agent
 Simple reflex agents respond directly to percepts. 
 Model-based reflex agents maintain internal state to track aspects of
the world that are not evident in the current percept.
 Goal-based agents act to achieve their goals, and
 Utility-based agents try to maximize their own expected “happiness.”

15. Define an environment and task environment.

Environments
 The environment could be everything—the entire universe.
Task Environment
 A task environment specification includes the performance measure,
the external environment, the actuators, and the sensors.

16. List the steps in designing an agent

 In designing an agent, the first step must always be to specify the task
environment as fully as possible. 
 The agent program implements the agent function. 
 There exists a variety of basic agent program designs reflecting the
kind of information made explicit and used in the decision process.
 The designs vary in efficiency, compactness, and flexibility.
 The appropriate design of the agent program depends on the nature of
the environment. 
 All agents can improve their performance through learning.

17. Define Problem Solving Agent. List the steps involved in Problem
Solving Agent.
 Problem Solving Agent
 Problem-solving agent is a goal-based agent that focuses on goals
using a group of algorithms and techniques to solve a well-defined
problem.

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
An agent may need to plan a sequence of actions that form a path
to a goal state.
 Such an agent is called a problem-solving agent, and the
computational process it undertakes is called search.
 Steps performed by Problem-solving agent
 Goal Formulation
 Problem Formulation
 Search
 Solution
 Execution

18. List the Components in problem formulation.

a) Initial State: It is the starting state or initial step of the agent towards
its goal.
b) Actions: It is the description of the possible actions available to the
agent.
c) Transition Model: It describes what each action does.
d) Goal Test: It determines if the given state is a goal state.
e) Path cost: It assigns a numeric cost to each path that follows the
goal.

19. Define search algorithms and list the types of search algorithm.
 A search algorithm takes a search problem as input and returns a
solution. 
 Types of Search Algorithm
 Uninformed Search Algorithms
o Depth First Search
o Depth Limited Search
o Breadth First Search
o Iterative Deepening Search
o Uniform Cost Search
o Bidirectional Search
 Informed (Heuristic) Search Strategies
o Greedy Search
o A* Tree Search

20. Define Depth First Search. List the advantages and disadvantages
of DFS.
• Depth-first search (DFS) is an algorithm for traversing or searching
tree or graph data structures.
• The algorithm starts at the root node and explores as far as possible
along each branch before backtracking.

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• It uses last in-first-out strategy and hence it is implemented using a

stack.
Advantage of Depth-first Search:
 DFS uses extremely little memory. 
 It takes less time to reach the goal node than the BFS method.
Disadvantage of Depth-first Search:
 There's a chance that many states will recur, and there's no certainty
that a solution will be found.
 The DFS algorithm performs deep searching and may occasionally
enter an infinite cycle.

21. Which solution would DFS find to move from node S to node G if run
on the graph below?

Solution.

Path: S - > A -> B -> C -> G

22. Define Depth Limited Search. List its advantages and disadvantages.
 A depth-limited search algorithm is similar to depth-first search with a
predetermined limit.
 Depth-limited search can solve the drawback of the infinite path in the
Depth-first search.

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Advantages:
 Depth-limited search is Memory efficient. 
Disadvantages:
 Depth-limited search also has a disadvantage of incompleteness. 
 It may not be optimal if the problem has more than one solution.

23. Define Bre adth- first se arch (B FS) . List its advantages and disadvantages.
• Breadth-first search (BFS) is an algorithm for traversing or searching
tree or graph data structures.
• It starts at the tree root and explores all of the neighbor nodes at the
present depth prior to moving on to the nodes at the next depth level.
Advantages of Breadth-first Search:
 If a solution is available, BFS will provide it.
 If there are multiple answers to a problem, BFS will present the simplest
solution with the fewest steps. 
Disadvantages of Breadth-first Search:
 It necessitates a large amount of memory.
 If the solution is located far from the root node, BFS will take a long time.

24. Which solution would BFS find to move from node S to node G if run on
the graph below?

Solution.

Path: S -> D -> G

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25. Define iterative deepening depth-first search/ iterative deepening

search
 This search is a combination of BFS and DFS, as BFS guarantees to
reach the goal node and DFS occupies less memory space.
 Therefore, iterative deepening search combines these two advantages of
BFS and DFS to reach the goal node.
 It gradually increases the depth-limit from 0,1,2 and so on and reach
the goal node.

26. Define Uniform Cost Search. List its advantages and disadvantages.
 A searching algorithm for traversing a weighted tree or graph is uniform-
cost search.
 When a separate cost is provided for each edge, this algorithm is used.
 The uniform-cost search's main purpose is to discover the shortest path
to the goal node with the lowest cumulative cost.
 Cost of a node is defined as:
cost(node) = cumulative cost of all nodes from root
cost(root) = 0
Advantages of Uniform-cost Search:
 The path with the lowest cost is chosen at each state. 
 UCS is complete only if states are finite and there should be no loop
with zero weight.
 UCS is optimal only if there is no negative cost.
Disadvantages of Uniform-cost Search:
 It is just concerned with the expense of the path.

27. Which solution would UCS find to move from node S to node G if run on
the graph below?

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Solution.

Path: S -> A -> B -> G

Cost: 5

28. Define Bidirectional Search.

 The strategy behind the bidirectional search is to run two searches
simultaneously--one forward search from the initial state and
other from the backside of the goal--hoping that both searches will
meet in the middle. 

29. Define informed (heuristic) search strategies and mention its types.
 Here, the algorithms have information on the goal state, which helps
in more efficient searching.
 This information is obtained by something called a heuristic.
Search Heuristics:
 In an informed search, a heuristic is a function h(n) estimates how
close a state is to the goal state.
 h(n) = estimated cost of the cheapest path from the state at node n to
a goal state.

Types of Informed search algorithms.

 Greedy Search
 A* Tree Search
 A* Graph Search

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30. Find the path from S to G using greedy search. The heuristic values h
of each node below the name of the node.

Solution.
Starting from S, we can traverse to A(h=9) or D(h=5). We choose D,
as it has the lower heuristic cost. Now from D, we can move to
B(h=4) or E(h=3). We choose E with a lower heuristic cost. Finally,
from E, we go to G(h=0). This entire traversal is shown in the search
tree below, in blue.

Path: S -> D -> E -> G

31. Define A* tree search.

 A* Tree Search, or simply known as A* Search, combines the
strengths of uniform-cost search and greedy search. 
 In this search, the heuristic is the summation of the cost in UCS,
denoted by g(x), and the cost in the greedy search, denoted by h(x).
The summed cost is denoted by f(x).

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32. Find the path to reach from S to G using A* search.

Solution.
 Starting from S, the algorithm computes g(x) + h(x) for all nodes in
the fringe at each step, choosing the node with the lowest sum.
 The entire work is shown in the table below.

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33. Use graph searches to find paths from S to G in the following

graph.

Solution

Path: S -> D -> B -> E -> G

Cost: 7

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34. Define Local Search Algorithm. List its types.

Local Search Algorithm - Definition
 Local search algorithms operate by searching from a start state to
neighboring states, without keeping track of the paths, or the set of states
that have been reached.
 “Local search algorithms” where the path cost does not matters, and
only focus on solution-state needed to reach the goal node.
 It has two key advantages: 
o use very little memory;
o Often find reasonable solutions in large or infinite state spaces for
which systematic algorithms are unsuitable.
Different types of local searches:
 Hill-climbing Search
Types of Hill climbing search algorithm
 Simple hill climbing
 Steepest-ascent hill climbing
 Stochastic hill climbing
 Random-restart hill climbing
 Simulated Annealing
 Local Beam Search

35. What are the Limitations of Hill climbing algorithm.

 Local Maxima: It is that peak of the mountain which is highest than all
its neighboring states but lower than the global maxima. It is not the goal
peak because there is another peak higher than it.
 Plateau: It is a flat surface area where no uphill exists. It becomes
difficult for the climber to decide that in which direction he should move
to reach the goal point. 
 Ridges: It is a challenging problem where the person finds two or more
local maxima of the same height commonly. It becomes difficult for the
person to navigate the right point and stuck to that point itself.

36. Define Adversarial Search.

 Adversarial search is a game-playing technique where the agents are
surrounded by a competitive environment.
 A conflicting goal is given to the agents (multiagent). 
 These agents compete with one another and try to defeat one another in
order to win the game.

 Such conflicting goals give rise to the adversarial search.

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37. What are the Elements of Game Playing search?

 S0: It is the initial state from where a game begins. 
 PLAYER (s): It defines which player is having the current turn to make a
move in the state.
 ACTIONS (s): It defines the set of legal moves to be used in a state.
 RESULT (s, a): It is a transition model which defines the result of a move.
 TERMINAL-TEST (s): It defines that the game has ended and returns
true.
 UTILITY (s,p): It defines the final value with which the game has ended.
This function is also known as Objective function or Payoff function.
 The price which the winner will get i.e.
o (-1): If the PLAYER loses.
o (+1): If the PLAYER wins.
o (0): If there is a draw between the PLAYERS.

38 List the types of algorithms in adversarial search.

 Minimax Algorithm
 Alpha-beta Pruning

39. Define a Game Tree.

 A game tree is where the nodes represent the states of the game and
edges represent the moves made by the players in the game.
 Players will be two namely:
o MIN: Decrease the chances to win the game.
o MAX: Increases his chances of winning the game.
 MAX will choose that path which will increase its utility value and MIN
will choose the opposite path which could help it to minimize MAX’s
utility value.

40. Define Constraint satisfaction problems (CSP) – Definition.

 A constraint satisfaction problem (CSP) is a problem that requires its
solution within some limitations or conditions also known as constraints. 
 It consists of the following: 
 A finite set of variables which stores the solution (V = {V1, V2, V3, ..... ,
Vn})
 A set of discrete values known as domain from which the solution is
picked (D = {D1, D2, D3, ...... ,Dn})
 A finite set of constraints (C = {C1, C2, C3, ....... , Cn})

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41. List the CSP Algorithms and Problems.

1. CryptArithmetic (Coding alphabets to numbers.)
2. n-Queen (In an n-queen problem, n queens should be placed in an
nXn matrix such that no queen shares the same row, column or
diagonal.)
3. Map Coloring (coloring different regions of map, ensuring no adjacent
regions have the same color)
4. Crossword (everyday puzzles appearing in newspapers)
5. Sudoku (a number grid)
6. Latin Square Problem

42. List the Types of Domains in CSP.

 Discrete Domain: It is an infinite domain which can have one state
for multiple variables. For example, a start state can be allocated
infinite times for each variable. 
 Finite Domain: It is a finite domain which can have continuous
states describing one domain for one specific variable. It is also called
a continuous domain.

43. List the Constraint Types in CSP.

 Unary Constraints: It is the simplest type of constraints that restricts
the value of a single variable.
 Binary Constraints: It is the constraint type which relates two
variables. A value x2 will contain a value which lies
between x1 and x3.
 Global Constraints: It is the constraint type which involves an
arbitrary number of variables. 

44. Define Map Coloring / Graph Coloring Problem.

 It is a map of Australia; it consists of states and territories as in
Figure 1.19.
 The task will be coloring each region with the colors either red, green
or blue.
 In such case, no neighboring regions will have the same color.

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CS 3491 – ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND MACHINE LEARNING UNIT 1

PART B
1. Define Artificial Intelligence and its types, goals, advantages and limitations
in detail.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE:
1.1 Artificial Intelligence Definition
1.2 Types of Artificial Intelligence
1.2.1 Types of Artificial Intelligence-based on capabilities
1.2.2 Types of Artificial Intelligence-based on functionalities
1.3 Four possible goals to pursue in artificial intelligence:
1.3.1 Acting humanly: The Turing test approach
1.3.2 Thinking humanly: The cognitive modeling approach
1.3.3 Thinking rationally: The “laws of thought” approach
1.3.4 Acting rationally: The rational agent approach
1.4 Subfields of Artificial Intelligence
1.5 Advantages of Artificial Intelligence
1.6 Limitations of Artificial Intelligence

1.1 Artificial Intelligence Definition

 Artificial Intelligence is the process of building intelligent machines
from vast volumes of data.
 Systems learn from past learning and experiences and perform
human-like tasks. 
 It enhances the speed, precision, and effectiveness of human efforts.
 AI uses complex algorithms and methods to build machines that can
make decisions on their own as shown in Figure 1.1.
 Machine Learning and Deep learning forms the core of Artificial
Intelligence. 

Figure 1.1 – Artificial Intelligence

1.2 Types of Artificial Intelligence

 Artificial Intelligence can be divided based on capabilities and
functionalities as in figure 1.2.
 Types of Artificial Intelligence-based on capabilities -
o Narrow AI
o General AI
o Super AI

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 Types of Artificial Intelligence-based on functionalities -

o Reactive Machines
o Limited Memory
o Theory of Mind
o Self Awareness

Figure 1.2 – Types of Artificial Intelligence

1.2.1 Types of Artificial Intelligence-based on capabilities -

o Narrow AI
o General AI
o Super AI
 Narrow AI:
o Referred as Weak AI, focuses on one automate specific task and
cannot perform beyond its limitations.
o Example: Alexa and other smart assistants, Self-driving cars,
Google search, Email spam filters, Netflix's recommendations,
 Artificial General Intelligence (AGI):
o Referred as “strong AI,” can understand and learn any intellectual
task that a human being can.
o Example: Fujitsu has built the K computer, which is one of the
fastest supercomputers in the world
 Super Intelligence:
o Super AI surpasses human intelligence and can perform any task
better than a human.
o Some of the critical characteristics of super AI include thinking,
solving puzzles, making judgments, and decisions on its own.

1.2.2 Types of Artificial Intelligence-based on functionalities -

o Purely Reactive or Reactive Machines
o Limited Memory
o Theory of Mind
o Self Awareness

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 Purely Reactive or Reactive Machines

o These machines do not have any memory or data to work with,
specializing in just one field of work.
o For example, in a chess game, the machine observes the moves
and makes the best possible decision to win.
 Limited Memory
o These machines collect previous data and continue adding it to
their memory.
o They have enough memory or experience to make proper decisions,
but memory is minimal.
o For example, this machine can suggest a restaurant based on the
location data that has been gathered.
 Theory of Mind
o This kind of AI can understand thoughts and emotions, as well as
interact socially. However, a machine based on this type is yet to
be built.
 Self-Aware
o Self-aware machines are the future generation of the new
technologies. It will be intelligent, sentient, and conscious.

Table 1.1 - Comparison of types of Artificial Intelligence-based on functionalities:

Reactive Machines Limited Memory Theory of Mind Self-Awareness
Simple classification Human-level intelligence
Complex classification Understands human
and pattern that can by-pass human
tasks reasoning and motives
recognition tasks intelligence too
Needs fewer examples
Great when all Uses historical data Sense of self-
to learn because it
parameters are known to make predictions consciousness
understands motives

Can’t deal with Next milestone for the

Current state of AI Does not exist yet
imperfect information evolution of AI

1.3 Four possible goals to pursue in artificial intelligence:

 Systems that think like humans.
 Systems that think rationally.
 Systems that act like humans
 Systems that act rationally
- Refer Figure 1.3

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Four Approaches from two dimensions

Figure 1.3 - Four Approaches from two dimensions

1.3.1 Acting humanly: The Turing test approach

o The Turing test, proposed by Alan Turing (1950), was designed as
a method for determining if a machine is intelligent or not.
o The computer would need the following capabilities:
 natural language processing to communicate successfully in a
human language;
 knowledge representation to store what it knows or hears;
 automated reasoning to answer questions and to draw new
conclusions;
 machine learning to adapt to new circumstances and to detect
and extrapolate patterns.
o However, other researchers have proposed a total Turing test.
o To pass the total Turing test, a robot will need
 computer vision and speech recognition to perceive the world;
 robotics to manipulate objects and move about.

1.3.2 Thinking humanly: The cognitive modeling approach

o Thinking humanly is to make a system or program to think like a
human.
o Can learnabout human thought in three ways:
 Introspection—trying to catch own thoughts as they go by;
 Psychological experiments—observing a person in action;
 Brain imaging—observing the brain in action.

Cognitive Science
o Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary study of mind and
intelligence, embracing philosophy, psychology, artificial
intelligence, neuroscience, linguistics, and anthropology.

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1.3.3 Thinking rationally: The “laws of thought” approach

o The Greek philosopher Aristotle was one of the first to attempt to
codify “right thinking”—that is, irrefutable reasoning processes.
o His syllogisms provided patterns for argument structures that
always yielded correct conclusions when given correct premises.
o These laws of thought were supposed to govern the operation of
the mind; the study initiated the field called logic.
o By 1965, programs could solve any solvable problem described in
logical notation. The so-called logicist tradition.
o The theory of probability allows rigorous reasoning with uncertain
information.
o In principle, it allows the construction of a comprehensive model of
rational thought, leading from raw perceptual information to an
understanding of how the world works to predictions about the
future.
1.3.4 Acting rationally: The rational agent approach
o An agent is just something that acts to do.
o Computer agents are expected to do more: operate autonomously,
perceive their environment, persist over a prolonged time period,
adapt to change, and create and pursue goals.
o A rational agent is one that acts so as to achieve the best outcome
or, when there is uncertainty, the best expected outcome.

1.4 Subfields of Artificial Intelligence

o Machine Learning
 Machine Learning is the learning in which a machine can learn on its
own from examples and previous experiences.
 It is machine learning that gives AI the ability to learn.
 This is done by using algorithms to discover patterns and generate
insights from the data they are exposed to.
Deep Learning
 Deep learning, is a subcategory of machine learning, provides AI with
the ability to mimic a human brain’s neural network.
 It can make sense of patterns, noise, and sources of confusion in the
data.
o Neural Networks
 Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) are one of the most important tools
in Machine Learning to find patterns within the data, which are far too
complex for a human to figure out and teach the machine to
recognize.

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o Cognitive Computing:
 The ultimate goal of cognitive computing is to imitate the human
thought process in a computer model.
 Using self-learning algorithms, pattern recognition by neural
networks, and natural language processing, a computer can mimic
the human way of thinking.
 Here, computerized models are deployed to simulate the human
cognition process.
o Computer Vision:
 Computer vision works by allowing computers to see, recognize, and
process images, the same way as human vision does, and then it
provides an appropriate output.
 The computer must understand what it sees, and then analyze it,
accordingly.
o Natural Language Processing:
 Natural language processing means developing methods that help us
communicate with machines using natural human languages like
English.

1.5 Advantages of Artificial Intelligence

o Reduced human error:
• With humans involved in the tasks where precision is required, there
will always be a chance of error. However, if programmed properly,
machines do not make mistakes and easily perform repetitive tasks
without making many errors, if not at all.
o Risk avoidance:
• Replacing humans with intelligent robots is one of the biggest
advantages of Artificial Intelligence.
o Replacing repetitive jobs:
• Our day-to-day work includes many repetitive tasks that we have to do
every day without any change. Now, machines have replaced these
tasks so that humans can spend this time doing creative things.
o Digital assistance:
• With digital assistants to interact with users 24/7, organizations can
save the need for human resources and deliver faster service to
customers.
1.6 Limitations of Artificial Intelligence
o High cost of creation.
o No emotions.
o Box thinking.
o Can’t think for Itself.

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2. Compare and differentiate between Data Science vs Artificial Intelligence

Vs. Machine Learning.

DATA SCIENCE Vs. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

2.1 Deep learning vs. machine learning
2.2 Data Science vs. Artificial Intelligence vs. Machine Learning

2.1 Deep learning vs. machine learning

Figure 1.4 - Deep learning vs. machine learning

o “Artificial intelligence is a set of algorithms and intelligence to try to

mimic human intelligence.
o Machine learning is one of them, and deep learning is one of those
machine learning techniques as shown in figure 1.4.”
o Machine Learning
 Machine Learning is the learning in which a machine can learn on
its own from examples and previous experiences.
 It is machine learning that gives AI the ability to learn.
 This is done by using algorithms to discover patterns and generate
insights from the data they are exposed to.
o Deep Learning
 Deep learning, is a subcategory of machine learning, provides AI
with the ability to mimic a human brain’s neural network.
 It can make sense of patterns, noise, and sources of confusion in
the data.

2.2 Data Science vs. Artificial Intelligence vs. Machine Learning

 Data Science, Machine Learning, and Artificial Intelligence are
interconnected, but each one of them uniquely serves a different
purpose as mentioned in table 1.2

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Table 1.2 - Comparison of Data Science, Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning:

Data Science Artificial Intelligence Machine Learning

Machine Learning is a part of
Data Science is used for data AI combines
iterative AI where mathematical models
sourcing, cleaning, processing, processing and intelligent are used to empower a
and visualizing for analytical algorithms to imitate the machine to learn with or
purposes. human brain’s functions. without being programmed
regularly.
AI uses decision trees and
Data Science deals with both Machine Learning utilizes
logic theories to find the
structured and unstructured statistical models and neural
best possible solution to
data for analytics. networks to train a machine.
the given problem.
As a subset of AI, Machine
Some of the popular tools in Some of the popular
Learning also use the same
Data Science are Tableau, SAS2, libraries include Keras,
libraries, along with tools such
Apache, MATLAB, Spark, and Scikit-Learn, and
as Amazon Lex2, IBM Watson,
more. TensorFlow.
and Azure ML Studio.
AI includes predictive
Data Science includes data
modeling to predict events ML is a subset of Artificial
operations based on user
based on the previous and Intelligence.
requirements.
current data.
It is mainly used in fraud Applications of AI include Online recommendations, facial
detection, healthcare, BI chat bots, voice assistants, recognition, and NLP are a few
analysis, and more. and weather prediction. examples of ML.

3. Explain the history of artificial intelligence.

 The important events and milestones in the evolution of artificial intelligence
include the following:
1943:
 The first work that is now generally recognized as AI was done by
Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts (1943).
 Inspired by the mathematical modeling work of Pitts’s advisor Nicolas
they drew on three sources:
 knowledge of the basic physiology and function of neurons in the
brain;
 a formal analysis of propositional logic;
 Turing’s theory of computation.
1949:
 Donald Hebb (1949) demonstrated a simple updating rule for
modifying the connection strengths between neurons.
 His rule, now called Hebbian learning, remains an influential model to
this day.

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1950:
 Alan Turing publishes Computing Machinery and Intelligence. In the
paper, Turing—proposes to answer the question 'can machines
think?' and introduces the Turing Test to determine if a computer can
demonstrate the same intelligence as a human. The value of the
Turing test has been debated ever since.
1956:
 John McCarthy coins the term 'artificial intelligence' at the first-ever
AI conference at Dartmouth College. Later that year, Allen Newell,
J.C. Shaw, and Herbert Simon create the Logic Theorist, the first-ever
running AI software program.
1958:
 In 1958, John McCarthy had defined the high-level language Lisp,
which was to become the dominant AI programming language for the
next 30 years.
1959:
 At IBM, Nathaniel Rochester and his colleagues produced some of the
first AI programs.
 Herbert Gelernter (1959) constructed the Geometry Theorem Prover,
which was able to prove theorems that many students of mathematics
would find quite tricky.
1967:
 Frank Rosenblatt builds the Mark 1 Perceptron, the first computer
based on a neural network that 'learned' though trial and error.
1980s:
 Neural networks which use a back propagation algorithm to train
itself become widely used in AI applications.
1997:
 IBM's Deep Blue beats then world chess champion Garry Kasparov, in
a chess match (and rematch).
2011:
 IBM Watson beats champions Ken Jennings and Brad Rutter
at Jeopardy!
2015:
 Baidu'sMinwa supercomputer uses a special kind of deep neural
network called a convolution neural network to identify and categorize
images with a higher rate of accuracy than the average human.
2016:
 DeepMind'sAlphaGo program, powered by a deep neural network,
beats Lee Sodol, the world champion Go player, in a five-game match.

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 The first “robot citizen,” a humanoid robot named Sophia, is created

by Hanson Robotics and is capable of facial recognition, verbal
communication and facial expression.
2018:
 Google releases natural language processing engine BERT, reducing
barriers in translation and understanding by ML applications.
2020:
 Baidu releases its Linear Fold AI algorithm to scientific and medical
teams working to develop a vaccine during the early stages of the
SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.
 OpenAI releases natural language processing model GPT-3, which is
able to produce text modeled after the way people speak and write.
2022:
 The National Institute of Standards and Technology releases the first
draft of its AI Risk Management Framework, voluntary U.S. guidance
“to better manage risks to individuals, organizations, and society
associated with artificial intelligence.”
 DeepMind unveils Gato, an AI system trained to perform hundreds of
tasks, including playing Atari, captioning images and using a robotic
arm to stack blocks.

4. List and explain the various Applications of Artificial Intelligence or AI

Applications.

APPLICATIONS OF AI:
4.1. AI Application in E-Commerce
4.2. AI Application in Education
4.3. AI Application in Lifestyle
4.4. AI Application in Navigation
4.5. AI Application in Robotics
4.6. AI Application in Human Resource
4.7. AI Application in Healthcare
4.8. AI Application in Agriculture
4.9. AI Application in Gaming
4.10. AI Application in Automobiles
4.11. AI Application in Social Media
4.12. AI Application in Marketing
4.13. AI Application in Chatbots
4.14. AI Application in Finance
4.1. AI Application in E-Commerce
 Personalized Shopping
o Artificial Intelligence technology is used to create
recommendation engines.

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o These recommendations are made in accordance with their

browsing history, preference, and interests.
o It helps in improving the relationship with the customers and the
loyalty towards the brand.
 AI-powered Assistants
o Virtual shopping assistants and chatbots help improve the user
experience while shopping online.
o Natural Language Processing is used to make the conversation
sound as human and personal as possible.
 Fraud Prevention
o Credit card frauds and fake reviews are two of the most
significant issues that E-Commerce companies deal with.
o Many customers prefer to buy a product or service based on
customer reviews.
o AI can help identify and handle fake reviews.

4.2. AI Application in Education

 Administrative Tasks Automated to Aid Educators
o Artificial Intelligence can help educators with non-educational
tasks like task-related duties like facilitating and automating
personalized messages to students, back-office tasks like grading
paperwork, arranging and facilitating parent and guardian
interactions, routine issue feedback facilitating, managing
enrollment, courses, and HR-related topics.
 Creating Smart Content
o Digitization of content like video lectures, conferences, and text
book guides can be made using Artificial Intelligence.
o Artificial Intelligence helps create a rich learning experience by
generating and providing audio and video summaries and integral
lesson plans.
 Voice Assistants
o Without even the direct involvement of the lecturer or the teacher, a
student can access extra learning material or assistance through
Voice Assistants.
 Personalized Learning
o Using top AI technologies, hyper-personalization techniques can be
used to monitor students’ data thoroughly, and habits, lesson
plans, reminders, study guides, flash notes, frequency or revision,
etc., can be easily generated.

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4.3. AI Application in Lifestyle

 Autonomous Vehicles
o Automobile manufacturing companies like Toyota, Audi, Volvo,
and Tesla use machine learning to train computers to think and
evolve like humans when it comes to driving in any environment
and object detection to avoid accidents.
 Spam Filters
o The email has AI that filters out spam emails sending them to
spam or trash folders.
o The popular email provider, Gmail, has managed to reach a
filtration capacity of approximately 99.9%.
 Facial Recognition
o Devices like our phones, laptops, and PCs use facial recognition
techniques by using face filters to detect and identify in order to
provide secure access.
o Facial recognition is a widely used Artificial Intelligence application
even in high security-related areas in several industries.
 Recommendation System
o Various platforms in daily lives like e-commerce, entertainment
websites, social media, video sharing platforms, like youtube, etc.,
all use the recommendation system to get user data and provide
customized recommendations to users to increase engagement.

4.4. AI Application in Navigation

 The technology uses a combination of Convolution Neural
Network and Graph Neural Network, which makes lives easier for
users by automatically detecting the number of lanes and road types
behind obstructions on the roads.
 AI is heavily used by Uber and many logistics companies to improve
operational efficiency, analyze road traffic, and optimize routes.

4.5. AI Application in Robotics

 Robotics is another field where artificial intelligence applications are
commonly used.
 Robots powered by AI use real-time updates to sense obstacles in its
path and pre-plan its journey instantly.
 It can be used for -
 Carrying goods in hospitals, factories, and warehouses
 Cleaning offices and large equipment
 Inventory management

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4.6. AI Application in Human Resource

 Artificial Intelligence helps with blind hiring.
 AI drive systems can scan job candidates' profiles, and resumes to
provide recruiters an understanding of the talent pool they must
choose from.

4.7. AI Application in Healthcare

 AI applications are used in healthcare to build sophisticated
machines that can detect diseases and identify cancer cells.
 Artificial Intelligence can help analyze chronic conditions with lab
and other medical data to ensure early diagnosis.
 AI uses the combination of historical data and medical intelligence
for the discovery of new drugs.

4.8. AI Application in Agriculture

 Artificial Intelligence is used to identify defects and nutrient
deficiencies in the soil.
 This is done using computer vision, robotics, and machine learning
applications, AI can analyze where weeds are growing.
 AI bots can help to harvest crops at a higher volume and faster pace
than human laborers.

4.9. AI Application in Gaming

 AI can be used to create smart, human-like NPCs to interact with
the players.
 It can also be used to predict human behavior using which game
design and testing can be improved.
 The Alien Isolation games released in 2014 uses AI to stalk the
player throughout the game. The game uses two Artificial
Intelligence systems - ‘Director AI’ that frequently knows your
location and the ‘Alien AI,’ driven by sensors and behaviors that
continuously hunt the player.

4.10. AI Application in Automobiles

 Artificial Intelligence is used to build self-driving vehicles.
 AI can be used along with the vehicle’s camera, radar, cloud
services, GPS, and control signals to operate the vehicle.
 AI can improve the in-vehicle experience and provide additional
systems like emergency braking, blind-spot monitoring, and driver-
assist steering.

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4.11. AI Application in Social Media

 Instagram
 Facebook
 Twitter

4.12. AI Application in Marketing

 Artificial intelligence (AI) applications are popular in the marketing
domain as well.
 AI can provide users with real-time personalization’s based on their
behavior and can be used to edit and optimize marketing campaigns
to fit a local market's needs.

4.13. AI Application in Chatbots

 AI chatbots can comprehend natural language and respond to
people online who use the "live chat" feature that many
organizations provide for customer service.
 As AI continues to improve, these chatbots can effectively resolve
customer issues, respond to simple inquiries, improve customer
service, and provide 24/7 support.

4.14. AI Application in Finance

 Whether it’s personal finance, corporate finance, or consumer
finance, the highly evolved technology that is offered through AI can
help to significantly improve a wide range of financial services.
 Artificial intelligence can also detect changes in transaction patterns
and other potential red flags that can signify fraud, which humans
can easily miss, and thus saving businesses and individuals from
significant loss.
 Aside from fraud detection and task automation, AI can also better
predict and assess loan risks.

5. Explain in detail about agents and its types in detail.

AGENTS
5.1 Agents and Environments
5.2 Basic Terminologies
5.3 Steps in designing an agent
5.4 Types of Agent

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5.1 Agents and Environments

Agent
 An agent is anything that can be viewed as perceiving its
environment through sensors and acting upon that environment
through actuators as in Figure 1.5.
 Example:
o A human agent has eyes, ears, and other organs for sensors
and hands, legs, vocaltract, and so on for actuators.
o A robotic agent might have cameras and infrared range
findersfor sensors and various motors for actuators.
o A software agent receives file contents, network packets, and
human input (keyboard/mouse/touch screen/voice) as sensory
inputsand acts on the environment by writing files, sending
network packets, and displaying information or generating
sounds.

Environments
 The environment could be everything—the entire universe.

Figure 1.5: Agents and Environments

5.2 Basic Terminologies

Agent Function
 The agent function for an agent specifies the action taken by the
agent in response to any percept sequence.
Performance Measure
 The performance measure evaluates the behavior of the agent in
an environment. 

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Rational Agent
 A rational agent acts so as to maximize the expected value of the
performance measure, given the percept sequence it has seen so
far.
Task Environment
 A task environment specification includes the performance
measure, the external environment, the actuators, and the
sensors. 

5.3 Steps in designing an agent

 In designing an agent, the first step must always be to specify the task
environment as fully as possible. 
 The agent program implements the agent function. 
 There exists a variety of basic agent program designs reflecting the
kind of information made explicit and used in the decision process.
 The designs vary in efficiency, compactness, and flexibility.
 The appropriate design of the agent program depends on the nature of
the environment. 
 All agents can improve their performance through learning.

5.4 Types of Agent

 Simple reflex agents respond directly to percepts. Refer fig 1.6
 Model-based reflex agents maintain internal state to track aspects of
the world that are not evident in the current percept. Refer fig 1.7
 Goal-based agents act to achieve their goals Refer fig 1.8
 Utility-based agents try to maximize their own expected “happiness.”
Refer fig 1.9

Simple reflex agents

Figure 1.6: Simple reflex agents

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Model-based reflex

Figure 1.7: Model-based reflex

Goal-based agents

Figure 1.8: Goal-based agents

Utility-based agents

Figure 1.9: Utility-based agents

Learning agents:

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It allows the agent to operate in initially unknown environments and to become more
competent than its initial knowledge alone might allow. A learning agent can be divided into
four conceptual components, as shown in figure 1.10:

Figure 1.10: Learning agents

6. Explain in detail about problem solving agent with example in detail.

PROBLEM SOLVING AGENT

6.1 Problem Solving Agent Definition

6.2 Steps performed by Problem-solving agent
6.3 Types of problem approaches:
6.3.1 Toy Problem or Standardized Problem
6.3.2 Real-world Problem

6.1 Problem Solving Agent Definition

 Problem-solving agent is a goal-based agent that focus on goals using
a group of algorithms and techniques to solve a well-defined problem.
 An agent may need to plan a sequence of actions that form a path to a
goal state.
 Such an agent is called a problem-solving agent, and the
computational process it undertakes is called search. 
6.2 Steps performed by Problem-solving agent
 Goal Formulation:
o It is the first and simplest step in problem-solving.
o It organizes the steps/sequence required to formulate one goal out
of multiple goals as well as actions to achieve that goal. Goal

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formulation is based on the current situation and the agent's

performance measure
 Problem Formulation: 
o It is the most important step of problem-solving which decides
what actions should be taken to achieve the formulated goal.
o Components in problem formulation:
1. Initial State: It is the starting state or initial step of the agent
towards its goal.
2. Actions: It is the description of the possible actions available to
the agent.
3. Transition Model: It describes what each action does.
4. Goal Test: It determines if the given state is a goal state.
5. Path cost: It assigns a numeric cost to each path that follows
the goal.
The problem-solving agent selects a cost function, which reflects
its performance measure.
o Initial state, actions, and transition model together define
the state-space of the problem implicitly.
o State-space of a problem is a set of all states which can be reached
from the initial state followed by any sequence of actions.
o The state-space forms a directed map or graph where nodes are
the states, links between the nodes are actions, and the path is a
sequence of states connected by the sequence of actions.
 Search:
o It identifies all the best possible sequence of actions to reach the
goal state from the current state. It takes a problem as an input
and returns solution as its output.
 Solution:
o It finds the best algorithm out of various algorithms, which may be
proven as the best optimal solution.
 Execution:
o It executes the best optimal solution from the searching algorithms
to reach the goal state from the current state.

6.3 Types of problem approaches:

6.3.1 Toy Problem or Standardized Problem:
o It is a concise and exact description of the problem which is
used by the researchers to compare the performance of
algorithms.

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Example Problem 1 - 8 Puzzle Problem:

 Consider a 3x3 matrix with movable tiles numbered from 1 to 8 with a
blank space.
 The tile adjacent to the blank space can slide into that space.
 The objective is to reach a specified goal state similar to the goal state,
as shown in the below figure 1.11
 The task is to convert the current state into goal state by sliding digits
into the blank space

Figure 1.11: Agents and Environments

The problem formulation is as follows:

 States:
o It describes the location of each numbered tiles and the blank tile.
 Initial State:
o Can start from any state as the initial state.
 Actions:
o Actions of the blank space is defined, i.e., either left, right, up or
down
 Transition Model: 
o It returns the resulting state as per the given state and actions.
 Goal test:
o It identifies whether have reached the correct goal-state.
 Path cost:
o The path cost is the number of steps in the path where the cost of
each step is 1.

Note: The 8-puzzle problem is a type of sliding-block problem which is

used for testing new search algorithms in artificial intelligence.

Example Problem 2 – Grid World Problem:

 A grid world problem is a two-dimensional rectangular array of
square cells in which agents can move from cell to cell.
 Typically the agent can move to any obstacle-free adjacent cell—
horizontally or vertically and in some problems diagonally. 

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 Cells can contain objects, which the agent can pick up, push, or
otherwise act upon; a wall or other impassible obstacle in acell
prevents an agent from moving into that cell.
 The vacuum world canbe formulated as a grid world problem as
shown in figure 1.12:

Figure 1.12: Vacuum World

The problem formulation is as follows:

 States:
o For the vacuum world, the objects are the agent and any dirt. In
the simple two-cell version, the agent can be in either of the two
cells, and each cell can either contain dirt or not.
 Initial state:
o Any state can be designated as the initial state.
 Actions:
o In the two-cell world three actions are: suck, move left, and move
Right, upward and downward, or forward, backward, turnright,
and turnleft.
 Transition model: 
o Suck removes any dirt from the agent’s cell;
o Forward moves the agent ahead one cell in the direction it is
facing, unless it hits a wall, in which case the action has no effect.
o Backward moves the agent in the opposite direction
o Turnright and turnleft change the direction it is facing by.
 Goal states:
o The states in which every cell is clean.
 Action cost:
o Each action costs 1.
6.3.2 Real-world Problem:
 It is real-world based problems which require solutions.

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Example Problem 1 – Route-Finding Problem:

 Route-finding problem is defined in terms of specified locations and
transitions along edges between them.
The problem formulation is as follows:
 Consider the airline travel problems that must be solved by a travel-
planning Web site:
• States:
o Each state obviously includes a location (e.g., an airport) and the
current time.
• Initial state:
o The user’s home airport.
• Actions:
o Take any flight from the current location, in any seat class, leaving
after the current time, leaving enough time for within-airport
transfer if needed.
• Transition model:
o The state resulting from taking a flight will have the flight’s
Destination as the new location and the flight’s arrival time as the
new time.
• Goal state:
o A destination city.
• Action cost:
o A combination of monetary cost, waiting time, flight time, customs
and Immigration procedures, seat quality, time of day, type of
airplane, frequent-flyer reward Points, and so on.

Algorithm – Problem solving agent

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7. Explain in detail about search algorithms in detail with example.

SEARCH ALGORITHMS
7.1 Search Algorithm
7.2 Types of Search Algorithm
7.2.1 UNINFORMED SEARCH ALGORITHMS
7.2.1.1 Depth First Search
7.2.1.2 Depth Limited Search
7.2.1.3 Breadth First Search
7.2.1.4 Iterative Deepening Search
7.2.1.5 Uniform Cost Search
7.2.1.6 Bidirectional Search
7.2.2 INFORMED (HEURISTIC) SEARCH STRATEGIES
7.2.2.1 Greedy Search
7.2.2.2 A* Tree Search
7.2.2.3 A* Graph Search

7.1 Search Algorithm

o A search algorithm takes a search problem as input and returns a

solution.

7.2 Types of Search Algorithm

Figure 1.13: Types of Search Algorithms

7.2.1 UNINFORMED SEARCH ALGORITHMS:

• Uninformed search is also called Blind search.
• These algorithms can only generate the successors and
differentiate between the goal state and non goal state.

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• These type of search does not maintain any internal state, that’s
it is also known as Blind search.
• Types of uninformed search algorithms are shown in Figure 1.13.
7.2.1.1 Depth First Search
7.2.1.2 Depth Limited Search
7.2.1.3 Breadth First Search
7.2.1.4 Iterative Deepening Search
7.2.1.5 Uniform Cost Search
7.2.1.6 Bidirectional Search
Each of these algorithms will have:
 A problem graph, containing the start node S and the goal node
G.
 A strategy, describing the manner in which the graph will be
traversed to get to G.
 A fringe, which is a data structure used to store all the possible
states (nodes) from the current states.
 A tree, that results while traversing to the goal node.
 A solution plan, which the sequence of nodes from S to G.

7.2.1.1 DEPTH FIRST SEARCH:

• Depth-first search (DFS) is an algorithm for traversing or searching
tree or graph data structures.
• The algorithm starts at the root node and explores as far as possible
along each branch before backtracking.
• It uses last in-first-out strategy and hence it is implemented using a
stack.
d= the depth of the search tree = the number of levels of the search
tree.
n^i = number of nodes in level i
 DFS Example – Refer Figure 1.14

The performance measure of DFS

 Completeness: DFS does not guarantee to reach the goal state.
 Optimality: It does not give an optimal solution as it expands nodes
in one direction deeply.
 Space complexity: It needs to store only a single path from the root
node to the leaf node. Therefore, DFS has O(bm) space complexity
where b is the branching factor(i.e., total no. of child nodes, a
parent node have) and m is the maximum length of any path.
 Time complexity: DFS has O(bm) time complexity.

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Figure 1.14: DFS Example

Advantage of Depth-first Search:

 DFS uses extremely little memory.
 It takes less time to reach the goal node than the BFS method.

Disadvantage of Depth-first Search:

 There's a chance that many states will recur, and there's no certainty
that a solution will be found.
 The DFS algorithm performs deep searching and may occasionally
enter an infinite cycle.

Example:

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Which solution would DFS find to move from node S to node G if

run on the graph below?

Solution.

Path: S -> A -> B -> C -> G

Algorithm

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7.2.1.2 DEPTH-LIMITED SEARCH ALGORITHM:

 A depth-limited search algorithm is similar to depth-first search with a
predetermined limit.
 Depth-limited search can solve the drawback of the infinite path in
the Depth-first search.
 In this algorithm, the node at the depth limit will treat as it has no
successor nodes further. 
 Depth-limited search can be terminated with two Conditions of failure:
o Standard failure value: It indicates that problem does not have any
solution.
o Cutoff failure value: It defines no solution for the problem within a
given depth limit.

Depth-limited search Algorithm

 Set a variable NODE to the initial state, i.e., the root node.
 Set a variable GOAL which contains the value of the goal state.
 Set a variable LIMIT which carries a depth-limit value.
 Loop each node by traversing in DFS manner till the depth-limit
value.
 While performing the looping, start removing the elements from the
stack in LIFO order.
 If the goal state is found, return goal state. Else terminate the
search.
 Example – Refer Figure 1.15

The performance measure of Depth-limited search

 Completeness: Depth-limited search does not guarantee to reach the
goal node.
 Optimality: It does not give an optimal solution as it expands the
nodes till the depth-limit. 
 Space Complexity: The space complexity of the depth-limited search
is O(bl). 
 Time Complexity: The time complexity of the depth-limited search
is O(b l). 

Advantages:
 Depth-limited search is Memory efficient. 
Disadvantages:
 Depth-limited search also has a disadvantage of incompleteness. 
 It may not be optimal if the problem has more than one solution.

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Example:

Figure 1.15 –Depth Limited Search

7.2.1.3 BREADTH FIRST SEARCH:

• Breadth-first search (BFS) is an algorithm for traversing or searching
tree or graph data structures.
• It starts at the tree root and explores all of the neighbor nodes at the
present depth prior to moving on to the nodes at the next depth level
Refer Figure 1.16.
• It is implemented using a queue.
S= the depth of the shallowest solution.

n^i= number of nodes in level .

 The performance measure of BFS is as follows:
o Completeness: It is a complete strategy as it definitely finds the goal
state.
o Optimality: It gives an optimal solution if the cost of each node is
same.
o Space Complexity: The space complexity of BFS is O(b d), i.e., it
requires a huge amount of memory. Here, b is the branching
factor and d denotes the depth/level of the tree
o Time Complexity: BFS consumes much time to reach the goal node
for large instances.

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Figure 1.16: Breadth First Search

Breadth First Search Algorithm:

Advantages of Breadth-first Search:

 If a solution is available, BFS will provide it.
 If there are multiple answers to a problem, BFS will present the
simplest solution with the fewest steps.
Disadvantages of Breadth-first Search:
 It necessitates a large amount of memory.
 If the solution is located far from the root node, BFS will take a long
time.
Example:
Which solution would BFS find to move from node S to node G if
run on the graph below?

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Solution.

Path: S -> D -> G

7.2.1.4 ITERATIVE DEEPENING DEPTH-FIRST SEARCH/

ITERATIVE DEEPENING SEARCH
 This search is a combination of BFS and DFS, as BFS guarantees to
reach the goal node and DFS occupies less memory space.
 Therefore, iterative deepening search combines these two advantages of
BFS and DFS to reach the goal node.
 It gradually increases the depth-limit from 0,1,2 and so on and reach
the goal node.

Figure 1.17 – Iterative Deepening Search

 In the above figure 1.17, the goal node is H and initial

depth-limit =[0-1].
 So, it will expand level 0 and 1 and will terminate with
A->B->C sequence.

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 Further, change the depth-limit =[0-3], it will again expand the nodes
from level 0 till level 3 and the search terminate
with A->B->D->F->E->H sequence where H is the desired goal node.

Iterative deepening search Algorithm

 Explore the nodes in DFS order.
 Set a LIMIT variable with a limit value. 
 Loop each node up to the limit value and further increase the limit
value accordingly. 
 Terminate the search when the goal state is found.

The performance measure of Iterative deepening search

 Completeness: Iterative deepening search may or may not reach the
goal state.
 Optimality: It does not give an optimal solution always.
 Space Complexity: It has the same space complexity as BFS,
i.e., O(bd).
 Time Complexity: It has O(d) time complexity.

Disadvantages of Iterative deepening search

 The drawback of iterative deepening search is that it seems wasteful
because it generates states multiple times.

7.2.1.5 UNIFORM COST SEARCH:

 A searching algorithm for traversing a weighted tree or graph is uniform-
cost search.
 When a separate cost is provided for each edge, this algorithm is used.
 The uniform-cost search's main purpose is to discover the shortest path
to the goal node with the lowest cumulative cost.
 Cost of a node is defined as:
cost(node) = cumulative cost of all nodes from root
cost(root) = 0
 Completeness: The uniform-cost search is complete, so if a solution
exists, UCS will discover it.
o Time Complexity: Let C* be the cost of the best solution, and be
the cost of each step toward the goal node. The number of steps is
then equal to C*/ε+1. We've chosen +1 because we're starting from
state 0 and ending at C*/ε.
o As a result, the Uniform-cost search's worst-case time complexity
is O(b1 + [C*/ε])/.

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o Space Complexity: The same argument applies to space complexity,

therefore Uniform-cost search's worst-case space complexity is O(b1 +
[C*/ε]).

o Optimal: Uniform-cost search is always the best option because it

only chooses the cheapest path.

Uniform Cost Search Algorithm

The performance measure of Uniform-cost search

 Completeness: It guarantees to reach the goal state.
 Optimality: It gives optimal path cost solution for the search.
 Space and time complexity: The worst space and time complexity of
the uniform-cost search is O(b1+LC*/??).

Advantages of Uniform-cost Search:

o The path with the lowest cost is chosen at each state.
o UCS is complete only if states are finite and there should be no loop
with zero weight.
o UCS is optimal only if there is no negative cost.
Disadvantages of Uniform-cost Search:
o It isjust concerned with the expense of the path.

Example:
Which solution would UCS find to move from node S to node G if run
on the graph below?

Solution.

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Path: S -> A -> B -> G

Cost: 5

7.2.1.6 BIDIRECTIONAL SEARCH

 The strategy behind the bidirectional search is to run two searches
simultaneously--one forward search from the initial state and
other from the backside of the goal--hoping that both searches will
meet in the middle. 
 As soon as the two searches intersect one another, the bidirectional
search terminates with the goal node.
 This search is implemented by replacing the goal test to check if the
two searches intersect. Because if they do so, it means a solution is
found.
The performance measure of Bidirectional search
 Complete: Bidirectional search is complete.
 Optimal: It gives an optimal solution. 
 Time and space complexity: Bidirectional search has O(bd/2)
Disadvantage of Bidirectional Search
 It requires a lot of memory space.

7.2.2 INFORMED (HEURISTIC) SEARCH STRATEGIES:

 Here, the algorithms have information on the goal state, which helps in
more efficient searching.
 This information is obtained by something called a heuristic.

Search Heuristics:
 In an informed search, a heuristic is a functionh(n) estimates how
close a state is to the goal state.
 h(n) = estimated cost of the cheapest path from the state at node n to
a goal state.

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Types of Informed search algorithms.

7.2.2.1 Greedy Search
7.2.2.2 A* Tree Search
7.2.2.3 A* Graph Search

7.2.2.1 GREEDY SEARCH:

 In greedy search, we expand the node closest to the goal node. The
“closeness” is estimated by a heuristic h(x).
 Heuristic: A heuristic h is defined as-
h(x) = Estimate of distance of node x from the goal node.
Lower the value of h(x), closer is the node from the goal.
 Strategy: Expand the node closest to the goal state, i.e. expand the
node with a lower h value.

The performance measure of Best-first search Algorithm:

 Completeness: Best-first search is incomplete even in finite state
space.
 Optimality: It does not provide an optimal solution. 
 Time and Space complexity: It has O(bm) worst time and space
complexity, where m is the maximum depth of the search tree. If
the quality of the heuristic function is good, the complexities could be
reduced substantially.

 Advantage: Works well with informed search problems, with fewer

steps to reach a goal.
 Disadvantage: Can turn into unguided DFS in the worst case.

Example:
Question. Find the path from S to G using greedy search. The heuristic
values h of each node below the name of the node.

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Solution.
Starting from S, we can traverse to A(h=9) or D(h=5). We choose D,
as it has the lower heuristic cost. Now from D, we can move to
B(h=4) or E(h=3). We choose E with a lower heuristic cost. Finally,
from E, we go to G(h=0). This entire traversal is shown in the search
tree below, in blue.

Path: S -> D -> E -> G

7.2.2.2 A* TREE SEARCH:

 A* Tree Search, or simply known as A* Search, combines the
strengths of uniform-cost search and greedy search. 
 In this search, the heuristic is the summation of the cost in UCS,
denoted by g(x), and the cost in the greedy search, denoted by h(x).
The summed cost is denoted by f(x).

Heuristic:
The following points should be noted with heuristics in A* search.
f(x) = g(x) + h(x)
 h(x) is called the forward cost and is an estimate of the distance of
the current node from the goal node.
 g(x) is called the backward cost and is the cumulative cost of a
node from the root node.
 A* search is optimal only when for all nodes, the forward cost for a
node h(x) underestimates the actual cost h*(x) to reach the goal.
 This property of A* heuristic is called admissibility.
Admissibility: 0 <= h(x) <= h*(x)

Strategy: Choose the node with the lowest f(x) value.

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The performance measure of A* search

 Completeness: The star(*) in A* search guarantees to reach the
goal node.
 Optimality: An underestimated cost will always give an optimal
solution.
 Space and time complexity: A* search has O(bd) space and
time complexities.

Example: Find the path to reach from S to G using A* search.

Solution.
 Starting from S, the algorithm computes g(x) + h(x) for all nodes in the
fringe at each step, choosing the node with the lowest sum.
 The entire work is shown in the table below.

A* algorithm

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7.2.2.3 A* Graph Search:

 In A* tree search, if the same node has expanded twice in different
branches of the search tree, A* search might explore both of those
branches, thus wasting time
 A* Graph Search, or simply Graph Search, removes this limitation by
adding this rule: do not expand the same node more than once. 
 Heuristic. Graph search is optimal only when the forward cost between
two successive nodes A and B, given by h(A) – h (B), is less than or equal
to the backward cost between those two nodes g(A -> B). This property
of the graph search heuristic is called consistency.
 Consistency: h(A) – h(B) <= g ( A->B )

Example:
Question. Use graph searches to find paths from S to G in the following
graph.

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Solution

Path: S -> D -> B -> E -> G

Cost: 7
8. Explain in detail about Local Search Algorithms with an example.

LOCAL SEARCH ALGORITHMS

8.1. Local Search Algorithm - Definition
8.2. Working of a Local search algorithm
8.3. Different types of local searches:
8.3.1 Hill-climbing Search
8.3.1.1 Simple hill climbing
8.3.1.2 Steepest-ascent hill climbing
8.3.1.3 Stochastic hill climbing
8.3.1.4 Random-restart hill climbing
8.3.2 Simulated Annealing
8.3.3. Local Beam Search

8.1. Local Search Algorithm - Definition

 Local search algorithms operate by searching from a start state to
neighboring states,without keeping track of the paths, or the set of states
that have been reached. 
 “Local search algorithms” where the path cost does not matters, and
only focus on solution-state needed to reach the goal node.

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 It has two key advantages: 

o use very little memory;
o Often find reasonable solutions in large or infinite state spaces for
which systematic algorithms are unsuitable.
 Local search algorithms can also solve optimization problems, in which
the aim is to find the best state according to an objective function.
 Optimization Problems - An optimization problem is one where all the
nodes can give a solution. But the target is to find the best state out of all
according to the objective function.
 Objective Function - An objective function is a function whose value is
either minimized or maximized in different contexts of the optimization
problems. In the case of search algorithms, an objective function can be
the path cost for reaching the goal node, etc.

8.2. Working of a Local search algorithm

 Consider the below state-space landscape having both:
o Location: It is defined by the state.
o Elevation: It is defined by the value of the objective function or
heuristic cost function.

Figure 1.18 – Local Search Algorithm

The local search algorithm explores the above landscape by finding the
following two points:
 Global Minimum: If the elevation corresponds to the cost, then the task
is to find the lowest valley, which is known as Global Minimum.

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 Global Maxima: If the elevation corresponds to an objective function,

then it finds the highest peak which is called as Global Maxima. It is the
highest point in the valley. Refer fig 1.18

8.3 Different types of local searches:

8.3.1 Hill-climbing Search
8.3.2 Simulated Annealing
8.3.3 Local Beam Search

8.3.1 Hill-climbing Search

 Hill Climbing Algorithm: Hill climbing search is a local search problem.
 The hill-climbing search algorithm keeps track of one current state and
on each iteration moves to the neighboring state with highest value.
 The purpose of the hill climbing search is to climb a hill and reach the
topmost peak/ point of that hill. 
 It is based on the heuristic search technique where the person who is
climbing up on the hill estimates the direction which will lead him to the
highest peak.

State-space Landscape of Hill climbing algorithm

 Consider the below landscape representing the goal state/peak and
the current state of the climber.

Figure 1.19 – Local Search Algorithm

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 The topographical regions shown in the Figure 1.19 can be defined as:
 Global Maximum: It is the highest point on the hill, which is the goal
state.
 Local Maximum: It is the peak higher than all other peaks but lower
than the global maximum.
 Flat local maximum: It is the flat area over the hill where it has no
uphill or downhill. It is a saturated point of the hill.
 Shoulder: It is also a flat area where the summit is possible.
 Current state: It is the current position of the person.

Types of Hill climbing search algorithm

8.3.1.1 Simple hill climbing
8.3.1.2 Steepest-ascent hill climbing
8.3.1.3 Stochastic hill climbing
8.3.1.4 Random-restart hill climbing
8.3.1.1 Simple hill climbing search
 Simple hill climbing is the simplest technique to climb a hill.
 The task is to reach the highest peak of the mountain.
 Here, the movement of the climber depends on his move/steps.
 If he finds his next step better than the previous one, he continues to
move else remain in the same state.
 This search focus only on his previous and next step.
Simple hill climbing Algorithm
1. Create a CURRENT node, NEIGHBOUR node, and a GOAL node.
2. If the CURRENT node=GOAL node, return GOAL and terminate the
search.
3. Else CURRENT node<= NEIGHBOUR node, move ahead.
4. Loop until the goal is not reached or a point is not found.

8.3.1.2 Steepest-ascent hill climbing

 Steepest-ascent hill climbing is different from simple hill climbing
search. Unlike simple hill climbing search,
 It considers all the successive nodes, compares them, and choose the
node which is closest to the solution.
 Steepest hill climbing search is similar to best-first search because it
focuses on each node instead of one.
Steepest-ascent hill climbing algorithm
1. Create a CURRENT node and a GOAL node.
2. If the CURRENT node=GOAL node, return GOAL and terminate the
search.
3. Loop until a better node is not found to reach the solution.

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4. If there is any better successor node present, expand it.

5. When the GOAL is attained, return GOAL and terminate.

8.3.1.3 Stochastic hill climbing

 Stochastic hill climbing does not focus on all the nodes.
 It selects one node at random and decides whether it should be
expanded or search for a better one.

8.3.1.4 Random-restart hill climbing

 Random-restart algorithm is based on try and try strategy.
 It iteratively searches the node and selects the best one at each
step until the goal is not found.
 The success depends most commonly on the shape of the hill.
 If there are few plateaus, local maxima, and ridges, it becomes
easy to reach the destination.
Limitations of Hill climbing algorithm
 Local Maxima: It is that peak of the mountain which is highest than all
its neighboring states but lower than the global maxima. It is not the goal
peak because there is another peak higher than it. Refer Figure 1.20.

Figure 1.20 – Local Maxima

 Plateau: It is a flat surface area where no uphill exists. It becomes

difficult for the climber to decide that in which direction he should move
to reach the goal point.Refer Figure 1.21.

Figure 1.21 – Plateau

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 Ridges: It is a challenging problem where the person finds two or more

local maxima of the same height commonly. It becomes difficult for the
person to navigate the right point and stuck to that point itself. Refer
Figure 1.22

Figure 1.22 – Ridges

8.3.2 Simulated Annealing

 Simulated annealing is similar to the hill climbing algorithm.
 It works on the current situation.
 It picks a random move instead of picking the best move.
 If the move leads to the improvement of the current situation, it is
always accepted as a step towards the solution state, else it accepts
the move having a probability less than 1.
 This search technique was first used in 1980 to solve VLSI
layout problems.
 It is also applied for factory scheduling and other large optimization
tasks.

8.3.3. Local Beam Search

 The local beam search algorithm keeps track of states rather than just
one.
 It begins with randomly k generated states.

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 It selects k randomly generated states, and expands them at each

step.
 If any state is a goal state, the search stops with success.
 Else it selects the best k successors from the complete list and repeats
the same process.
 In local beam search, the necessary information is shared between the
parallel search processes. 
Disadvantages of Local Beam search
 This search can suffer from a lack of diversity among the k states.
 It is an expensive version of hill climbing search.

9. Explain in detail about Adversarial Search and its types in Artificial

Intelligence.

ADVERSARIAL SEARCH
9.1 Adversarial Search in Artificial Intelligence
9.2 Elements of Game Playing search
9.3 Example:
9.3.1 Game Tree For Tic Tac Toe
9.4 Types Of Algorithms In Adversarial Search
9.4.1 Minimax Strategy / Minimax Algorithm
9.4.2 Alpha – Beta Pruning

9.1 Adversarial Search in Artificial Intelligence

AI Adversarial search:
 Adversarial search is a game-playing technique where the agents are
surrounded by a competitive environment.
 A conflicting goal is given to the agents (multiagent). 
 These agents compete with one another and try to defeat one another in
order to win the game.

 Such conflicting goals give rise to the adversarial search.

9.2 Elements of Game Playing search

 To play a game, we use a game tree to know all the possible choices and
to pick the best one out.
 There are following elements of a game-playing:
 S0: It is the initial state from where a game begins.
 PLAYER (s): It defines which player is having the current turn to
make a move in the state.
 ACTIONS (s): It defines the set of legal moves to be used in a state.

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 RESULT (s, a): It is a transition model which defines the result of a

move.
 TERMINAL-TEST (s): It defines that the game has ended and returns
true.
 UTILITY (s,p): It defines the final value with which the game has
ended. This function is also known as Objective function or Payoff
function.
 The price which the winner will get i.e.
o (-1): If the PLAYER loses.
o (+1): If the PLAYER wins.
o (0): If there is a draw between the PLAYERS.

9.3 Example:
 Game tic-tac-toe, has two or three possible outcomes. 
 Either to win, to lose, or to draw the match with values +1,-1 or 0.
 Game tree designed for tic-tac-toe refer Figure 1.23.
 Here, the node represents the game state and edges represent the moves
taken by the players.

Figure 1.23 – A Game Tree for Tic Tac Toe

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9.3.1 GAME TREE FOR TIC TAC TOE

 INITIAL STATE (S 0): The top node in the game-tree represents the initial
state in the tree and shows all the possible choice to pick out one.
 PLAYER (s): There are two players, MAX and MIN. MAX begins the game
by picking one best move and place X in the empty square box.
 ACTIONS (s): Both the players can make moves in the empty boxes
chance by chance.
 RESULT (s, a): The moves made by MIN and MAX will decide the
outcome of the game.
 TERMINAL-TEST(s): When all the empty boxes will be filled, it will be the
terminating state of the game.
 UTILITY: At the end, we will get to know who wins: MAX or MIN, and
accordingly, the price will be given to them.

9.4 TYPES OF ALGORITHMS IN ADVERSARIAL SEARCH

9.4.1 Minimax Algorithm
9.4.2 Alpha-beta Pruning

9.4.1 MINIMAX STRATEGY / MINIMAX ALGORITHM

 In artificial intelligence, minimax is a decision-making strategy
under game theory, which is used to minimize the losing chances in
a game and to maximize the winning chances.
 This strategy is also known as ‘Minmax,’ ’MM,’ or ‘Saddle point.’
 Basically, it is a two-player game strategy where if one wins, the other
loose the game.
 Example: playing chess
 MINIMAX algorithm is a backtracking algorithm where it backtracks
to pick the best move out of several choices.
 MINIMAX strategy follows the DFS (Depth-first search) concept.
 Here, we have two players MIN and MAX, and the game is played
alternatively between them, i.e., when MAX made a move, then the
next turn is of MIN. 

Game Tree
 A game tree is where the nodes represent the states of the game and
edges represent the moves made by the players in the game.
 Players will be two namely:
o MIN: Decrease the chances to win the game.
o MAX: Increases his chances of winning the game.

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 MAX will choose that path which will increase its utility value and MIN
will choose the opposite path which could help it to minimize MAX’s
utility value.

Working of Min-Max Algorithm:

o Consider an example of game-tree which is representing the two-
player game.
o In this example, there are two players one is called Maximizer and
other is called Minimizer.
o Maximizer will try to get the Maximum possible score, and Minimizer
will try to get the minimum possible score.
o This algorithm applies DFS, so have to go all the way through the
leaves to reach the terminal nodes.
o At the terminal node, the terminal values are given so we will compare
those value and backtrack the tree until the initial state occurs.

Steps involved in solving the two-player game tree:

Step-1:
Let's take A is the initial state of the tree. Suppose maximizer takes
first turn which has worst-case initial value =- infinity, and minimizer
will take next turn which has worst-case initial value = +infinity.

Step 2:
Now, first we find the utilities value for the Maximizer, its initial value
is -∞,
For node D max(-1,- -∞) => max(-1,4)= 4
o For Node E max(2, -∞) => max(2, 6)= 6
o For Node F max(-3, -∞) => max(-3,-5) = -3
o For node G max(0, -∞) = max(0, 7) = 7

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Step 3:
In the next step, it's a turn for minimizer, so it will compare all nodes
value with +∞, and will find the 3rd layer node values.
o For node B= min(4,6) = 4
o For node C= min (-3, 7) = -3

Step 4:
Now it's a turn for Maximizer, and it will again choose the maximum of all
nodes value and find the maximum value for the root node.
In this game tree, there are only 4 layers, hence reach immediately to the
root node, but in real games, there will be more than 4 layers.
o For node A max(4, -3)= 4

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That was the complete workflow of the minimax two player game.

Minimax algorithm

9.4.2 ALPHA – BETA PRUNING

 Alpha-beta pruning is an advance version of MINIMAX algorithm. 
Drawbacks of MINIMAX
 The drawback of minimax strategy is that it explores each node in the
tree deeply to provide the best path among all the paths.
 This increases its time complexity.
 Therefore, alpha-beta pruning reduces this drawback of minimax
strategy by less exploring the nodes of the search tree.

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 The method used in alpha-beta pruning is that it cutoff the

search by exploring less number of nodes. It prunes the unwanted
branches using the pruning technique (discussed in adversarial
search).
 Alpha-beta pruning works on two threshold values, i.e., ?
(alpha) and ? (beta). 
 ?: (alpha) - It is the best highest value, a MAX player can have. It
is the lower bound, which represents negative infinity value.
 ?:(beta) - It is the best lowest value, a MIN player can have. It is
the upper bound which represents positive infinity.
 The main condition which required for alpha-beta pruning is: 
α>=β
Working of Alpha-beta Pruning
 Let's take an example of two-player search tree to understand the
working of Alpha-beta pruning
 here, ? (alpha) will represent the maximum value of the nodes,
and ?(beta) will represent the minimum value of the nodes. 

Step 1:
At the first step the, Max player will start first move from node A
where α= -∞ and β= +∞, these value of alpha and beta passed down to
node B where again α= -∞ and β= +∞, and Node B passes the same
value to its child D.

Step 2:
At Node D, the value of α will be calculated as its turn for Max. The
value of α is compared with firstly 2 and then 3, and the max (2, 3) = 3
will be the value of α at node D and node value will also 3.

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Step 3:
Now algorithm backtrack to node B, where the value of β will change
as this is a turn of Min, Now β= +∞, will compare with the available
subsequent nodes value, i.e. min (∞, 3) = 3, hence at node B now
α= -∞, and β= 3.

In the next step, algorithm traverse the next successor of Node B

which is node E, and the values of α= -∞, and β= 3 will also be passed.

Step 4:
At node E, Max will take its turn, and the value of alpha will change.
The current value of alpha will be compared with 5, so max (-∞, 5) = 5,
hence at node E α= 5 and β= 3, where α>=β, so the right successor of
E will be pruned, and algorithm will not traverse it, and the value at
node E will be 5.

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Step 5:
At next step, algorithm again backtrack the tree, from node B to node
A. At node A, the value of alpha will be changed the maximum
available value is 3 as max (-∞, 3)= 3, and β= +∞, these two values
now passes to right successor of A which is Node C.
At node C, α=3 and β= +∞, and the same values will be passed on to
node F.
Step 6:
At node F, again the value of α will be compared with left child which
is 0, and max(3,0)= 3, and then compared with right child which is 1,
and max(3,1)= 3 still α remains 3, but the node value of F will become
1.

Step 7:
Node F returns the node value 1 to node C, at C α= 3 and β= +∞, here
the value of beta will be changed, it will compare with 1 so min (∞, 1) =
1. Now at C, α=3 and β= 1, and again it satisfies the condition α>=β,
so the next child of C which is G will be pruned, and the algorithm will
not compute the entire sub-tree G.

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Step 8:
C now returns the value of 1 to A here the best value for A is max
(3, 1) = 3.
Following is the final game tree which is the showing the nodes which
are computed and nodes which has never computed.
Hence the optimal value for the maximizer is 3 for this example.

 The game will be started from the last level of the game tree,
and the value will be chosen accordingly.
The rule which will be followed is: “Explore nodes if necessary
otherwise prune the unnecessary nodes.”

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10. Explain in detail about constraint satisfaction problems (CSP) with an

Suitable example.

Constraint Satisfaction Problems (CSP)

10.1 Constraint satisfaction problems (CSP) – Definition
10.2 CSP Algorithms and Problems
10.3 Map Coloring / Graph Coloring Problem

10.1 Constraint satisfaction problems (CSP) – Definition

 A constraint satisfaction problem (CSP) is a problem that requires its
solution within some limitations or conditions also known as
constraints. 
 It consists of the following:
 A finite set of variables which stores the solution (V = {V1, V2,
V3, ......, Vn})
 A set of discrete values known as domain from which the solution
is picked (D = {D1, D2, D3, ...... ,Dn})
 A finite set of constraints (C = {C1, C2, C3,........ , Cn})

10.2 CSP Algorithms and Problems

1. CryptArithmetic (Coding alphabets to numbers.)
2. n-Queen (In an n-queen problem, n queens should be placed in an
nXn matrix such that no queen shares the same row, column or
diagonal.)
3. Map Coloring (coloring different regions of map, ensuring no adjacent
regions have the same color)
4. Crossword (everyday puzzles appearing in newspapers)
5. Sudoku (a number grid)
6. Latin Square Problem

Solving Constraint Satisfaction Problems

The requirements to solve a constraint satisfaction problem (CSP) is:
 A state-space
 The notion of the solution.
A state in state-space is defined by assigning values to some or all
variables such as {X1=v1, X 2=v2, and so on…}.

An assignment of values to a variable can be done in three ways:

 Consistent or Legal Assignment: An assignment which does not
violate any constraint or rule is called Consistent or legal assignment. 

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 Complete Assignment: An assignment where every variable is

assigned with a value, and the solution to the CSP remains consistent.
Such assignment is known as Complete assignment. 
 Partial Assignment: An assignment which assigns values to some of
the variables only. Such type of assignments are called Partial
assignments.

Types of Domains in CSP

 Discrete Domain: It is an infinite domain which can have one state
for multiple variables. For example, a start state can be allocated
infinite times for each variable. 
 Finite Domain: It is a finite domain which can have continuous
states describing one domain for one specific variable. It is also called
a continuous domain.

Constraint Types in CSP

 Unary Constraints: It is the simplest type of constraints that restricts
the value of a single variable.
 Binary Constraints: It is the constraint type which relates two
variables. A value x2 will contain a value which lies
between x1 and x3.
 Global Constraints: It is the constraint type which involves an
arbitrary number of variables. 

10.3 Map Coloring / Graph Coloring Problem

Solution:
 It is a map of Australia; it consists of states and territories as in Figure
1.24.
 The task will be coloring each region with the colors red, green or blue.
 In such case, no neighboring regions will have the same color.
 The set of the domain in each variable is

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Figure 1.24– States and Territories of Australia

 Formulate the variables to the particular regions as shown in figure 1.25:

Figure 1.25– Map Coloring of Australia

 The constraints require neighboring regions to have distinct colors.

 Since there are nine places where regions border, there are nine
constraints: 

Coloring a map with three colors:

 If it starts coloring with the state SA, then any of the 3 colors can be
chosen.
 Means, here there are 3 possibilities.
 And when moving to the next node, it says WA and there are 2 colors that
can be chosen. That means it has 2 possibilities. 
 The remaining states can be colored with the colors carefully.
 And there will be possibility chance of choosing only one particular color
that does not match the neighboring state’s color.
 So the number of possibilities is 3 x 2 = 6.
 As the state T is not connected, it can be mapped with any of the 3 colors.
There will be 3 possibilities to color this state.
 So, there can be 6 x 3 = 18 solutions that can be obtained by coloring
each of the six possibilities with 3 times with 3 colors to the state TA.
 So the number of solutions is 6 x 3 = 18.

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Therefore, there will be 18 solutions for coloring a map with three

colors.

Figure 1.26 – Map Coloring Solution

There are many possible solutions to this problem, such as in figure 1.26

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