Power Plant Engineering Powerfirom Renewable Energy

464
Commercial Py cells have
Disadvantages:
uniform. of 1-2, eificiencies in the.range 4,65

servicekWh/ sqmlday.
range, the output is not energy
1. Due to variation in tidal electrical
APV of 10-20%
system no moving and they can produce
free
components and machinery being corroded for long period and has
2. There is a fear of tidal plant
maintenance

due to they can be parts. So, it gives almost

corrosive sea water.
locations.

used unattended
at inaccessible
construction in sea.
3. It is difficult to carry out Basics of Semiconductors
costlv 44.1.
plant is
4. As compared to other sources of energy, the tidal power The best conductors have one valence
5. The power transmission cost is high because the tidal power plants are located Solids electron whereas the
electrons. can be
from load centers.
valence
through them.
divided into three categories
best insulators have eight
conduction They are: on the basis of electrical
6. The efficiency is affected due to variation in tidal
energy. conductors,
Gemiconductor is an element with
electrical properties semiconductors and insulators. A
7. Sedimentation and siltation of basins are serious problems, insulator. A best
semiconductor has four between those of a
conductor and an
Therefore, it iis the best choice valence electrons. Silicon (Si) has four valence
electrons.
for semiconductor,
An
4.4. SOLAR PHOTO VOLTAC (SPV) POWER SYSTEMS protons
and 14 electrons. The
outermost orbit contains four isolated silicon atom has 14
In solar applications, solar photovoltaic (PV) systems convert solar energy directly into
combine to form a solid, they
arrange themselves into an electrons. When silicon atoms
electrical energy. The basic conversion device is known as solar photovoltaic cell or solar Fach silicon atom shares electrons with four neighbouring orderly pattern called a crystal.
electrons in its valence orbit. Each pair of electrons atoms in sucha way to have eight
cell. Solar PV systems have commercially become successful in stand-alone applications belongs to two neighbouring atoms and it
remote areas for few Watts to a few tens of kW. Photovoltaic effect is defined as the is attached them with equal and opposite
forces
keeping them bonded together. This
generation of an electromotive force as aresult of the absorption of ionizing radiation. chemical bond is known as covalent bond.
The hehaviour of a semiconductor
Energy conversion devices which are used to convert sunlight into electricity by the ue can be explained with the help of
quantum
nucleus, extra energy is needed to lift an electrontheory..
Cnce an electron is attracted by the
of the photovoltaic effect are called solar cells. Asingle converter cell is called a solar cell or into a
Lcner orbit. Some of the external energy
more generally aphotovoltaic cell and combination of such cells are designed to increase the sources which can lift the electron to higher energy
electric power output called solar module or solar aray. levels are heat, light and voltage.

Photovoltaic cells are made of semiconductors which generate electricity when they 44.2. Ap-n Junction
absorb light. Photovoltaic generation of power is caused by radiation that separate postive The basic requirement for photovoltaic energy conversion is an
and negative charge carriers in absorbing semiconductor material. In the presence of an electronic asymmetry in
the semiconductor structure known as a junction. When n-and p-type
electric field, these charges can produce a current for use in an external circuit. Such fields semiconductors are
brought into contact, then electrons from the -región near the junction would flow to the p
exist permanently at junctions in materials as "built-in" electric fields and provide the type semiconductor leaving behind a layer that is positively charged. Similarly, holes will
required EMF for useful power production. Junction devices are usually knOWn as low in the opposite direction leaving behind a negatively charged layer. Asteady state is
photovoltaic cells or solar cells. A majority of photovoltaic cells are silicon semiconuctor
junction devices. Thus, an understanding of the basics of the semiconductors is necessary I Inally reached in resulting ajunction which contains practically no mobile charges. Hence, it
order to study the photovoltaic cells. is named as depletion region.
Atypical solar cell consists of a p-n junction formed in asemiconductor material similar
to a diode. Figure 4.30 shows the energy bands of a step graded pn junction where the
material changes suddenly from p ton before diffusion process. pbands are slightly higher
 Power Plant Engineorlno hom, Renowablo Energy
4.06 /Powor

than n bands. Also,

atoms have slightly bigger p 444. Photovoltalc Matorlals
than n bands because ptype pentavalent atom wilh a coro type nloms
orbits than n type atom duc to a cells are 4.67
have slightly larger
a trivalont atom with a core
charge of 43 chargo of The solar madc of various materials
+5 attracting an electron more than wduce the
cost andgchieve maximum and with
the carriers cfl icicncy, different
When ajunction betwcen p and
ntype materials is formed, (freo clecrong malerial such
as
single-crystal, There are various structure in order to
concentration side to lower concentration
side. and other
semiconduclpolorycrystabsorbial inneg andlayersamorphous silicon, compound
types of solar cell
majImomedi
rity aonteltyhe,
and holes) difluse from higher malerial,
of carriers found in
after crossing, these carriers
recombine with other types sngcialised applications,
that give highly efficient thin-film
junction in n-type side have recombincd witlh cells for
other side. Similarly, clectrons near the holes Crystalline silicon cclis are the most
which have crossed the junction from thep-side.
thin-lilm solar cclls popular though
cilicon are less
and fluorine incorporated in
cxpensive, The amorphousthey are expensive. Amorphous
Energy hydrogen the structure. silicon layer is used with both
most common types of
The silicon semiconductor
Conduction band
a) Single crystalline Si cells material (Si) used are
Valance band b) Polycrystalline Sicells
c) Amorphous Si cells.
Figure 4.30 Energy bands of a step graded pn junction la) Single crystal silicon solur cel:
It is the nost efficient and most robust of th» silicon PV
The p-n junction may be connected to a battery in two ways as follows. family. The most common
mmercially produced silicon cell has an n or p type structure
> Forward bias in which the positive conventional circuit current passes from ) where the base material is p
ne and it has a thin diffused n layer at the top of it.
Since, the diffused layer is relatively
to n material across a reduced band potential difference. heavily doped, it is likely to have a large number of unwanted recombination
centers. In this,
> Reverse bias in which the conventional positive current has an increased he minority carrier diffusion length for electron is twice the holes in
silicon. Therefore, a p
band potential difference to overcome, hne silicon base material which has electrons as its minority carriers are preferred for
making
asingle crystallinc bulk silicon solar cell.
4.4.3. Photovoltaic Effect
(0) Multicrystalline silicon solar cell:
When the solar cell (p-n junction) is illuminated, electron-hole pairs are generated and it It is less costly as compared to a single crystal silicon cell. Comnercial multicrystailine
is acted upon by the internal electric fields, resulting in a photocurrent (). The generated solar cells have efficiencies in the range 10%-14%. Impurity segregation in grain boundaries
photocurrent flows in a direction opposite to the forward dark current. Even in the absence of which act as recombination centers has limited the achievable maximum conversion
an external applied voltage, this photocurrent continues to flow and it is measured as the eficiency.
short-circuit current (Lsc). This phenomenon is called photovoltaic efect. This short-circut
() Anorpl1ous silicon solar cell:
current depends linearly on the light intensity because the absorption of more light results In multi-crystalline cells. It has less
additional electrons to flow in the internal electric field force. The overall cell current () 5 These materials are cheaper alternatives to single or
performs the best when indoors are used with diffused or
determined by subtracting the light induced current I, from the diode dark current / Iiclency in the range of 4-8%. It and low
calculators, electronic watches, radio receivers
uoor Iiglhts. It is used in pocket
Overall PV cell current, I= Ip-I, pOwer band-held electronic instruments.
 Powerfrom, Renewable Energy
Power Plant Engineering
14.68
light-absorbing material for thin-film solar alectrons are
created
there must be an
Cadmium telluride is an efficient to do useful work. electric field to 4.69
Compared to other thin-film materials, this material is easier to deposit and more suitablecelfors. sermi-conductor

higher energy electrons to

flow out of
large-scale production. Sun light
Copper-Indium Selenide based
materials are of interest for photovoltaic
applications.
These semi-conductors are especially attractive for thin-film solar cell application beecause of
N-type
their high optical absorption coefficient and versatile optical and electrical characteristics. It
Incorporation of Ga into CIS mixture increases the
has a direct band gap of 1.0 eV. band
beyond 1.l eV. Its main attraction is inexpensive preparation. It is more stable as compared gapto P-type

efficiency around 10%. I

a Si cell in outdoor applications and it has the
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) Multiunction based solar cells are high efficiency cells that Load
have been developed for special applications such as satellites and space exploration. It has a
direct barnd gap of 1.43 eV which makes it an attractive pv material. Simple GaAs cells have Figure 4.31 Principle of solar cell
thin films of n type and p type GaAs grown on a suitable substate. These multijunction oal. The most normal configuration for asolar
cell to make
consist of muBtiple thin films produced using molecular beam epitaxy. The semicondyeh shown in Figure 4.31. The junction of 'p type' and 'n a p-n junction semiconductor is
type' materials provides an inherent
electric field which separates the charge created by
are carefully chosen to absorb nearly the entire solar spectrum. Thus, it generates electricih. the absorption of sunlight. Each of the
dividual solar cells will produce power about 0.5V with the current
from as much of the solar energy as possible. The efficiency of GaAs cell is 30% but directly proportional to
the cell area.
high production cost has limited their utilization.
Ligh-Absorbing Dyes Typically, a ruthenium metalorganic dye is used as a monolayer 44.6, CIassification of Solar Cell
of light-absorbing material. This type of cell allows a more flexible use of materials and it is
Solar cells are classified on the basis of the following factors.
typically manufactured by screen prínting with the potential for lower processing costs than
those used for bulk solar cells. 1. Thickness of active material
Organic solar cells and polymer solar cells are built from thin films (typically 100 mmn) 2. Type ofjunction structure, and
of organic semiconductors such as polymers and small molecule compounds such as 3. The type of active material used in its fabrication.
polyphenylene vinylene, copper phthalocyaníne and carbon fullerenes. 1. Thickness of active naterial:
Nanocrystalline Solar Cell structures make use of some of the same thin-film light On the basis of thickness of active material, the solar cell is classified into two types.
absorbing materials. But these are overlain as an extremely thin absorber on a supporting
1 Bulk material cell
matrix of conductive polymer or mesoporous metal oxide having a very high surface area to
2. Thin film cell.
increase internal reflections and hence, the probability of light absorption is increased. thin film cells, a
material is itself an active material. In
In bulk material cells. the base Thin film solar cells have
on the sheet.
4.4.5. Principles of Solar PV Cell thin film deposition of active material is carried out consumption and continuous
significantly low active material
When photons from the sun are absorbed in semiconductor, they create free eleouo v major advantage of material single crystal
and multi-crystalline cells
with higher energies than electrons which provide the bonding in the base crystal. Once these production processes. At present, the bulk
are most t successful for terrestrial applications.
4.70 Power Plant Engingoring
from Rangwablg
2. On the basis of junctionstructure:
Fwer
Erngrgy
configuration t: Bolar PV Pan
Solar cells are classified into five types based on junction structure.
Aphotovaliakc
(a) p-n homojunction cell sacollection of
(b) Hetero-junction cell Thiese modules are
(c) p-nmulti junctioncell dules are connected

(d) metal-semiconductor Schotiky junction production occurring with the sarme

A,
(e) p-i-n semiconductor junction
In homogeneous p-n junction,the semiconductor material on both sides of
fthe
same but doping materials are different. In a heterogeneous
semiconductor materizls are such as Groups I|-V or Groups
p-n junction,
two jundisn's
I1-VI. The compourd issimilax
semicondtors with ciosely matching crystal lattice are used to forn the
junction
The Schotiy junction is defined as when a contact is made
semiconductor by either an ohmic contact or arectifying contact between a meal
which is ad
on the functions of metal and sermiconductor. The
rectífying contact
formed
depeisg
junction. Schotky barier junction is relatively straight forward to is knovn as Schaty
efficient 25 2 PV celL fabrícate but it is
Mavy Cel

A p-in type (p type - intrinsic - ntype)

junction structure is the
itrinsic silicon is inteposed between n and p structure vhe:
layers and it is used in tandem ín
Silicon sclar cells. anorkc.
3. On the basis of type of active material:
The solar cell depecing on the type
of materíal used for fabrícation
clzssite ito seven types. of junctin s
(2) Single crystal silicon cell
(b) Muticry stalline silicon cel
(c) Amorphos silicon
(d) Gallium arsenide cell
(e) Coppa indium diselenide cell
(f) Cadnium telluride cell
ar
(g) Organic PV cell
For the cornmercial purpose, asingle crystal
produced. multicrystalline or Si-cells are commercizly Figure 4.32 Difference between solar cel,modale. punel and array
 Power Plant Engineeing
472 Power
fom, Renewable Energy
a
of panels. The modules in PV array are
A PI' arra is a collection
then usually
fir 44.9,,PoWer Output of a Solar PV Panel
connected ìn series to obtain the
desired voltage. The individual strings are 4.73

more curent. Solar arrays are typically connected in earlier, a solar PV

mentioned

parallel to allow the svstem to produce As panel has solar

watts, kilowatts, or even megvats. Figure measured by
module is the smallest cell module and
the electrical power they produce, in
photovoltaic

432 Shows unit with a non-divisible

transparent cover. Amodule self-contained and solar array. A
the diference between cell module, panel and array.
terminals and it envi ronmental y
p r o l e c t e d

DCoutputi when is exposed to full sunlight. has two

Most solar PV panels have 30 to 36 cells
connected in series. Each cell delivers certain
produces output of the module
designed to charge abou,
electrical
panel produces 15 Vto 18 V. These panels are The
0.5 Tin sunlight, so a depends on the size and
batieries. The curent depends on the size of each cell and the
solar radiation 12y and of course, on the
electrical,interconnection
number of cells, their
cells produce a current of 2 Ato 3 Ain bright sunlight. The current is the same in
intensity. Mos isexposed. The power of onee module is given byenvironmental conditions to whích the
every cell module
because cells ae connected in series. P = n Pe 1n watts
where Pm =
The power is that one module can produce is seldom enough to meet requirements Power of one module, W
home or a business. So. the modules are Iinked together to form an array. Most PV oia P. = Power of one cell, W
arrays
an invertertoconvert the DCpower produced by the modules into alternating currexs use Number of cells in amodule.
piug into the exising infastructure to power lights, motors and other loads,
An aray has several modules connected in
series or parallel and it delivers
448. Interconnection of Solar PV Cells through two terminal leads. DC power
In te mzrufacturing procass, each solar cell is tabbed to provide connectors. Power of an array P, is given by
Tabs
thin ezl pieces which are bonded to the solar cell metallization pattern. Solar callk are Pp n- m P.
interconected shown in Figure 433. where Number of cells in a module
=

Cels may be connected in parallel to achieve the desired current and they are connertel Number of modules in a panel. -
in seies to achieve the desired voltage. By combining a number of solar
cells in series, the Exanmple: Solar cells connection calculations:
voage is incresed but the cuTent is unchanged. Solar panels on space craft
consist of The optimum operating voltage of aphotovoltaic cell =0.45 V
Oe of celis conneced in series 2nd parallel to produce the required voltage
and power. Current in full sunlight =270 Aln
21 Ifthe area of a cell= 40 cm, the current would be 1.08
4°.
The electrical power output =0.45x 1.08 =0.49 W
For 110 volts:

110
3V,21 Cperating the domestíc appliances require-244 cells in series
Suppose there were 10 strings in parallel, the current would be
2 celts ln serres
2 chains In parallel = 10x 1.08 =10.8 A

Pigure 4.33 Connection of PV cells Power output = 10.8 x 110 = 1.19 kW

 Power Plant EEngineering
474
Pover
lrom
Renewable Energy
Factors determining output of thesolar cells:
of any solar electric Danal 4.75
The following four factors detemine output
cells From uffty
a) Eficiency ofthephotovoltaic Bldiode
ocking
feeter
Solar Cell
b) Load resistance Array
Inverter
c) Solar iradiance and Comverter
d) Celltemperature.
The solar cell efticiency is set by the manufacturing process. Most of the
available PV modules have the efficiency in the range of 9% to 17% at commercial y
converting the solar Battery storage Local
Ioad
energy to electricalenergy.
Figure 4.34. Basic photovoltaic
The load resistance determines where on the current and voltage curve the system integrated with
module 2 Blocking diode: power | grid
operate. The obvious preferred operating point is where maximum power is generated wil
peak power point. called It lets the array generated power
flow only towards the
the battery would
For a given solar cell area, the current generated is directly
locking diode, discharge back through the solarbattery or grid. Without a
proportional to array at the tíme of no
iradiance and it isalmost independent oftemperature. Thus, as the sun's brightness solar
isolation.

the output voltage and power decreases as temperature increases. The voltage of inccreases 3,Battery storage:
cells decreases about 0.5 %rC temperature increase, Therefore,
arrays should
crystal ine eis Jused to store the solar energy.
be
the sunniest place without shading and kept as cool as possible by ensuring air can mountedin
move o 4 Iverter/Converter:
and behind the array.
t converts the battery
bus-voltage to AC of frequency and phase to
44.10.Solar PV Power Generation Systems h the utility grid. It contains
a suitable output step up
match to integrate
circuits.
transformer and power correction
Figure 4.34 shows a basic photovoltaic system integrated with the
utility grid. It consists
of the following elements. S,Switches and circuit breakers :
1. Solar array It permits isolating parts of the system as the battery.
2. Blocking diode
44.11.Types of Solar PVPower Generation Systems
3. Battery storage
4.
Solar PV systems are broadly classified into three categories.
Inverterlconverter
5. Switches and circuit breakers. 1. Standalone power system
1. Solar array: 2. Central power system or Grid connected system
3. Hybrid system.
It is a large or small element which
power.
converts the isolation into useful DC electrical
476 Power Plant Engineerinn AM9rhom. Renewable Energy
45.11.1. Standalone Power System
successful output the array
of after converting
It is located at the load center. It is more relevant and system in The 4.77
indicative remole is used to charge the battery. to AC is fed to loads
rural areas which have no access to grid supply. The capacity of When the sun is and
not available. the excess of loa0
and
guirement

100". The main components ofa general stand-alone

solar PV system are system
is \0%. through the inverter.
d the battery
shown
in Figure
load
the
supplies
4.35. This system has battery, inverter and charge regulator. Central
Power System or Grid
Astand-alone photovoltaic energy system requires storage to meet the
1511.2.
is alsO known Connected System
during period of low solar irradiation and nighttime. Several types of
energy demand This
system as grid
batteries
are grid interactive solar PV system isinteractive
system, The
such as lead-acid, nickel-cadmium, lithium, zinc bromide, zinc chloride, available Figure 4.36. Inschematic
shown in diagram of a
general

vanadium batteries. The provision of cost-effective electrical energy storage sodium-sulfur,

and
ge
Connected
to a grid through inverters
wthout battery storage this system., PV panels
development of improved PV remai ns one Also during the absence of
inadequate sunshine, power isand all excess power is fed
the major challenges for the power systems. of bgrid.

acid bateries are used to guarantee several hours to a few days of

energy
Typically, fhus the of
lal. battery is eliminated The
grid interactive maintained from grid and
inverters must be synchronized
storage. terms f voltage and
reasonable cost and general availability have resulted the widespread application of gd in frequency. DC power is first with the
are coming with inverters as an converted to AC
batteries for remote area power supplies despite their limited lifetime lead-aid modules
integral component in the by an inverter. PV
system componehts. An inverter is used to convert the DC power producedcomparedby the
to other These are proposed in few MW range to
Dodule.
meet daytime peak lead
junction box of the
into alternating currentthat can plug into the existing infrastructure to power modules cOstofthesystem is slightly high for their commercial only. The capital
and other loads. ights, motors exploitation.
PWM C
Charge regulator unit switching CR
CB
regulalor
DC to AC Transformer
AC load Duty inverter and
YSolar PV ratio flter HVDC bus
panel (grid)
Local load
Feedback
Signal
Battery Inverter MPPT
controller
Array field
Figure 4.35 Standalone PVpower system
Charge controllers are used to regulate the charge transfer Figure 4.36 Grid connected PVpower system
and prevent the batery from
being excessively charged and discharged. Blocking
diodes in series with PV modules are
used to prevent the batteries from being discharged through 45.13. Hybrid System
PV cells at night when there is no
sun available to generate energy. These blocking Conventional power systems used in remote areas often based on manually controlled
diodes also protect the battery from shot
Circuits. In asolar power system consisting of more
than one uS generators operating continuously or for a few hours. Extended operation of diesel
short-circuit occurs in one of the strings andthe blocking string connected in parallel ta 5üerators at low load levels
diode prevents the other PV string sionificantly increases maintenance costs and reduces their
from discharging through the short-circuited seful life.
should be properly controlled to avoid string. The battery storage in a PV Sysau Renewable energy Sources such as PV can be added to remote area power systems
catastrophic operating Using diesel and other fossil fuel powered generators to provide 24-hour power economically
or frequent deep conditions such as overeas
discharging. md eficiently. Such systems. are called hybrid energy systems. Figure 4.37 shows a
Rhematic ofa PV-diesel hybrid
system.
 Power Plant Engineeing om Renewable Energy
478 Awer

pöadhantosges:
Solar PV 479
pancl L The system needs high cost.

2.
Energy storage is required because of no
insolation at night.
45. SOLAR THERMAL POWER SYSTEMS

Power Asolar
collector is a device
used for
fluid passing in contact with it. Thecollecting the solar radiation and it transfers the
Diesal conditioning
genraior
Load to
and control energy

tothe heat-transport fluid. Solar

collectors receive the heat
giveit collector from solar rays
surface is ana
emission. So, the utilization of
solar energy requires designed for high absorption
classifed into two types. They are as
solar collectors. These ara
follows. collectors are
Battcry
() Non-concentrating or flat plate type solar
collector.
() Concentrating (focusing) type solar
Figure 4.37 PV-diesel hybrid systenn collector.
The solar energy collector with its associated
absorber is the
4.4.12.Advantages and Disadvantages of Solar PV System Jstem for the conversion of solar
radiation in to more usable formessential Icomponent of any
(e.g. heat or electricity).
Adrantages: In the non-concentration type, the
collector area (Le, the area that
1. It has no moving parts. radiation) is the same as the absorber area (ie., the area intercepts the solar
absorbing the radiation).
2. Direcd room temperature conversion of light to electricity Io concentrating collectors,
conversion is ohteina! the area intercepting the solar
dlate collectors and it gives higher radiation is greater than flat
through simple devices. temperature than non-concentrating type. It is also used
nmduce medium pressure steam. They use many to
3. It has no pollution. different arrangements of mimors and lenses
fo
concentrate the sun rays on the boiler. This type shows
4. It has a wide power handling capacity. better efficiencv than the flat plate
De. For best efficiency, collectors should be
5. It has the ability to work for a long period without mounted to face the sun as it moves through the
maintenance. sky.
6. It needs low maintenance cost.
7. It has long effective life. 4.5.1. Characteristic Features of a Collector
8. It is highly reliable. Asolar collector system includes the following characteristic features.
9. Power to weight ratio is high.
1. Type of solar collector: Whether Focusing or non-focusing.
10. It can be used with or without
sun tracking,
11. Desired currents and voltages The temperature of workingfluid such as low temperature, medium temperature and
can be achieved by mere integration. high temperature.
12. Ir is easy to fabricate because the
connection of
semíconductor devices is easy J Whether tracking system is used or not. If used, what ty pe of racking sy stem can be
Used i.e. Tracking type or non-tracking type and tracking in one plane or vo planes.
4. Cost of the solar collector system such as low cost or high cost.
4.80
Power Plant Engineering lronm, Renewable Energy
Power

S. Design of the solar collector system such as complex or simple desipn Rylective.loss facior: 4.81
solar field.
6. Layout and configuration ofcollectors in the
with the passage of time. the
collector glass
4.5.2. Factors Affecting Solar Collectors System's Efficiency dit,
moisture.
Hence, it gets
rusted, deformed and surface and reflector surface collect dust,
is significantly reduced. It can loosen the shine.
Hence. the
collector

the
The efficiency ofthe solar collector system is adversely affected by the proper maintenanceefficiency of
0e prevented by a
shadow, time-to-time.

loss, dust etc. These aspects have a decisive influence on the design of the collector ayout.cosine carried out
1. Shadow effect: 4.5.3.
Flat Plate Collector

Some of the neighboring collector panel's shadow fall on the surface of the Where temperatures below about 90°C are
particularly when the angle of elevation of the sun is less than 150 The shadow collector water
plate
heating flat collectors which are of theadequate as they are for space and service
reduced when the angle of elevation of the sun increases. The shadow factor is given effect is convenient. They are made in rectangular
panels from non-concent rating type are particularty
about 1,7 to 2.9 n in area
by simple to construct and and they are
Surface of the collector receiving light relatively erect. Flat plates can
Shadow factor = solar radiation. They are consequently collect and absorb both direct and
Total surface of the çollector diffuse
partially effective even on cloudy days when
direct radiation
there is no
Shadowfactor is less than 0.1 for the angle of elevation of sun less than 15°
and it is 1 Flat plate solar collectors are mainly divided into
during noon while the sun is nearly 90° to the collector. two types based on the type
transfer fluid used. They are as follows. of heat
2. Cosine loss factor:
1. Liquid heating collectors
Plane perpendicular 2. Air heating or solar air heaters
to sun rays
(Sun 3. Evacuated tubular collector.
The characteristic features of flat plate collector are as follows.
nrays
S u
r n
a

1. It absorbs both beam and diffuse radiation.

2. It can function without sun tracking.
3. It is simple in construction and it requires litle maintenance.
Heliostat surface auarotos
4.5.3.1. Liquid Heating Collectors
Figure 4.38 lt is used for heating the water and non-freezing aqueous solutions. The constructional
As stated earlier, solar collectors surface receive maximum etails of simple flat plate collector are shown in Figure 4.39(2) and positioning of this type of
radiation when the sun rays
fall perpendicular to it. Let us consider be the angle collector is shown in Figure 4.40. It is the plate and tube type collectot.
between direction of sun rays and he
plane perpendicular to the collector's surface as shown components. They are as follows.
in Figure 4.38. The area of sun beun Lne majority of the flat-plate collectors have five main
intercepted by the collector's surface is proportionaf to sheets) of glass, Teflon, Marlex or
Tedlar.
coso. Therefore, solar power coico Lransparent cover (one or two
1S proportional to cos. For the fixed type of aluminium or steel, typically 1-2 mm
daily variation and seasonal collector panels, cosine loss varies due to u 2. Blackened absorber plate usually of copper,
variation of the direction of sun rays. thick.
 Power Plant Engineering Powerfrom Renewable Energy
4.82
to
3. Tubes (typically 1-2 cm diameter), channels or passages in
thermal conntact with the ) Losses due air convection are further 4.83
absorber plate. They are soldered, brazed or clamped to the bottom of the (ii) Radiation losses in the reduced. It isS
plate. In some designs, the tubes form the integral part of absorber plate. absorbCr of the 50% which is
infra-red spectrum are important in windy areas.
emitted out wards reduced by afurther 25%. because
Thermal insulation usually of foam, expanded polystyrene or glass wool collection efficiency of flat from the first glass plate is back radiated. half
4
10cm in thickness.
typically $- Due to
low

Hence, a
fixed type plate collectors, it
is
uneconomical to arrange
_un-tracking.

5, Tight container is to enclose above components. to parallel lines of longitude

installation is preferred.
The
parallel

passing axis of the pipes is placed

through north and south
Solar radiation Direct
Axis parallel to line
poles.
of
Difuse longjitude
Flat plate
Glass cOver collector
Absorber

Tubes carying heat

transfer fluid
Axis parallel to line of
(a) Insulation longitude
Fluid out

-Fluid in
w
(b) Horizontal surface

Figure 4.39 Liquid heating collector

Working: Figure 4.40 Positioning offlat plate collector
As the solar radiation strikes a specialy treated absorber plate, it is absorbed and raises
its temperature. This raised heat is transferred to fluid which is circulated in the tube (or 4.5.3.2. Modified Flat Plate Collectors
channels) with the absorber plate as shown in Figure 4.39 (b). Thermal insulation prevents Incident rays

the heat loss from the rear surface of the collector. The upper glass cover permits the entry of
solar radiation as it is transparent for incoming short wavelength but it is largely opaque to
longer infrared radiation reflected from the absorber. The glass cover also prevents the heat
loss due to convection by keeping the air stagnant. The glass cover may reflect around 15% Rellector

of incoming solar radiation which can be reduced by applying anti-reflective coating on the
outer surface of the glass.

The usual practice is to have 2 glass covers with specific ranging from 1.5 to 3cml. Flat absorber
Advantages of second glass which is added above the first ne are:
collector
Modified latplate
Figure 4.4I
484
Power Plant Engineeing Powerfrom Renewable Energy

It has additional reflective side faces which provide higher concentration ratio up to Corrosion is
is achieved. Such a design 10 completely eliminated.
and higher temperature of working fluids (up to 200°C) 4, Leakage of air
4.85
is irom the duct is s
in East-W'est direction and it requires a periodic tilt adjustment. The different optimum aligned less
to base width ratios and cone angles are possible depending on the frequency of
deplh Possibility of freezing of working severe.
seasonal 6. The pressure inside the fluid is also
does not eliminated.
tilt collector
adjustment.
pisadvantages off'solar air
heaters: become very high.
45.33. Solar Air Heaters Alarge amount of
1. fluid is to be
Figure 4.42 shows a schematic diagram of solar air heaters where an air stream is power required to blow the air handled due to low density. As
by the back side of the collector plate. Fins attached to the plate increase the contact
heated drop is not kept within through the system a result, the electrical

In this, the back side of the collector is heavily insulated with mineral Wool surface. 2. Heat transfer between the
prescribed
limits. can be significant if the-pressure
or some
material. The favourable inclination angle to the horizontal is 15° for heating. other
3. There isless
i
absorber plate and air is
storage of thermal energy due tÍ low heat
poor.
4. Intthe absençe of proper
Solar radiation
Glass cover design, the cost of capacity.
an air heater can
Aplications of solar, air heaters: be very high.
Air passage Absorber plate
1. Heating greenhouse buildings
Fins

Insulation
2. Drying agricultural products
3 Heat source for a heat engine
Figure 4.42 Typical solar air collector 4. Air-conditioning buildings.
Basically, air heaters are classified into following two types.
1. Solar air heater with non-porous absorber. A53.4. Evacuated Tubular Collector
In an evacuated tubular collector, the
2. Solar air heater with porous absorber. vacuum is created betwecen
transparent glass cover. The absorber and
In a non-porous type, the air stream does not flow through the absorber plate. Air may cross-sectional
collector is shown in Figure 4.43. In view of a Solaron type of
this type, the tube cover above the
evacuated tubular
flow above the absorber plate. In a porous type, the absorber includes evacuated and evacuated tubes are selective surface is
slit and expanded arranged above the absorber surface so that
metal, transpired honey comb and over-lapped glass plate absorber. The not be any space left between there should
performance of air consecutive tubes. The evacuated tubes provide a
heaters is improved by the following ways. above the absorber to reduce the top vacuum layer
loss coefficient. The vacuum layer
1. Roughing the rear of the plate to promote turbulence and convection heat loss from the absorber to glass suppresses the
improve the convective cover.
heat transfer coefficient, (or)
Similar to the flat plate collector, an incident solar radiation is
2. Increasing the heat transfer surface by absorbed by absorber
adding fins. surface after transmission through the glass cover and
transparent evacuated tubes. After
Advantages of solar air leaters: absorption, most of the available thermal energy at the absorber will be first conducted
and
1. tis compact, simple in construction and hen it is convected to the working fluid below the absorber. The rest of the energy is lost
it requires little maintenance. by
Tadiative heat loss. Further. there will be convective and radiative heat losses from the upper
2. The need to transfer thermal
enerpgy from the working fluid to another POrion of the evacuated tubes to the glass cover. Since the temperature of the upper portion
eliminated as air is used directly as the working fuid S
fluid.