Industrial Automation and Control [PE-EC802B]

ECE-8th Semester
Presented by
Prof. Jayjeet Sarkar
Module-1
Introduction and overview of Industrial Automation and Control system.
Understanding the Title of the Course

Let us first define the three key words in the title, namely,

Industry

In a general sense the term “Industry” is defined as follows.

Definition: Systematic Economic Activity that could be related to Manufacture/Service/ Trade.

Here we shall be concerned with Manufacturing Industries only.

Automation

The word ‘Automation’ is derived from greek words “Auto”(self) and “Matos” (moving). Automation
therefore is the mechanism for systems that “move by itself”. However, apart from this original sense of
the word, automated systems also achieve significantly superior performance than what is possible with
manual systems, in terms of power, precision and speed of operation.

Definition: Automation is a set of technologies that results in operation of machines and systems
without significant human intervention and achieves performance superior to manual operation

Control

Definition: Control is a set of technologies that achieves desired patterns of variations of operational
parameters and sequences for machines and systems by providing the input signals necessary.

Difference between Automation system and Control system

1. Automation Systems may include Control Systems but the reverse is not true. Control Systems may
be parts of Automation Systems. Automation Systems are essential for most modern industries.

2. The main function of control systems is to ensure that outputs follow the set points. However,
Automation Systems may have much more functionality, such as computing set points for control
systems, monitoring system performance, plant startup or shutdown, job and equipment scheduling etc.

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 To resolve the automation and control issues, industries use the ever-changing technologies in control
systems for efficient production or manufacturing processes. These requires the high quality and reliable
control systems. New trends in industrial automation deals with latest control devices and
communication protocols to control field devices like control valves and other final control elements.
Some of the smart devices or instruments used in automated industry has the ability to control the
processes and also communication capabilities without interfacing to other field level control devices
like PLC’s.

What is Industrial Automation?

Industrial automation is the use of various control devices like PC’s/PLC’s/DCS, used to have control
on various operations of an industry without significant intervention from humans and to provide
automatic control performance. In industries, control strategies use a set of technologies which are
implemented to get the desired performance or output, making the automation system most essential for
industries.

Automated process in industries

Industrial automation involves usage of advanced control strategies like cascade controls, modern
control hardware devices as PLC’s, sensors and other instruments for sensing the control variables,
signal conditioning equipments to connect the signals to the control devices, drives and other significant
final control devices, standalone computing systems, communication systems, alarming, SCADA
(supervisory control and data acquisition) and HMI (Human Machine Interface) systems.

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Need of Automated Industry

Manual control

• To reduce Periodic or Manual checking

In some critical applications periodic checking of the process variable is necessary to perform industrial
operations. Automation equipment reduces the periodic or manual operations and establishes the
automatic working conditions.

• To increase the Productivity

Automating the manufacturing and other production processes increases the production rate by
producing output at greater amounts for a given labour input

• Reduce the Production Cost

Using the automatic machines and equipments, human intervention to control the processes abruptly
falls. This reduces the investment on the labor cost hence the production cost.

• To improve Product Quality

Continuously doing the same work may not be perfect in all the cases in terms of quality specifications
with human efforts. With automation equipment ,one can get reliable and uniform product quality by
using real time hardware control devices.

• To increase the Flexibility

Using the automation equipment various , process are handled simply without getting any complex
environment particularly in manufacturing processes.

• Operator Friendly and Improves the Safety

Complexity of operating the equipments or processes is reduced with industrial automation. It changes
the position of the operator as operator to the supervisory role.

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The Functional Elements of Industrial Automation

An Industrial Automation System consists of numerous elements that perform a variety of functions
related to Instrumentation, Control, Supervision and Operations Management related to the industrial
process. These elements may also communicate with one another to exchange information necessary for
overall coordination and optimized operation of the plant/factory/process. Below, we classify the major
functional elements typically found in IA systems and also describe the nature of technologies that are
employed to realize the functions.

Sensing and Actuation Elements

These elements interface directly and physically to the process equipment and machines. The sensing
elements translate the physical process signals such as temperature, pressure or displacement to
convenient electrical or pneumatic forms of information, so that these signals can be used for analysis,
decisions and finally, computation of control inputs. These computed control inputs, which again are in
convenient electrical or pneumatic forms of information, need to be converted to physical process inputs
such as, heat, force or flow-rate, before they can be applied to effect the desired changes in the process
outputs. Such physical control inputs are provided by the actuation elements.

Industrial Sensors and Instrument Systems

Scientific and engineering sensors and instrument systems of a spectacular variety of size, weight, cost,
complexity and technology are used in the modern industry. However, a close look would reveal that all
of them are composed of a set of typical functional elements connected in a specified way to provide
signal in a form necessary. The various tasks involved in the automation systems. The below figure
shows the configuration of a typical sensor system.

In a sensor system is shown decomposed into major functional components, along with the medium in
which the measurement takes place. These are described below. Medium, sensing element, signal
conditioning element, signal processing element and Target Signal Handling element.

A. The physical medium: refers to the object where a physical phenomenon is taking place and we are
interested in the measurement of some physical variable associated with the phenomenon. Thus, for
example, the physical medium may stand for the hot gas in a furnace in the case of temperature
measurement or the fluid in a pipe section in the case of measurement of liquid flow rate.

B. The sensing element is affected by the phenomenon in the physical medium either through direct or
physical contact or through indirect interaction of the phenomenon in the medium with some component
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of the sensing element. Again, considering the case of temperature measurement, one may use a
thermocouple probe as the sensing element that often comes in physical contact with the hot object such
as the flue gas out of a boiler-furnace or an optical pyrometer which compares the brightness of a hot
body in the furnace with that of a lamp from a distance through some window and does not come in
direct contact with the furnace. In the more common case where the sensing element comes in contact
with the medium, often some physical or chemical property of the sensor changes in response to the
measurement variable. This change then becomes a measure of the physical variable of interest. A
typical example is the change in resistivity due to heat in a resistance thermometer wire. Alternatively,
in some other sensors a signal is directly generated in the sensing element, as is the case of a
thermocouple that generates a voltage in response to a difference in temperature between its two ends.

C. The signal-conditioning element serves the function of altering the nature of the signal generated by
the sensing element. Since the method of converting the nature of the signal generated in the sensor to
another suitable signal form (usually electrical) depends essentially on the sensor, individual signal
conditioning modules are characteristic of a group of sensing elements. As an example consider a
resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) whose output response is a change in its resistance due to
change in temperature of its environment. This change in resistance can easily be converted to a voltage
signal by incorporating the RTD in one arm of a Wheatstone's bridge. The bridge therefore serves as a
signal-conditioning module. Signal conditioning modules are also used for special purpose functions
relating to specific sensors but not related to variable conversion such as `ambient referencing' of
thermocouples. These typically involve analog electronic circuits that finally produce electrical signals
in the form of voltage or current in specific ranges.

D. The signal processing element is used to process the signal generated by the first stage for a variety
of purposes such as, filtering (to remove noise), diagnostics (to assess the health of the sensor),
linearisation (to obtain an output which is linearly related with the physical measurand etc. Signal
processing systems are therefore usually more general purpose in nature.

E. The target signal-handling element may perform a variety of functions depending on the target
application. It may therefore contain data/signal display modules, recording or/storage modules, or
simply a feedback to a process control system. Examples include a temperature chart recorder, an
instrumentation tape recorder, a digital display or an Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) followed by an
interface to a process control computer.

While the above description fits in most cases, it may be possible to discover some variations in some
cases. The above separation into subsystems is not only from a functional point of view, more often
than not, these subsystems are clearly distinguishable physically in a measurement system.

Modern sensors often have the additional capability of digital communication using serial, parallel or
network communication protocols. Such sensors are called “smart” and contain embedded digital
electronic processing systems.

Industrial Actuator Systems

Actuation systems convert the input signals computed by the control systems into forms that can be
applied to the actual process and would produce the desired variations in the process physical variables.

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In the same way as in sensors but in a reverse sense, these systems convert the controller output, which
is essentially information without the power, and in the form of electrical voltages (or at times
pneumatic pressure) in two ways. Firstly it converts the form of the variable into the appropriate
physical variable, such as torque, heat or flow. Secondly it amplifies the energy level of the signal
manifold to be able to causes changes in the process variables. Thus, while both sensors and actuators
cause variable conversions, actuators are high power devices while sensors are not. It turns out that in
most cases, actuators are devices that first produce motion from electrical signal, which is then further
converted to other forms. Based on the above requirement of energy and variable conversion most
actuation systems are are structured as shown in following Figure.

In an actuator system is shown decomposed into its major functional components briefly described
below.

A. The electronic signal-processing element accepts the command from the control system in electrical
form. The command is processed in various ways. For example it may be filtered to avoid applying
input signals of certain frequencies that may cause resonance. Many actuators are themselves closed
feedback controlled units for precision of the actuation operation. Therefore the electronic signal-
processing unit often contains the control system for the actuator itself.

B. The electronic power amplification element sometimes contains linear power amplification stages
called servo-amplifiers. In other cases, it may comprise power electronic drive circuits such as for motor
driven actuators.

C. The variable conversion element serves the function of altering the nature of the signal generated by
the electronic power amplification element from electrical to non-electrical form, generally in the form
of motion. Examples include electrohydraulic servo valve, stepper/servo motors, Current to Pneumatic
Pressure converters etc.

D. The non-electrical power conversion elements are used to amplify power further, if necessary,
typically using hydraulic or pneumatic mechanisms.

E. The non-electrical variable conversion elements may be used further to tranform the actuated
variable in desired forms, often in several stages. Typical examples include motion-to-flow rate
conversion in flow-valves, rotary to linear motion converters using mechanisms, flow-rate to heat
conversion using steam or other hot fluids etc.

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F. Other Miscellaneous Elements such as Auxiliaries for Lubrication/Cooling/Filtering, Reservoirs,
Prime Movers etc., sensors for feedback, components for display, remote operations, as well as safety
mechanisms since the power handling level is significantly high.

Industrial Control Systems

By industrial control systems, we denote the sensors systems, actuator systems and controllers.
Controllers are essentially (predominantly electronic, at times pneumatic/hydraulic) elements that
accept command signals from human operators or Supervisory Systems, as well as feedback from the
process sensors and produce or compute signals that are fed to the actuators. Control Systems can be
classified into two kinds.

Continuous Control

This is also often termed as Automatic Control, Process Control, Feedback Control etc. Here the
controller objective is to provide such inputs to the plant such that the output y(t) follows the input r(t)
as closely as possible, in value and over time. The structure of the common control loop with its
constituent elements, namely the Controller, the Actuator, the Sensor and the Process itself is shown. In
addition the signals that exist at various points of the system are also marked. These include the
command (alternatively termed the set point or the reference signal), the exogenous inputs
(disturbances, noise).

Functional block diagram of basic regulatory continuous process control loop

Process plant: It is a unit where a physical or chemical change of one or more input material takes
place and one or more output product material is obtained at the desired quantity at a desired rate.

Classes of process variables

➢ Input Variable
✓ Manipulated inputs
✓ Disturbances
➢ Output Variable or Control Variable
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✓ Measured output variable
✓ Unmeasured output variable
➢ Controlled variable
➢ Manipulated Variable
➢ Load variable

➢ Input Variable – This variable shows the effect of the surroundings on the process. It
normally refers to those factors that influence the process
✓ Manipulated inputs: variable in the surroundings can be control by an operator or the control system
in place.
✓ Disturbances: inputs that cannot be controlled by an operator or control system. There exist both
measurable and immeasurable disturbances.
➢ Output variable - Also known as the control variable. These are the variables that are process
outputs that effect the surroundings. These variables may or may not be measured.
✓ Measured output variable: Measurements can be made continuously or discrete interval of time.
✓ Unmeasured output variable: The variables cannot be determined.
➢ Controlled variable- The variable associated with the process which we want to control is called
the controlled variable. The controlled variable of the process should be that variable which most
directly indicates the desired for or state of the product.
➢ Manipulated Variable- The variable associated with the process which we manipulate to keep the
controlled variable at desired value. The Manipulated variable of the process should be that variable
which most directly indicates the desired form or state of the product.
➢ Load Variable- The load variables of the process are all other independent variables except the
controlled variable and manipulated variable.

List of variables associated with a process control loop:

i) Controlled variable ii) Manipulated variable iii) Load variable/ Disturbance variable iv) Measured
value v) Set point/ Desired value vi) Deviation/ Error signal vii) Control signal/ Manipulating signal.

P & I diagram of tank water level control loop

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The difficulties in achieving the performance objective is mainly due to the unavoidable disturbances
due to load variation and other external factors, as well as sensor noise, the complexity, possible
instability, uncertainty and variability in the plant dynamics, as well as limitations in actuator
capabilities.

Most industrial control loop command signals are piecewise constant signals that indicate desirable
levels of process variables, such as temperature, pressure, flow, level etc., which ensure the quality of
the product in Continuous Processes. In some cases, such as in case of motion control for machining,
the command signal may be continuously varying according to the dimensions of the product.
Therefore, here deviation of the output from the command signal results in degradation of product
quality. It is for this reason that the choice of the feedback signals, that of the controller algorithm (such
as, P, PI pr PID), the choice of the control loop structure (normal feedback loop, cascade loop or
feedforward) as well as choice of the controller gains is extremely important for industrial machines and
processes. Typically the control configurations are well known for a given class of process, however,
the choice of controller gains have to be made from time to time, since the plant operating
characteristics changes with time. This is generally called controller tuning.

A single physical device may act as the controller for one or more control loops (single-loop/multi-loop
controller). Today, many loop controllers supplement typical control laws such as PID control by
offering adaptive control and fuzzy logic algorithms to enhance controller response and operation. PID
and startup self-tuning are among the most important features. Among other desired and commonly
found characteristics are, ability to communicate upward with supervisory systems, as well as on peer-
to-peer networks (such as Fieldbus or DeviceNet), support for manual control in the event of a failure in
the automation. Software is an important factor in loop controllers. Set-up, monitoring and auto-tuning
and alarm software for loop controllers is now a common feature. The controllers also accept direct
interfacing of process sensors and signals. Choice of inputs includes various types of thermocouples,
RTDs, voltage to 10 V dc, or current to 20 mA. While most sophisticated controllers today are
electronic, pneumatic controllers are still being used. Pneumatic controllers are easy to use, easy to
maintain, and virtually indestructible.

Sequence / Logic Control

Many control applications do not involve analog process variables, that is, the ones which can assume a
continuous range of values, but instead variables that are set valued, that is they only assume values
belonging to a finite set. The simplest examples of such variables are binary variables, that can have
either of two possible values, (such as 1 or 0, on or off, open or closed etc.). These control systems
operate by turning on and off switches, motors, valves, and other devices in response to operating
conditions and as a function of time. Such systems are referred to as sequence/logic control systems. For
example, in the operation of transfer lines and automated assembly machines, sequence control is used
to coordinate the various actions of the production system (e.g., transfer of parts, changing of the tool,
feeding of the metal cutting tool, etc.).

There are many industrial actuators which have set of command inputs. The control inputs to these
devices only belong to a specific discrete set. For example in the control of a conveyor system, analog
motor control is not applied. Simple on-off control is adequate. Therefore for this application, the

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motor-starter actuation system may be considered as discrete having three modes, namely, start, stop
and run. Other examples of such actuators are solenoid valves, discussed in a subsequent lesson.

Similarly, there are many industrial sensors (such as, Limit Switch / Pressure Switch/ Photo Switch etc.)
which provide discrete outputs which may be interpreted as the presence/absence of an object in close
proximity, passing of parts on a conveyor, or a given pressure value being higher or lower than a set
value. These sensors thus indicate, not the value of a process variable, but the particular range of values
to which the process variable belongs.

A modern controller device used extensively for sequence control today in transfer lines, robotics,
process control, and many other automated systems is the Programmable Logic Controller (PLC). In
essence, a PLC is a special purpose industrial microprocessor based real-time computing system, which
performs the following functions in the context of industrial operations

Supervisory Control

Supervisory control performs at a hierarchically higher level over the automatic controllers, which
controls smaller subsystems. Supervising level or SCADA layer gets lots of channel information and
stores the data in the system database. It acquires data from various control devices and displays them
on HMI’s (Human Machine Interface). It also gives alarm to indicate the levels of the process and
control variables. It uses special software to get the data and communication protocols to interact with
the field devices.

Supervisory control systems perform, typically the following functions:

♦ Set point computation: Set points for important process variables are computed depending on factors
such as nature of the product, production volume, mode of processing. This function has a lot of impact
on production volume, energy and quality and efficiency.

♦ Performance Monitoring / Diagnostics: Process variables are monitored to check for possible
system component failure, control loop detuning, actuator saturation, process parameter change etc. The
results are displayed and possibly archived for subsequent analysis.

♦ Start up / Shut down / Emergency Operations : Special discrete and continuous control modes are
initiated to carry out the intended operation, either in response to operator commands or in response to
diagnostic events such as detected failure modes.

♦ Control Reconfiguration / Tuning: Structural or Parametric redesign of control loops are carried
out, either in response to operator commands or in response to diagnostic events such as detected failure
modes. Control reconfigurations may also be necessary to accommodate variation of feedback or energy
input e.g. gas fired to oil fired.

♦ Operator Interface: Graphical interfaces for supervisory operators are provided, for manual
supervision and intervention.

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Naturally, these systems are dependent on specific application processes, in contrast with automatic
control algorithms, which are usually generic (e.g. PID). Computationally these are a mixture of hard
and soft real time algorithms. These are also often very expensive and based on proprietary knowledge
of automating specific classes of industrial plants.

Production Control

Production control performs at a hierarchically higher level over the supervisory controllers. Typical
functions they perform are:

♦ Process Scheduling: Depending on the sequence of operations to be carried on the existing batches of
products, processing resource availability for optimal resource utilization.

♦ Maintenance Management: Decision processes related to detection and deployment of maintenance

operations.

♦ Inventory Management: Decision processes related to monitoring of inventory status of raw

material, finished goods etc. and deployment of operations related to their management.

♦ Quality Management : Assessment, Documentation and Management of Quality

Typically, the algorithms make use of Resource Optimisation Technology and are non-real-time
although they may be using production data on-line.

The Architecture of Elements: The Automation Pyramid

Industrial automation systems are very complex having large number of devices with confluence of
technologies working in synchronization. In order to know the performance of the system we need to
understand the various parts of the system. Industrial automation systems are organized hierarchially as
shown in the following figure.

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Various components in an industrial automation system can be explained using the automation pyramid
as shown above. Here, various layers represent the wideness ( in the sense of no. of devices ), and
fastness of components on the time-scale.

Sensors and Acuators Layer: This layer is closest to the proceses and machines, used to translate
signals so that signals can be derived from processes for analysis and decisions and hence control
signals can be applied to the processes. This forms the base layer of the pyramid also called ‘level 0’
layer.

Automatic Control Layer: This layer consists of automatic control and monitoring systems, which drive
the actuators using the process information given by sensors. This is called as ‘level 1’ layer.

Supervisory Control Layer: This layer drives the automatic control system by setting target/goal to the
controller. Supervisory Control looks after the equipment, which may consis of several control loops.
This is called as ‘level 2’ layer.

Production Control Layer: This solves the decision problems like production targets, resource
allocation, task allocation to machines, maintenance management etc. This is called ‘level 3’ layer.

Enterprise control layer: This deals less technical and more commercial activities like supply, demand,
cash flow, product marketing etc. This is called as the ‘level 4’ layer.

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The spatial scale increases as the level is increased e.g. at lowest level a sensor works in a single loop,
but there exists many sensors in an automation system which will be visible as the level is increased.
The lowest level is faster in the time scale and the higher levels are slower. The aggregation of
information over some time interval is taken at higher levels.

All the above layers are connected by various types of communication systems. For example the sensors
and actuators may be connected to the automatic controllers using a point-to-point digital
communication, while the automatic controllers themselves may be connected with the supervisory and
production control systems using computer networks. Some of these networks may be proprietary. Over
the last decade, with emergence of embedded electronics and computing, standards for low level
network standards (CANBus, Fieldbus etc.) for communication with low level devices, such as sensors
and actuators are also emerging.

Types of Industrial Automations

Automation systems are classified into four basic types ,based on the flexibility and level of integration
in manufacturing processes. Those are described below.

1. Fixed Automation

In this sequence of operations to be performed are fixed by the equipment configuration. It is used in
high volume production with dedicated equipment. Examples of this automation system are automated
assembly lines, distilled process, machine transfer lines.

Fixed Automation

2. Programmable Automation

In this, sequence of operations can be changed by changing the program. Sequence of operations is
varied based on the different product configurations. Also new programs can be entered into the
programmable devices for the new products. This type of system is used in batch processes, steel rolling
mills, industrial robots, etc.

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 Programmable Automation

3. Flexible Automation

It is the extension for the programmable automation. This offers a greater flexibility to deal with
product design variations. Operators can give commands in the form of codes in the computer program
if wants to change the sequence of the process. Lower level equipments receive the instructions to
operate at the field level without losing the production time. This type of automation is used in
manufacturing multipurpose CNC machines, automatic guided vehicles, etc.

Flexible Automation

4. Integrated Automation

In this type total system is fully automated under computer control. Starting from designing process to
the dispatching, whole system is completely automated. Even the equipment is handled by the robots.
This system is used in computer integrated manufacturing systems.

Introduction to Measurement Systems

Introduction:

To understand a measuring instrument/system, it is important to have a systematic organization and

analysis of measurement systems. The operation of a measuring instrument or a system could be
described in a generalized manner in terms of functional elements shown in Figure below. Each

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functional element is made up of a component or groups of components which perform required and
definite steps in the measurement.

Fig. Block diagram of functional elements of a measurement system / instrument

The main functional elements of a measurement system are:

i) Primary sensing element

ii) Variable conversion element
iii) Variable manipulation element
iv) Signal conditioning element
v) Data transmission element
vi) Data presentation element.
2.2.1 Primary sensing element

The quantity or the variable which is being measured makes its first contact with the primary sensing
element of a measurement system. The measurement is thus first detected by primary sensor or detector.
The measurement is then immediately converted into an analogous electrical signal. This is done by a
transducer. Though a transducer in general, is defined as a device which converts energy from one form
to another. A transducer is defined as a device which converts a physical quantity into an electrical
quantity. The output of the sensor and detector element employed for measuring a quantity could be in
different analogous form. This output is then converted into an electrical signal by a transducer. This is
true of most of the cases but is not true for all. In many cases, the physical quantity is directly converted
into an electrical quantity by a detector transducer. The first stage of a measurement system is known as
a detector transducer stage.

Variable conversion element

The output signal of the variable sensing element may be any kind. It could be a mechanical or
electrical signal. It may be a deflection of elastic member or some electrical parameter, such as, voltage,
frequency etc. Sometimes, the output from the sensor is not suited to the measurement system. For the
instrument to perform the desired function, it may be necessary to convert this output signal from the
sensor to some other suitable form while preserving the information content of the original signal. For
example, suppose the output from the sensing element is in the form of very small displacement which
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is difficult to measure mechanically, it is converted in to corresponding electrical signal with the help of
transducer called stain gauge for further processing. Also if the output at one stage is analogue form and
the next stage of the system accepts input signal only in digital form. In such cases, we will have to use
as Analogue /Digital converter.

In many instruments variable conversion element is not required. Some instruments/measuring systems
may require more than one element.

Variable manipulation element

Variable manipulation means a change in numerical value of the signal. The function of a variable
manipulation element is to manipulate the signal presented to this element while preserving the original
nature of the signal. For example, a voltage amplifier acts as a variable manipulation element. The
amplifier accepts a small voltage signal as input and produces an output signal which is also voltage but
of greater magnitude. The variable manipulation element could be either placed after the variable
conversion element or it may precede the variable conversion element.

Signal conditioning element

The output signal of transducers contains information which is further processed by the system. Many
transducers develop usually a voltage or some other kind of electrical signal and quite often the signal
developed is of very low voltages, may be of the order of mV and some even µV. This signal could be
contaminated by unwanted signals like noise due to an extraneous source which may interfere with the
original output signal. Another problem is that the signal could also be distorted by processing
equipment itself. If the signal after being sensed contains unwanted contamination or distortion, there is
a need to remove the interfering noise / sources before its transmission to next stage. Otherwise we may
get highly distorted results which are far from its true value.

The solution to these problems is to prevent or remove the signal contamination or distortion. The
operations performed on the signal, to remove the signal contamination or distortion, is called Signal
Conditioning. The term signal conditioning includes many other functions in addition to variable
conversion and variable manipulation. Many signal conditioning processes may be linear, such as,
amplification, attenuation, integration, differentiation, addition and subtraction. Some may be non-linear
processes, such as, modulation, filtering, clipping, etc. The signal conditioning processes are performed
on the signal to bring it to the desired form for further transmission to next stage in the system. The
element that performs this function in any instrument or instrumentation system is known as Signal
Conditioning Element.

Data transmission element

There are several situations where the elements of an instrument are actually physically separated. In
such situations it becomes necessary to transmit data from one element to another. The element that
performs this function is called a Data Transmission Element. For example satellites or the air planes

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are physically separated from the control stations at earth. For guiding the movements of satellites or the
air planes control stations send the radio by a complicated telemetry systems. The signal conditioning
and transmission stage is commonly known as Intermediate Stage.

Data presentation element

The function of data presentation element is to convey the information about the quantity under
measurement to the personnel handling the instrument or the system for monitoring, control, or analysis
purposes. The information conveyed must be in a convenient form. In case data is to be monitored,
visual display devices are needed. These devices may be analogue or digital indicating instruments like
ammeters, voltmeters, etc. In case the data is to be recorded, recorders like magnetic tapes, high speed
camera and T.V. equipment; storage type C.R.T., printers, analogue and digital computers may be used.
For control and analysis purpose computers and the control elements are used. The final stage in a
measurement system is known as terminating stage.

Specifications of measurement systems

specifications of a measurement system can be classified into three categories: (i) static characteristics,
(ii) dynamic characteristics and (iii) random characteristics.

1. Static Characteristics

Static characteristics refer to the characteristics of the system when the input is either held constant or
varying very slowly. The items that can be classified under the heading static characteristics are mainly:

Range (or span)

It defines the maximum and minimum values of the inputs or the outputs for which the instrument is
recommended to use. For example, for a temperature measuring instrument the input range may be 100-
500 oC and the output range may be 4-20 mA.

Sensitivity

It can be defined as the ratio of the incremental output and the incremental input. While defining the
sensitivity, we assume that the input-output characteristic of the instrument is approximately linear in
that range. Thus if the sensitivity of a thermocouple is denoted as 100µV/°C, it indicates the sensitivity
in the linear range of the thermocouple voltage vs. temperature characteristics. Similarly sensitivity of a
spring balance can be expressed as 25 mm/kg (say), indicating additional load of 1 kg will cause
additional displacement of the spring by 25mm.
In general, sensitivity (or static sensitivity) at the operating point is defined as

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Again sensitivity of an instrument may also vary with temperature or other external factors. This is
known as sensitivity drift. Suppose the sensitivity of the spring balance mentioned above is 25 mm/kg at
20oC and 27 mm/kg at 30oC. Then the sensitivity drift/oC is 0.2 (mm/kg)/oC. In order to avoid such
sensitivity drift, sophisticated instruments are either kept at controlled temperature, or suitable in-built
temperature compensation schemes are provided inside the instrument.

Linearity

Linearity is actually a measure of nonlinearity of the instrument. When we talk about sensitivity, we
assume that the input/output characteristic of the instrument to be approximately linear. But in practice,
it is normally nonlinear, as shown in Figure below. The linearity is defined as the maximum deviation
from the linear characteristics as a percentage of the full scale output. Thus,

Hysteresis
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Hysteresis exists not only in magnetic circuits, but in instruments also. For example, the deflection of a
diaphragm type pressure gage may be different for the same pressure, but one for increasing and other
for decreasing, as shown in following Figure. The hysteresis is expressed as the maximum hysteresis as
a full scale reading.

Resolution

It is defined as the the smallest increment in input (the quantity being measured) which can be detected
with certainty by an instrument. The least count of an instrument is taken as the resolution of the said
instrument.
If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary (non-zero) input value, it will again be found that
output does not change at all until a certain increment exceed. This increment is called resolution or
discrimination of the instrument. Resolution defines smallest measurable input change while the
threshold defines the smallest measurable input.
In some instruments, the output increases in discrete steps, for continuous increase in the input, as
shown in Figure. It may be because of the finite graduations in the meter scale; or the instrument has a
1
digital display, as a result the output indication changes discretely. A 3 digit voltmeter, operating in 0-
2
2V range, can have maximum reading of 1.999V, and it cannot measure any change in voltage below
0.001V. Resolution indicates the minimum change in input variable that is detectable. For example, an
eight-bit A/D converter with +5V input can measure the minimum voltage of 5/(28 -1) or 19.6 mv.
Referring to given figure, resolution is also defined in terms of percentage as:

19
The quotient between the measuring range and resolution is often expressed as dynamic range and is
defined as:

Threshold

It is the minimum value of of input that is needed to cause a detectable change in the output signal from zero
position. Threshold can be specified in terms of input until or as a percentage of full-scale deflection (FSD).

Accuracy

Accuracy indicates the closeness of the measured value with the actual or true value, and is expressed in
the form of the maximum error (= measured value – true value) as a percentage of full scale reading.
Thus, if the accuracy of a temperature indicator, with a full scale range of 0-500 oC is specified as
±0.5%, it indicates that the measured value will always be within ±2.5 oC of the true value, if measured
through a standard instrument during the process of calibration. But if it indicates a reading of 250 oC,
the error will also be ±2.5 oC, i.e. ±1% of the reading. Thus it is always better to choose a scale of
measurement where the input is near full-scale value. But the true value is always difficult to get. We
use standard calibrated instruments in the laboratory for measuring true value if the variable.

The accuracy may be specified in terms of inaccuracy or limits of error and can be expressed in the
following ways:

i) Point Accuracy – Point accuracy means the accuracy of the instrument is only at the particular point
on its scale. This accuracy does not give any information about the general accuracy of the instrument.
20
This is particularly applicable to the temperature measuring devices, where points are obtained at the
melting and vaporising-temperatures of pure solids and liquids.

ii) Accuracy as of Percentage of True Value – Such type of accuracy of the instruments is determined
by identifying the measured value regarding their true value.

Accuracy, in terms of percentage of true value is expressed as

iii) Accuracy as Percentage of Full-Scale Deflection or FSD – Here the accuracy is calculated on the
basis maximum value of the scale, thus

Precision

Precision indicates the repeatability or reproducibility of an instrument (but does not indicate accuracy).
If an instrument is used to measure the same input, but at different instants, spread over the whole day,
successive measurements may vary randomly. The random fluctuations of readings, (mostly with a
Gaussian distribution) is often due to random variations of several other factors which have not been
taken into account, while measuring the variable. A precision instrument indicates that the successive
reading would be very close, or in other words, the standard deviation σe of the set of measurements
would be very small. Quantitatively, the precision can be expressed as:

The difference between precision and accuracy needs to be understood carefully. Precision means repetition
of successive readings, but it does not guarantee accuracy; successive readings may be close to each other,
but far from the true value. On the other hand, an accurate instrument has to be precise also, since successive
readings must be close to the true value (that is unique).

Example – Consider the measurement of known voltage of 100 V with a voltmeter. Five readings are taken,
and the indicated values are 104 V, 103 V, 105 V, 103 V and 105 V. From these values it is seen that the
instrument cannot be depended on for an accuracy better than 5% (5 V in this case), while a precision of
±1% is indicated since the maximum deviation from the mean reading of 104 V is only 1 V. The readings
are nearly close to each other. They are not exactly same because of the error. But as the reading are close to
each other then we say that the readings are precise.

21
It must be noted at this point that high precision does not mean high accuracy and vice versa.

2. Dynamic Characteristics

Dynamic characteristics refer to the performance of the instrument when the input variable is changing
rapidly with time. For example, human eye cannot detect any event whose duration is more than one-
tenth of a second; thus the dynamic performance of human eye cannot be said to be very satisfactory.
The dynamic performance of an instrument is normally expressed by a differential equation relating the
input and output quantities. It is always convenient to express the input-output dynamic characteristics
in form of a linear differential equation. So, often a nonlinear mathematical model is linearised and
expressed in the form:

22
 where xi and x0 are the input and the output variables respectively. The above expression can also be
expressed in terms of a transfer function, as:

Normally m<n an n is called the order of the system. Commonly available sensor characteristics can
usually be approximated as either zero-th order, first order or second order dynamics. Here are few
such examples:

Displacement sensors using potentiometric principle as shown in Figure have no energy storing
elements. The output voltage eo can be related with the input displacement xi by an algebraic equation:

where is the total length of the potentiometer and E is the excitation voltage.. So, it can be termed as a
zeroth order system.

Thermocouple

A bare thermocouple as shown in Figure below has a mass (m) of the junction. If it is immersed in a
fluid at a temperature Tf , then its dynamic performance relating the output voltage eo and the input
temperature Tf , can be expressed by the transfer function:

23
where, Kv= steady state voltage sensitivity of the thermocouple in V/ oC.

τ = time constant of the thermocouple =mC/hA

m = mass of the junction, C = specific heat, h = heat transfer co-efficient

A = surface area of the hot junction.

Hence, the bare thermocouple is a first order sensor. But if the bare thermocouple is put inside a
metallic protective well (as it is normally done for industrial thermocouples) the order of the system
increases due to the additional energy storing element (thermal mass of the well) and it becomes a
second order system.

Seismic Sensor

Seismic sensors are commonly used for vibration or acceleration measurement of foundations. From the
given figure the transfer function between the input displacement xi and output displacement xo can be
expressed as:

where: M = mass of the seismic body, B = damping constant, K= spring constant

From the above transfer function, it can be easily concluded that the seismic sensor is a second order system.

24
Dynamic characteristics specifications are normally referred to the referred to the performance of the
instrument with different test signals, e.g. impulse input, step input, ramp input and sinusoidal input.
Few important specifications are:

Step response performance

The normalized step response of a measurement system normally encountered is shown in Figure
above. Important parameters for classifying the dynamic response are:

Peak Overshoot (Mp): It is the maximum value minus the steady state value, normally expressed in
terms of percentage.

Settling Time (ts): It is the time taken to attain the response within ±2% of the steady state value.

Rise time (tr): It is the time required for the response to rise from 10% to 90% of its final value.

Frequency Response Performance

25
The frequency response performance refers to the performance of the system subject to sinusoidal input
of varying frequency.

Suppose G(s) is the transfer function of the dynamic measurement system, represented by the general
relation. If the input is a sinusoidal quantity of amplitude A and frequency ω, then in the steady state, the
output will also be of same frequency, but of different amplitude B, and there

would be a phase difference between the input and output. It can be shown that the amplitude ratio and
the phase difference can be obtained as:

The plots showing variations of amplitude ratios and phase angle with frequency are called the
magnitude and phase plots of the frequency response. Typical amplitude vs. frequency characteristics of
a piezoelectric accelerometer is shown in the above figure.

Bandwidth and Natural Frequency

From the above figure, it is apparent that the amplitude is fairly constant over a range of frequencies.
This range is called the bandwidth of the measuring system (to be precise, it is the frequency range in
which the normalized amplitude ratio does not fall below 0.707, or -3 dB limit). The instrument is

26
suitable for use in this range. The lower and upper limits are called the lower and upper cut off
frequencies. The frequency at which the amplitude ratio attains a peak is called the (damped) natural
frequency of the system.

3. Random Characteristics

If repeated readings of the same quantity of the measurand are taken by the same instrument, under
same ambient conditions, they are bound to differ from each other. This is often due to some inherent
sources of errors of the instrument that vary randomly and at any point of time it is very difficult to
exactly say, what would be its value. For example, the characteristics of resistance and diode elements
of an electronic circuit are random, due to two sources of noises: thermal noise and flicker noise. To
characterize these behaviors, statistical terminologies are often used. Most common among them are
Mean and Standard deviation. The mean of a set of readings is the most accurate estimation of the
actual value, since, the positive and negative errors often cancelled out. On the other hand the standard
deviation (σ) is a measure of the spread of the readings.

Introduction to sensors and transducers

In a measurement system all the quantities being measured, could not be displayed as such. In such
situation, the accurate measurement of a quantity is usually done by converting the related information
or signal to another form which is more conveniently or accurately displayed. This is achieved with the
help of a device which is known as transducer.

A sensor senses the condition, state and value of the process variable which reflects the output of the
instrument. The transducer is a device which provides a usable output in response of corresponding
input, which may be physical or mechanical quantity, property or condition. More precisely, The
transducer is a device which provides a usable output in response of corresponding input, which may be
physical or mechanical quantity, property or condition. More precisely, a Transducer is a device, which
transforms energy from one form to another more convenient form of energy. The transducer may be
mechanical, electrical, magnetic, optical, chemical, thermal, nuclear, acoustic, or a combination of
among of two or more.

All forms of transducers have some merits and demerits but most of the shortcomings have been
overcome with the introduction of electrical transducers. The most instrumentation systems having
non-electrical input quantity and this non-electrical quantity is generally converted into an analogous
electrical signal by a transducer. The electrical signal produced may be a voltage, current or frequency.
A transducer uses many effects to produce such conversion. The process of transforming signal from
one form to other is called transduction. The block diagram of a transducer is shown in Fig. 1.

27
 Fig. 1. Transducer block diagram.

Transducer contains two parts that are closely related to each other. These two parts are:

i) Sensing Element

ii) Transduction Element.

i) Sensing Element:

A detector or sensor or sensing element is that part of transducer which responds to a signal or stimulus
or physical phenomenon or a change in a physical phenomenon. The response of the sensing element
must be closely related to the physical phenomenon.

ii) Transduction Element:

The output of the sensing element is passed on to the transduction element. This element transforms the
output of the sensing element to an electrical signal. The transduction element, in a way acts as a
secondary transducer.

There may be cases when the transduction element performs the action of both transduction and
sensing. The best example of such a transducer is a thermocouple. A thermocouple is used to generate a
voltage corresponding to the heat produced at the junction of two dissimilar metals.

Basic Requirements of Transducer:

The main function of a transducer is to respond only for measurement under specified limits for which it
is designed. It is therefore, necessary to know relationship between the input and output quantities.

The following are the basic requirements of a good quality transducer:

a) Ruggedness – It should be capable of withstanding overload and some safety arrangement
should be provided for overload protection.
b) Linearity – Its input-output characteristics should be linear and it should produce these
characteristics in symmetrical way.
c) No hysteresis – It should not give any hysteresis during measurement while input signal is
varied from its low value to high value and vice-versa.
d) Repeatability – It should reproduce same output signal when the same input signal is applied
again and again under fixed environmental conditions e.g., temperature, pressure, humidity etc.
e) High output signal quality – The quality of output signal should be good i.e., ratio of signal to
noise should be high and the amplitude of the output signal should be enough.
f) High reliability and stability – It should give minimum error in measurement for temperature
variations, vibrations and other various changes in surroundings.
g) Good dynamic response – Its output should be faithful to input when taken as function of time.
The effect is analysed as the frequency response.

28
 h) Residual deformation – There should be no deformation on removal of input signal after long
period of application.

Classification of Transducers:

The transducers may be classified in various ways such as on the basis of electrical principle involved,
methods of application, methods of energy conversion, nature of output signal and according to whether
they are self-generating or the externally powered units. The transducers can be broadly classified:

1. On the basis of transduction form used.

2. Primary transducers and Secondary transducers.
3. Active transducers and Passive transducers.
4. Analog transducers and Digital transducers.
5. Transducers and Inverse transducers.
1. Classification based upon Principle of transduction:

The transducer can be classified on the basis of principle of transduction as resistive, inductive,
capacitive etc. depending upon how they convert the input quantity into resistance, inductance or
capacitance respectively. Table-I lists the classification of transducers based upon principle of
transduction.

TABLE-I: Types of Electrical Transducer

Electrical
Types of Transducers Principle of Operation and Applications
Parameters

Passive Transducers (externally powered)

The change in resistance of a potentiometer reading due to the

Potentiometer movement of the slider as a part of an external force applied is
known by its corresponding pressure or displacement.

The change in value of resistance of metal semi-conductor due to

Resistance Strain Gauge elongation or compression is known by the measurement of
torque, displacement or force.

The change in resistance of a heating element due to convection

Resistance

Pirani Gauge or Hot Wire

cooling of a flow of gas is known by its corresponding gas flow
Meter
or pressure.

The change in resistance of metal wire due to the change in

Resistance Thermometer temperature known by the measurement of temperature or
radiant heat.

The change in resistance of a semi-conductor that has a negative

Thermistor co-efficient of resistance is known by its corresponding measure
of temperature.

29
 The change in the resistance of conductive strip due to the
Resistance Hygrometer change of moisture content is known by the value of its
corresponding humidity.

The change in resistance of a cell due to a corresponding change

Photoconductive Cell
in light flux is known by its corresponding light intensity.

Self-inductance or mutual inductance of ac-excited coil is varied

Magnetic circuit
by changes in the magnetic circuit. Applications: Pressure,
transducer
displacement.

Reluctance of the magnetic circuit is varied by changing the

Reluctance pickup position of the iron core of a coil. Applications: Pressure,
displacement, vibration, position.
Inductance

The differential voltage of two secondary windings of a

transformer is varied by positioning the magnetic core through an
Differential transformer
externally applied force. Applications: Pressure, force,
displacement, position.

Inductance of a coil is varied by the proximity of an eddy current

Eddy current gage
plate. Applications: Displacement, thickness.

Magnetic properties are varied by pressure and stress.

Magnetostriction gauge
Applications: Pressure, sound.

Variable capacitance Distance between two parallel plates is varied by an externally

pressure gage applied force Applications: Displacement, pressure.

Sound pressure varies the capacitance between a fixed plate and

Capacitor microphone
Capacitance

a movable diaphragm. Applications: Speech, music, noise.

Variation in capacitance by changes in the dielectric.

Dielectric gauge
Applications: Liquid level, thickness.

potential difference is generated across a semiconductor plate

Hall effect pickup (germanium) when magnetic flux interacts with an applied
current. Applications: Magnetic flux, current.
Voltge and Current

Electron flow induced by ionization of gas due to radioactive

Ionization chamber
radiation. Applications: Particle counting, radiation.

Electron emission due to incident radiation on photoemissive

Photoemissive cell
surface. Applications: Light and radiation.

Secondary electron emission due to incident radiation on

Photomultiplier tube photosensitive cathode. Applications: Light and radiation,
photo-sensitive relays.

Self-generating Transducers (no external power)

30
 An emf is generated across the junction of two dissimilar metals
Thermocouple and
or semiconductors when that junction is heated. Applications:
thermopile
Temperature, heat flow, radiation.

Motion of a coil in a magnetic field generates a voltage.

Moving-coil generator
Applications: Velocity. Vibration.

An emf is generated when an external force is applied to certain

Piezoelectric pickup crystalline materials, such as quartz. Applications: Sound,
vibration. acceleration, pressure changes.

A voltage is generated in a semi-conductor junction device when

Photovoltaic cell radiant energy stimulates the cell Applications: Light meter,
solar cell.

2. Primary transducers and Secondary transducers:

The transducer that directly senses the input signal and converts the physical property into the electrical
signal is called primary transducer or a sensor. Thermistor is an example of primary transducer. It
senses the temperature directly and causes the changes in its resistance with respect to temperature.

On the other hand, if the input signal is sensed first by some detector or sensor and its output, which
may be of some other form than the input signal, is given as input to another transducer for conversion
into electrical form, then such a transducer is called as secondary transducer.

Bourdon tube acting as a primary detector senses the pressure and converts the pressure into a
displacement of its free end. The displacement of the free end moves the core of a linear variable
differential transformer (LVDT) which produces an output voltage. The Bourdon tube is called
“Primary Transducer” while the LVDT is called a “Secondary Transducer”.

3. Active transducers and Passive transducers:

On the basis of methods of energy conversion used the transducers are classified in to following two
categories:

A transducer, which develops its output in the form of electrical current or voltage without any auxiliary
source, is called active transducer or the self-generating transducers. The energy required for this is
absorbed from the physical phenomenon which is being measured. This type of transducer draws energy
from the system under measurement. Examples are thermocouples, piezo-electric transducers,
photovoltaic cell etc. Such transducers normally give very small output and so amplification of the
signal becomes essential.

Passive transducer or externally powered transducers are those which derive the power required for
energy conversion from an external power source. An electrical transducer, in which electrical
parameter like resistance, inductance or capacitance changes with change in the input signal, is called as
31
 a passive transducer. They may also absorb a little power from the process variable being measured.
Resistive, inductive and capacitive transducers viz., potentiometric devices, differential transformer etc.
are known as passive transducers.

4. Analog transducers and Digital transducers:

The output from the transducer may be a continuous function of time or it may be in discrete function of
time. On this basis the transducers may be classified into two categories.

A transducer, which converts input signal into output signal in a continuous function of time is known
as Analog transducer. Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT), thermo-couple or a thermistor
are the examples of “Analog Transducer” as they give an output which is continuous function of time.

On the other hand, a transducer, which converts input signal into output signal in the form of pulses i.e.,
it gives discrete output is called a Digital transducer. The digital transducers are becoming very popular
and useful because the digital signals can be transmitted over a long distance, with minimum distortion
due to amplitude variation and phase shift.

5. Inverse transducers:

A transducer is generally defined as a device which converts a non-electrical quantity into an electrical
quantity. An inverse transducer is a device which converts an electrical quantity into a non-electrical
quantity.

A current carrying coil moving in a magnetic field is an inverse transducer, because current by it is
converted into a force, which causes translational or rotational displacement. Many data indicating and
recording devices are the inverse transducer. An analog ammeter or voltmeter converts current into
mechanical displacement. However, such devices include instruments like indicating instruments, pen
recorders, oscilloscopes that convert the electrical signal to a mechanical movement are placed at the
output stage (data presentation stage) are called output transducers. A most useful application of
inverse transducers is in feedback measuring systems.

An actuator is an inverse transducer as it is having an electrical input and a low-power non-electrical

output. A piezo-electric crystal also acts as an inverse transducer because when a voltage is applied
across its surfaces, it changes its dimensions causing a mechanical displacement.

Advantages of Electrical transducers:

Mostly quantities to be measured are non-electrical such as temperature, pressure, displacement,

humidity, fluid flow, speed etc., but these quantities cannot be measured directly. Hence such quantities
are required to be sensed and changed into some other form for easy measurement. Electrical quantities
such as current, voltage, resistance, inductance and capacitance etc. can be conveniently measured,
transferred and stored, and, therefore, for measurement of the non-electrical quantities these are to be

32
converted into electrical quantities first and ten measured. The function of converting non-electrical
quantity into electrical one is accomplished by a device called the electrical transducer.

The advantages of converting physical quantities into an analogous electrical signal are:
o Electrical amplification and attenuation can be done easily and that too with a static device.
o The mass-inertia effects are minimized.
o The effect of friction is minimized.
o The electrical or electronic system can be controlled with a very small electric power.
o The electric power can be easily used, transmitted and process for the purpose of measurement.
Selection of Transducers:

Selection of a transducer is one of the most important factors which help in obtaining accurate results.
The points to be considered in selecting a transducer for a specific measurement are as follows:

1. Operating Principle: The transducers are so many times selected on the basis of operating
principle used by them. The operating principles used in transducer may be resistive,
inductive, capacitive, opto-electronic, piezoelectric and so on.
2. Sensitivity: The transducer should give a sufficient output signal per unit of measured input in
order to yield meaningful data.
3. Operating Range: The transducer should maintain the range requirements and have a better
resolution over its entire range.
4. Accuracy: High degree of accuracy is necessary for measurement.
5. Error: The errors inherent in the operation of the transducer itself, but it should maintain the
expected input-output relationship as described with its transfer function so as to avoid errors.
6. Transient and Frequency Response: The transducer should meet the desired time domain
specifications as well as it should ideally have a flat frequency response curve.
7. Loading Effects: To avoid loading effect, it is necessary that a transducer has a high input
impedance and a low output impedance.
8. Physical Environment: The transducer selected should be able to work under specified
environmental conditions and maintain its output-input relationship

Displacement sensors
Introduction

Displacement is an important parameter whose measurement is important in many position control

schemes. Error free measurement of the parameter is necessary in order to achieve good control
performance. Displacement measurement can be of different types. The displacement may be in the
range of few μm to few cm. Moreover the measurement may be of contact type or noncontact type.
Again displacement to be measured can be linear or angular (rotary).

33
Broadly speaking, displacement measurement can be of two types: contact and noncontact types.
Besides the measurement principles can be classified into two categories: electrical sensing and optical
sensing. In electrical sensing, passive electrical sensors are used variation of either resistance,
inductance or capacitance with displacement is measured. On the other hand the optical method mainly
works on the principle of intensity variation of light with distance. Interferometric technique is also used
for measurement of very small displacement in order of nanometers. But this technique is more suitable
for laboratory purpose, not very useful for industrial applications.

Resistive transducer

❑ The resistive transducers are also known as resistive sensors or variable resistance transducers.
These transducers are most frequently used for measuring different physical quantities like
temperature, pressure, displacement, force, and vibration.

❑ The working of a resistive transducer can be explained by considering a conductor rod as the
transducer.

❑ The resistance of the transducer varies due to the external environmental factors as well as the
physical properties of the conductor.

❑ The change in resistance is measured by the ac or dc measuring devices.

Working Principle of Resistive Transducer:

❑ Resistive transducer works on the principle that the resistance of the conductor is directly
proportional to its length and is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the
conductor.

L
Therefore, resistance of an electrical conductor is given by R =
A
where ,
R = Resistance in Ω, ρ = Resistivity of the conductor (Ω - m),
L = Length of the conductor in m.
The resistive transducer is designed by considering the variation of the length, area and
resistivity of the metal.
Applications of Resistive Transducer:

The following are the applications of the resistive transducer:

o Potentiometer – The translational and rotational potentiometer are the examples of the resistive
transducers which work on the basis of change in resistance with change in length of the
conductor. It is used for the measurement of translational and rotational displacement.

34
 o Strain gauges – The resistance of a conductor or a semiconductor material changes when
mechanically strained. This property of conductor is used for the measurement of the pressure,
force, displacement etc.

o Resistance Thermometer – The resistance of the metals changes because of changes in

temperature. This property of metal is used for measuring the temperature.

o Thermistor – It works on the principle that the temperature coefficient of the thermistor material
varies with the temperature. The thermistor has the negative temperature coefficient. The
negative temperature coefficient (NTC) means the temperature is inversely proportional to
resistance.

Potentiometers

A potentiometer consists of a resistive element provided with a sliding contact. This sliding contact is
known as a wiper. A potentiometer is also called as POT because it is used in voltage division. It is a
resistive and passive transducer.

Depending upon the motion of wiper, potentiometer are of three types:

1. Translatory or linear potentiometer – wiper has linear motion only. The translational resistive
elements are straight devices and have a stroke of 2 mm to 0.5 m.

2. Rotary Potentiometer – wiper has rotational motion only. The rotary potentiometer can be a
single turn or multi-turn. The rotational devices are circular in shape and are used for
measurement of angular displacement (full-scale angular displacement as small as 100). A full
single single turn pot may provide accurate measurement upto 3570.

3. Helipots – wiper use combination of the two motions, i.e. translational as well as rotational.
These POTs have their resistive element in the form of helix shape and therefore, they are called
helipots. Multiturn potentiometers may measure upto 35000 of rotation through use of helipots.

Working Principle:

The potentiometer (POT) is a resistive transducer used for the measurement of rotary as well as linear
motion. The resistive element may be excited by either dc or ac voltage. The POT is a passive
transducer since it requires an external power source for its operation.

Materials used for Potentiometers:

Potentiometers are of two types depending upon the type of material used.
1. Wire Wound Potentiometers –
material used: Nickel chromium, platinum (0.01 mm dia.), nickel copper.
1. Non-Wire or Continuous Potentiometers –
material used: Carbon film, cermet, hot moulded carbon, thin metal film.

35
Characteristic of potentiometer

36
37
Power rating of Potentiometer :

Typically single-turn potentiometers are 50 mm in diameter, have a total resistance from about 100 Ω
to 100 k Ω in steps of 100 Ω and power rating, P upto 5 W at an ambient temperature of 200C.

ei 2
The maximum excitation input voltage is ( ei )max = PRp volt Since, Power P =
Rp

Linearity and Sensitivity:

The linearity and sensitivity are two conflicting requirements. If Rp is made small, the linearity
improves, but low value of Rp require a lower input voltage ei in order to keep down the power
dissipation and a low value of ei results in a lower value of output voltage e0 resulting in lower
sensitivity. Thus, choice of potentiometer resistance, Rp has to be made considering both the linearity
and sensitivity.

Inductive Transducer
Introduction

❑ A transducer that works on the principle of electromagnetic induction or transduction

mechanism is called an inductive transducer.

❑ It works on the principle of inductance change due to any appreciable change in the quantity
to be measured i.e. measurand.

❑ The inductive transducers are also known as variable inductance transducers. These
transducers are most frequently used for measuring different physical quantities like
displacement (rotary or linear), position, force, pressure, vibration etc.

❑ Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) is an example of an inductive transducer.

Using LVDT, displacement is measured in terms of the voltage induced in the winding by
moving the core in one direction.

Working Principle:

❑ Inductive transducers may be self-generating type or passive-type transducer.

Examples – Tachometer (self-generating type) and LVDT (passive-type).

38
 ❑ Inductive transducers operate, generally, upon one of the following three
principles:

❑ Change of self inductance,

❑ Change of mutual inductance, and

❑ Production of eddy current.

Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) :

❑ The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) (also called linear variable displacement
transducer or simply differential transformer) is a type of electrical transducer used for
measuring linear displacement (or position).

❑ It is the most widely used inductive transducer that converts the linear motion into the
electrical signal.

❑ The output across secondary of this transducer is the differential thus it is called so.

❑ The LVDT is very accurate inductive transducer as compared to other inductive transducers.

❑ A counterpart to this device that is used for measuring rotary displacement is called a rotary
variable differential transformer (RVDT).

39
40
Output Vs Core Displacement:

41
Advantages of LVDT:

The advantages of LVDT are:

1. High Range – The LVDTs have a very high range for measurement of displacement. They can
used for measurement of displacements ranging from 1.25 mm to 250 mm. With 0.25 % full-
scale linearity, it allows measurement down to 0.003 mm.
2. No Frictional Losses – As the core moves inside a hollow former so there is no loss of
displacement input as frictional loss so it makes LVDT as very accurate device.
3. High Input and High Sensitivity – The output of LVDT is so high that it doesn’t need any
amplification. The transducer possess a high sensitivity which is typically about 40 V/mm.
4. Low Hysteresis – LVDTs show a low hysteresis and hence repeatability is excellent under all
conditions.
5. Low Power Consumption – The power is about 1W which is very low as compared to other
transducers.
6. Direct Conversion to Electrical Signals – They convert the linear displacement to electrical
voltage which are easy to process.

Disadvantages of LVDT

1. Since LVDT is Inductive Transducer, so it is sensitive to Stray Magnetic Field. Hence an extra
setup is required to protect it from Stray Magnetic Field.
2. Since it is an electromagnetic device, so it also gets affected by the vibrations and temperature
variation.
Applications of LVDT

1. LVDT is used to measure the physical quantities such as Force, Tension, Pressure, Weight, etc.
These quantities are first converted into displacement by the use of primary transducers and then
it is used to convert the displacement to the corresponding Electrical voltage signal.
2. It is mostly used in industries as well as a servomechanism.
3. It is also used in Industrial Automation, Aircraft. Turbine, Satellite, hydraulics, etc.

LVDT Specifications:

• Range of Measurement: ± 0.25 mm to ± 750 mm

• Operating Temperature: (-265 to 600) degree Celsius.
• Frequency Range: 50 Hz to 20 kHz.

Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT)

It is an electro-mechanical inductive transducer that converts angular displacement into the

corresponding electrical signal. It is the most widely used inductive sensor due to its high accuracy
level. Since the coil of RVDT is designed to measure an angular position, so it is also known as
42
an angular position sensor. Unlike LVDT, RVDT is also a passive differential transducer. Its
construction is similar to that of LVDT, except the core is designed in such a way that when it rotates
the mutual inductance between the primary and each of the secondary coils changes linearly with the
angular displacement. Schematic diagram of a typical RVDT is shown in Figure

Fig. Circuit of RVDT

RVDT working principle:

The working principle of RVDT and LVDT both are the same and based on the mutual induction
principle. When AC excitation of 5-15V at a frequency of 50-400 Hz is applied to the primary windings
of RVDT then a magnetic field is produced inside the core. This magnetic field induces a mutual current
in secondary windings. Then due to transformer action, the induced voltages in secondary windings
(S1 and S2) are Es1 and Es2 respectively. Hence the net output voltage will be the difference between
both the induced secondary voltages.

Hence Output will be E0 = Es1 – Es2.

Now according to the position of the core, there are three cases that arise.

Case 1: When the core is at the Null position.

When the core is at the null position then the flux linkage with both the secondary windings will be the
same. So the induced emf (Es1 and Es2 ) in both the windings will be the same. Hence the Net
differential output voltage E0 = Es1 – Es2 will be zero (E0 = Es1 – Es2 = 0). It shows that no
displacement of the core.

Case 2: When the core rotates in the clockwise direction.

When the core of RVDT rotates in the clockwise direction. Then, in this case, the flux linkage
with S1 will be more as compared to S2. This means the emf induced in S1 will be more than the induced
emf in S2. Hence Es1 > Es2 and Net differential output voltage E0 = Es1 – Es2 will be positive. This
means the output voltage E0 will be in phase with the primary voltage.

43
Case 3: When the core rotates in the anti-clockwise direction.

When the core of RVDT rotates in the anti-clockwise direction. Then, in this case, the flux linkage
with S2 will be more as compared to S1. This means the emf induced in S2 will be more than the induced
emf in S1. Hence Es1 < Es2 and Net differential output voltage E0 = Es1 – Es2 will be negative. This
means the output voltage E0 will be in phase opposition (180 degrees out of phase) with the primary
voltage.

Advantages of RVDT

Following are the main advantages of RVDT:

• High Accuracy.
• Compact and strong construction.
• The consistency of RVDT is high.
• Long life span.
• Very high Resolution.
• Low cost.
• High durability.
• Linearity is excellent.
• The performance is repeatable.
• Easy to handle.
Disadvantages of RVDT

The disadvantages of RVDT mainly include the following.

• Since the output of RVDT is linear ( about +40 degrees or -40 degrees), So it restricts its
usability.

• The contact among the measuring exteriors as well as the nozzle is not possible for all time.

Applications of RVDT

RVDT is most commonly is used as a sensor nowadays, also it doesn't experience any functional
problem due to its contactless structure. Hence the main applications of RVDT include the following.
• Actuators for controlling flight as well as engine.
• Fuel valve as well as hydraulics.
• Brake with a cable system.
• Modern machine tools.
• Nose wheel steering systems.
• Weapon and Torpedo system.
• Engine fuel control system.
• Aircraft and avionics.
• Engines bleed air systems.

44
 • Robotics

Resolver

Resolvers also work on the principle of mutual inductance variation and are widely used for
measurement of rotary motion. The basic construction is shown in following Figure. A resolver consists
of a rotor containing a primary coil and two stator windings (with equal number of turns) placed
perpendicular to each other. The rotor is directly attached to the object whose rotation is being
measured. If a.c. excitation of r.m.s voltage Vr is applied, then the induced voltages at two stator coils
are given by:

By measuring these two voltages the angular position can be uniquely determined, provided
(0    90) . Phase sensitive detection is needed if we want to measure for angles in all the four
quadrants.

Capacitive Transducer
Introduction

❑ The capacitive transducers are also known as capacitive sensors or variable capacitance
transducers.
❑ These transducers are used for measuring displacement, pressure, force, liquid levels and other
physical quantities.
❑ It is a passive transducer that means it requires external power for operation.
45
 ❑ The capacitive transducer works on the principle of variable capacitances. The capacitance of
the capacitive transducer changes because of many reasons like overlapping area of plates,
change in distance between the plates and dielectric constant.
❑ The input quantity causes the change of the capacitance of the transducer. The change in
capacitance is measured with bridge circuits.
❑ The capacitive transducer works on with both the contacting and non-contacting modes.

Working Principle of Capacitive Transducer:

The principle of operation of capacitive transducer is based upon the familiar equation for capacitance
of a parallel plate capacitor.
 A  0 r A
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor, C is given by C = =
where , d d
A = overlapping area of plates; m2,
d = the distance between two plates; m,
ε = ε0 εr = permittivity of the medium; F/m,
ε0 = the permittivity of free space; 8.854 x 10-12 F/m,
εr = relative permittivity.

The capacitive transducer works on the principle of change of capacitance which may be caused by:
o change in overlapping area A,
o change in the distance d between two plates and
o change in dielectric constant.
o The output impedance of transducer is given as X = 1
2 fC
c
where ,
C = capacitance and,
f = frequency of excitation in Hz.

The capacitive transducers are mainly used for measurement of linear displacement, by employing the
following three effects:
46
 i. Change in capacitance due to change in overlapping area of plates.
ii. Change in capacitance due to change in distance between the two plates.
iii. Change in capacitance due to change in dielectric between the two plates.

47
48
49
50
Advantages of Capacitive Transducers :

• Capacitive transducers exhibit good frequency responses as high as 50 kHz. Therefore, these can
be useful for dynamic measurement conditions.
• Very small forces are sufficient for the operation of capacitive transducer. Therefore, these can
be employed in small systems.
• Since its input impedance is high the loading effects are minimum.
• These transducers are very sensitive in nature.
• Since they use a small force, the power required for their operation is also low.
• They give rapid response to the change in pressure.
• They can withstand even high shocks and vibrations.
• They have the resolution in the order of 2.5 × 10-3 mm.
Disadvantages of Capacitive Transducers :

• If the metallic parts of the capacitive transducer are not insulated properly from each other. The
measurement process may get affected by stray capacitances.
• Sometimes capacitive transducers exhibit non-linear behavior on account of edge effects. To
avoid this effect, guard signs should be used.
• There is a problem of stray electric fields if the capacitive transducers with a low capacitance of
the order of pico farads are used. This effect is also eliminated using guard rings.
• The presence of any extraneous matter such as moisture, dust particles affects the capacitance
value of the transducer.
• When these transducers are employed to use with instrumentation system, very complex
circuitry is required.

51
 • The cables used to connect the capacitive transducer to a measuring point acts as a source of
error.
• Since capacitive transducers are sensitive to temperature. Their capacitance is affected by
variations in the temperatures.
Applications of Capacitive Transducers :

• These are used for the measurement of linear displacements and angular displacements.
• These are used in conjunction with some mechanical components for the measurement of liquid
level, density, weight, volume, etc.
• These can be used to measure pressure and force (For this the applied pressure or force is
changed into displacement and measured).
• These can be used to measure humidity in gases. Because dielectric constant of gases varies with
humidity and causes the capacitance of the transducer to vary.
• They can be directly used as pressure transducer in those applications where the dielectric of a
medium varies with pressure.

Optical Sensors
Optical displacement sensors work on the basic principle that the intensity of light decreases with
distance. So if the source and detector are fixed, the amount of light reflected from a moving surface
will depend on the distance of the moving surface from the fixed ones. Measurement using this
principle requires proper calibration since the amount of light received depends upon the reflectivity of
the surface, intensity of the source etc. Yet it can provide a simple method for displacement
measurement. Optical fibers are often used to transmit light to and from the measuring zone. Such a
scheme with bundle fibers is shown in the given Figure. It uses two bundle fibers, one for transmitting
light from the source and the other to the detector. Light reflected on the receiving fiber bundle by the
surface of the target object is carried to a photo detector. The light source could be Laser or LED;
photodiodes or phototransistors are used for detection.

Pressure and force Measurement system

Pressure Measurement
52
Measurement of pressure inside a pipeline or a container in an industrial environment is a challenging
task, keeping in mind that pressure may be very high, or very low (vacuum); the medium may be liquid,
or gaseous. We will not discuss the vacuum pressure measuring techniques; rather try to concentrate on
measurement techniques of pressure higher than the atmospheric. They are mainly carried out by using
elastic elements: diaphragms, bellows and Bourdon tubes. These elastic elements change their shape
with applied pressure and the change of shape can be measured using suitable deflection transducers.
Their basic constructions and principle of operation are explained below.

Diaphragms

Diaphragms may be of three types: Thin plate, Membrane and Corrugated diaphragm. This
classification is based on the applied pressure and the corresponding displacements. Thin plate is made
by machining a solid block and making a circular cross-sectional area with smaller thickness in the
middle. It is used for measurement of relatively higher pressure. In a membrane the sensing section is
glued in between two solid blocks. The thickness is smaller; as a result, when pressure is applied on one
side, the displacement is larger. The sensitivity can be further enhanced in a corrugated diaphragm, and
a large deflection can be obtained for a small change in pressure; however at the cost of linearity. The
materials used are Bronze, Brass, and Stainless steel.

53
54
55
List advantages and disadvantages of Diaphragm pressure gauge.
Advantages of Elastic diaphragm gauges:
1. Best advantage is they cost less
2. They have a linear scale for a wide range
3. They can withstand over pressure and hence they are safe to be used.
4. No permanent zero shift.
5. They can measure both absolute and gauge pressure, that is, differential pressure.

Disadvantages of Elastic diaphragm gauges:

1. Shocks and vibrations affects their performance and hence they are to be protected.
2. When used for high pressure measurement, the diaphragm gets damaged.
3. These gauges are difficult to be repaired.

Bellows

Bellows are made with a number of convolutions from a soft material and one end of it is fixed, wherein
air can go through a port. The other end of the bellows is free to move. The displacement of the free end
increases with the number of convolutions used. Number of convolutions varies between 5 to 20. Often
an external spring is used opposing the movement of the bellows; as a result a linear relationship can be
obtained from the equation: pA=kx where, A is the area of the bellows, k is the spring constant and x is
the displacement of the bellows. Phosphor Bronze, Brass, Beryllium Copper, Stainless Steel are
normally used as the materials for bellows. Bellows are manufactured either by (i) turning from a solid
block of metal, or (ii) soldering or welding stamped annular rings, or (iii) rolling (pressing) a tube.
56
57
List advantages and disadvantages of Bellows type pressure gauge.
Advantages
• Bellow joints do not require access; i.e. They can be direct buried, however a telltale is recommended
• No maintenance is required.
• Low cost
• Can be used to measured differential pressure

Disadvantages
• Bellows joints can fail catastrophically.
• No in place maintenance or repair can be performed - they must be replaced if damaged.
• Require that the system to be shut down when a failure occurs.
• Smaller pressure range of application.
• Temperature compensation needed.

58
Bourdon Tube

Bourdon tube pressure gages are extensively used for local indication. This type of pressure gages were
first developed by E. Bourdon in 1849. Bourdon tube pressure gages can be used to measure over a
wide range of pressure: form vacuum to pressure as high as few thousand psi. It is basically consisted of
a C-shaped hollow tube, whose one end is fixed and connected to the pressure tapping, the other end
free. The cross section of the tube is elliptical. When pressure is applied, the elliptical tube tries to
acquire a circular cross section; as a result, stress is developed and the tube tries to straighten up. Thus,
the free end of the tube moves up, depending on magnitude of pressure. A deflecting and indicating
mechanism is attached to the free end that rotates the pointer. The materials used are commonly
Phosphor Bronze, Brass and Beryllium Copper. For an overall diameter of the C-tube the useful travel
of the free end is approximately " 1/8 . Though the C-type tubes are most common, other shapes of
tubes, such as helical, twisted or spiral tubes are also in use.

59
List advantages and disadvantages of Bourdon Tube.
Advantages:
1. These Bourdon tube pressure gauges give accurate results.
2. Bourdon tube cost low.
3. Bourdon tube are simple in construction.
4. They can be modified to give electrical outputs.
5. They are safe even for high pressure measurement.
6. Accuracy is high especially at high pressures.

Disadvantages:
60
1. They respond slowly to changes in pressure
2. They are subjected to hysteresis.
3. They are sensitive to shocks and vibrations.
4. Amplification is a must as the displacement of the free end of the bourdon tube is low.
5. It cannot be used for precision measurement.

Force sensors
The most popular method for measuring force is using strain gauge. We measure the strain developed
due to force using strain gauges; and by multiplying the strain with the effective cross sectional area and
Young’s modulus of the material, we can obtain force. Load cells and Proving rings are two common
methods for force measurement using strain gauges. We will first discuss the principle of strain gauge
and then go for the force measuring techniques.

Strain Gauge

61
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63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
Load Cell

72
73
74
75
Proving Ring

Proving Rings can be used for measurement of both compressional and tensile forces. The advantage of
a Proving Ring is that, because of its construction more strain can be developed compared to a load cell.
The typical construction of a Proving Ring is shown in figure. It consists of a hollow cylindrical beam
of radius R, thickness t and axial width b. The two ends of the ring are fixed with the structures between
which force is measured. Four strain gages are mounted on the walls of the proving ring, two on the
inner wall, and two on the outer wall. When force is applied as shown, gages 2 and 4 will experience
strain –ε (compression), while gages 1 and 3 will experience strain + ε (tension). The magnitude of the
strain is given by the expression:

The four strain gages are connected in a bridge and the unbalanced voltage can easily be calibrated in
terms of force to be measured.

76
Cantilever Beam
Cantilever beam can be used for measurement up to 10 kg of weight. One end of the cantilever is fixed,
while the other end is free; load is applied at this end, as shown in following figure. The strain
developed at the fixed end is given by the expression:

where,
l = length of the beam
t = thickness of the cantilever
b = width of the beam
E = Young’s modulus of the material
The strain developed can be measured by fixing strain gages at the fixed end: two on the top side of the
beam, measuring tensile strain +ε and two on the bottom measuring compressional strain – ε using the
given equation.

77
Conclusion

In this lesson, we have studied the commonly used sensing elements for measurement of pressure and
force. Elastic elements are used for measurement of pressure, where the pressure signal is converted
into displacement signal. Displacement sensors are further used to convert this to appropriate electrical
signal. Strain gages are also sometimes used to measure strain developed on the diaphragm.

On the other hand, load cells, Proving Rings and Cantilever Beams are used for force measurement.
Here strain gages mounted on the sensing elements measure strains, and the unbalanced voltage of a
strain gage bridge can be effectively calibrated in terms of force.

Temperature Measurement
Temperature Transducer is one of the most widely measured and controlled variable in industry, as a
lot of products during manufacturing requires controlled temperature at various stages of processing.

A wide variety of Temperature Transducer and temperature measurement systems have been developed
for different applications requirements.

Most of the Temperature Transducer are of Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD), Thermistors and
Thermocouples. Of these RTD’s and Thermistor are passive devices whose resistance changes with
temperature hence need an electrical supply to give a voltage output. On the other hand thermocouples
are active transducers and are based on the principle of generation of thermoelectricity, when two
dissimilar metals are connected together to form a junction called the sensing junction, an emf is
generated proportional to the temperature of the junction. Thermocouple operate on the principle of
seeback effect. Thermocouple introduces errors and can be overcomed by using a reference junction
compensation called as a cold junction compensation.

Thermocouples are available that span cryogenic to 2000°C temperature range. They have the highest
speed of response. Thermocouples can be connected in series/parallel to obtain greater sensitivity called
a Thermopile.

RTD commonly use platinum, Nickel or any resistance wire whose resistance varies with temperature
and has a high intrinsic accuracy. Platinum is the most widely used RTD because of its high stability
and large operating range. RTD’ s are usually connected in a Wheatstones bridge circuit. The lead wire
used for connecting the RTD’ s introduces error, hence compensation is required. This is obtained by
using three-wire or four wire compensation, but 3-wire compensation is mostly used in the industry.

Another form of temperature measurement is by the use of thermistor. A thermistor is a thermally

sensitive resistor that exhibits change in electrical resistance with change in temperature. Thermistors
78
made up of oxides exhibit a negative temperature coefficient (NTC), that is, their resistance decreases
with increase in temperature. Thermistor are also available with positive temperature coefficient (PTC),
but PTC thermistor are seldom used for measurement since they have poor sensitivity.

Thermistors are available in various sizes and shapes such as beads, rods, discs, washers and in the form
of probes.

Radiation pyrometer are used where non-contact temperature is required to be measured. It measures
the radiant (energy) heat emitted or reflected by a hot object. Radiation pyrometers are of two types
total radiation pyrometer and infrared pyrometer.

Total radiation pyrometer virtually receives all the radiation from a heated body and measures
temperature in the range around 1200°C-3500°C. Infrared pyrometers are partial or selective radiation
pyrometers and are used in the range of 1000°C-1200°C.

Optical pyrometers are used in the visible wavelength. The most common type of optical pyrometer is
the disappearing filament type and is used in temperature range of 1400°C and can be extended up to
3000°C. Optical pyrometers are widely used for accurate measurement of temperatures of furnaces,
molten metals etc.

Here we will mainly discusses about RTD, Thermocouple and Thermistor.

Resistance Temperature Detector

79
Almost all metals have a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) of resistance, so that their resistances
increases with increase in temperature. Some materials, such as Carbon and Germanium have a negative
temperature coefficient (NTC) of resistance.

A high value of ‘α’ is desired in a temperature sensing element, so that sufficient change in resistance
occurs for a relatively small change in temperature. This change in resistance (ΔR) can be measured
with a Wheatstone’s bridge which can be calibrated to indicate the temperature, that caused the
resistance change rather than the resistance itself. The sensing element of the RTD is selected according
to the intended applications.

Resistance Temperature Detector Working are wire-wound resistance with moderate resistance and a
PTC of resistance. Platinum is the most widely used resistance wire type because of its high stability
and large operating range. However, Nickel and Copper are also used in RTDs. The temperature ranges
for various resistance wire are given in Table 13.1.

Platinum RTDs provide high accuracy and stability. They have the following advantages:
1. Linearity over a wide operating range.
2. Wide operating range
3. Higher temperature operation
4. Better stability at high temperature
Disadvantages of Resistance Temperature Detector
1. Low sensitivity
2. It can be affected by contact resistance, shock and vibration

80
 3. Requires no point sensing
4. Higher cost than other temperature transducers
5. Requires 3 or 4 wire for its operation and associated instrumentation to eliminate errors due to
lead resistance

Construction

For industrial use, bare metal wires cannot be used for temperature measurement. They must be
protected from mechanical hazards such as material decomposition, tearing and other physical damages.
The salient features of construction of an industrial RTD are as follows:

• The resistance wire is often put in a stainless steel well for protection against mechanical hazards. This
is also useful from the point of view of maintenance, since a defective sensor can be replaced by a good
one while the plant is in operation.

• Heat conducting but electrical insulating materials like mica is placed in between the well and the
resistance material.

• The resistance wire should be carefully wound over mica sheet so that no strain is developed due to
length expansion of the wire.

Fig. 2 shows the cut away view of an industrial RTD.

Signal conditioning
81
 RTD’s are not adaptable to applications requiring fast response or small area temperature sensing.
Measurement of temperature using RTD is done after proper calibration that involves conversion of
resistance value to temperature.

Most RTD instruments use a Wheatstone’s Bridge or its modified version. The RTD and its leads are
connected in one of its arms. This bridge is essentially a resistance measuring device which converts the
resistance of the RTD into an electrical signal that is used for monitoring or controlling temperature.
The basic Wheatstone’s Bridge with a two wire RTD connected is as shown in Fig.13.38.

where

ES = Supply voltage

E0 = output voltage used for monitoring or controlling temperature

R1 , R2 and R3 = fixed value resistors

RT = resistance of temperature sensing element in RTD

RL1 and RL2 = resistance of the two leads connected in the RTD element

The value of RT at the control point or at the mid point of the temperature range to be monitored will
influence the arm resistors R1, R2 and R3. Also, these values must be selected to limit bridge currents to
avoid self-heating of RTD or bridge resistors. For achieving high accuracy, the bridge must be stable
and insensitive to ambient temperature variations.

If the value of the lead resistance is small and also the variation of the lead resistance is small over the
temperature range as compared to that of the RTD values, then the errors introduced by the lead
resistance are not significant.

However, the errors introduced by long leads are significant and can be reduced by using thick lead
wire. As an effective method to obtain a high degree of accuracy, it is desirable to use lead resistance
compensation techniques or lead error elimination technique such as three wire and four wire RTD
connections.

82
Two lead Resistance Temperature Detector Working which is lower in cost, is normally used when the
lead resistance is low in comparison with Ohms/°C resistance change of the RTD or when lead wire
resistance compensation is provided in the instrumentation.

Three Lead Wire RTD

Three lead wire RTD, offers a practicable method for lead wire compensation that is sufficiently
accurate for most industrial applications. The bridge circuit automatically compensates
resistance change due to ambient temperature change, which is the input to the instrumentation. A three
lead Resistance Temperature Detector Working connected to a Wheatstone Bridge circuit is as shown in
Fig. 13.39.

This bridge circuit is used whenever lead wire resistance is significant in comparison with Ohms/°C
sensitivity of the RTD elements, for example, the 10 Ω copper RTD element used in the industry should
always have three leads. Other commonly used RTD elements such as 100 Ω platinum and 120 Ω
Nickel may also need such compensation when lead wire resistance is significant.

Referring to Fig. 13.39, it can be seen that one of the RTD leads L1 is in the arm of the bridge with
RT and a second lead L2 is in the adjacent arm with R3.

When the bridge is balanced, all the bridge arm resistance are equal, hence same current flows in all the
bridge arms. The same current flows through both these leads L1 and L2 under balance conditions,
therefore the voltage drop across them will be identical and being in the adjacent arms will effectively
cancel out. Hence the effect of the lead wire is eliminated.

The third lead L3, is connected in the output circuit of the bridge and has no effect on the bridge ratios
or balance. Hence when the bridge is balanced no current flows through L3 and therefore has no effect
on the bridge balance. This method gives very good accuracy if the lead resistances are matched.

Four Lead RTD Connection

The three lead RTD gives sufficient accuracy for most of the industrial applications. However, when a
higher degree of accuracy and precision is required, a four lead RTD connection is used.

The four lead RTD is the most expensive type, especially when long four wire extension leads are
needed to connect to the instrumentation. However the four lead Resistance Temperature Detector

83
Working can offer the greatest accuracy if the instrumentation is properly designed. Four lead RTDs are
widely used in laboratory work, where highest precision is required.

To select a 100 Ω Platinum RTD, the information given in Table 13.2 is helpful.

Platinum Thin Film Sensors

Platinum thin film sensors are manufactured by a very thin layer of platinum in suitable pattern to
achieve smaller dimension and higher resistance, on a ceramic base. The deposition of layers and
introduction of patterns are obtained using different methods.

Normally, a number of such chips are manufactured on a single large substrate and the chips are
properly cut and proper contacts are made. This platinum layer is usually coated with suitable material
depending on the operating range to provide protection against mechanical and chemical damages.

The advantage of thin film sensors is reduction in the size and simultaneous increase in the nominal
resistance. The response time is reduced by nearly 10 times or more because of the reduction in size. By
using such a type of sensor, it is possible to manufacture a probe with a stainless steel sheath of 2 mm
diameter.

The sensitivity of the sensor also increases with increase in nominal resistance. The small dimension of
thin film platinum sensors allows temperature measurements in very small areas with a much higher
accuracy as compared to the thermocouple.

Thin film sensors are cheaper to manufacture than wire wound RTDs, hence can be used in many fields
of application for resistance thermometers such as automobiles, medical thermometer, etc.

Resistance Thermometer Connected in Bridge Circuit:

84
The resistance of a conductor changes when its temperature is changed. This property is used for
measurement of temperature. The Resistance Thermometer Connected in Bridge Circuit uses the change
in electrical resistance of conductor to determine the temperature.

The requirements of a conductor material to be used in these thermometers are:

1. The change in resistance of material per unit change in temperature must be as large as
possible.

2. The resistance of the material must have a continuous and stable relationship with
temperature.

The main section of a Resistance Thermometer Connected in Bridge Circuit is its sensing element. The
characteristics of the sensing element, determines the sensitivity and operating temperature range of the
instrument.

The sensing element may be any material that exhibits a relatively large resistance change with the
change in temperature. The material used should also have a stable characteristics, that is, neither its
resistance nor its temperature coefficient of resistance should undergo permanent change with use or
age.

It is necessary to consider stability in order to maintain the calibration of a resistance thermometer. The
need for stability frequently limits the temperature range over which the sensing element may be used.

Another desirable characteristics for a sensing element is a linear change in resistance with change in
temperature.

When the measured temperature is subjected to rapid variations, the speed with which a resistive
element responds to changes in temperature is important.

The smaller a given sensing element, less heat is required to raise its temperature, the faster is its
response.

Platinum, Nickel and Copper are the metals most commonly used to measure temperature. The
resistivity of platinum tends to increase less rapidly at higher temperatures than for other materials,
hence it is a commonly used material for resistance thermometers. The temperature range over which
Platinum has stability is 260 °C-1100 °C. An industrial Platinum resistance thermometer is as shown in
Fig.13.40 (a).

85
The changes in resistance caused by changes in temperature as detected by a Wheatstone’s Bridge is
shown in Fig.13.40(b).

Hence, the temperature sensing element, which may be Nickel, Copper or Platinum contained in a bulb
or well, along with the balancing bridge, forms the basic important components of a temperature
measuring system based on this principle.

The sensing element Rs is made of a material having a high temperature coefficient, R1, R2 and R5 are
made of resistance that are practically constant under normal temperature changes.

When the sensing element is very near the bridge, and under balance conditions, the following
relationship holds good.

86
In normal practice, the sensing element is away from the indicator and the bridge, and its leads have a
resistance, say R3, R4.

When resistance Rs changes, the bridge balance is upset and the galvanometer shows a deflection, which
can be calibrated to give a suitable temperature scale.

Advantages of Resistance Thermometer Connected in Bridge Circuit:

The measurement of temperature by the electrical resistance method has the following advantages and
characteristics.

Thermistors

87
Useful range of themistors is normally -100 to +300oC. A single thermistor is not suitable for the whole
range of measurement. Moreover, existing thermistors are not interchangeable. There is a marked
spread in nominal resistance and the temperature coefficient between two thermistors of same type. So,
if a defective thermistor is to be replaced by a new thermistor similar type, a fresh calibration has to be
carried out before use. Commercially available thermistors have nominal values of 1K, 2K, 10K, 20K,
100K etc. The nominal values indicate the resistance value at 25oC. Thermistors are available in
different forms: bead type, rod type disc type etc. The small size of the sensing element makes it
suitable for measurement of temperature at a point. The time constant is also very small due to the small
thermal mass involved.

The nonlinear negative temperature characteristics also give rise to error due to self-heating effect.
When current is flowing through the thermistor, the heat generated due to the -loss may increase the
temperature of the resistance element, which may further decrease the resistance and increase the
current further. This effect, if not tackled properly, may damage the thermistor permanently. Essentially,
the current flowing should be restricted below the specified value to prevent this damage. Alternatively,
the thermistor may be excited by a constant current source. RI2

The nonlinear characteristics of thermistors often creates problem for temperature measurement, and it
is often desired to linearise the thermistor characteristics. This can be done by adding one fixed

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resistance parallel to the thermistor. The resistance temperature characteristics of the equivalent
resistance would be more linear, but at the cost of sensitivity.

The Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) thermistor have limited use and they are particularly used
for protection of motor and transformer widings. As shown in fig. 4(b), they have low and relatively
constant resistance below a threshold temperature TR, beyond which the resistance increases rapidly.
The PTC thermistors are made from compound of barium, lead and strontium titanate.

Thermocouple:

A Thermocouple Circuit, therefore consists of a pair of dissimilar metal wires joined together at one end
(sensing or hot junction) and terminated at the other end (reference or cold junction), which is
maintained at a known constant temperature (reference temperature). When a temperature difference

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exists between the sensing junction and the reference junction, an emf is produced, which causes current
in the circuit.

When the reference end is terminated by a meter or a recording device, the meter indication will be
proportional to the temperature difference between the hot junction and the reference junction.

The magnitude of the thermal emf depends on the wire materials used and in the temperature difference
between the junctions.

Figure 13.43 shows the thermal emfs for some common thermocouple materials. The values shown are
based on a reference temperature of 32°F.

The thermpcouple (TC) is a temperature transducer that develops an emf that is a function of the
temperature difference between its hot and cold junctions.

A Thermocouple Circuit may be regarded as a thermometer based on thermo-emf and works on the
principle that the potential between two dissimilar metals or metal alloys is a function of temperature.

Type ‘E’ Thermocouple units use Chromel alloy as the positive electrode and constantan alloy as the
negative electrode.

Type ‘S’ Thermocouple produces the least output voltage but can be used over greatest temperature
range.

Type ‘T’ shown in Fig. 13.44, uses copper and constantan.

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Copper used, is an element and constantan used is an alloy of nickel and copper. The copper side is
positive and constantan side is negative. Assuming copper wires used to connect the Thermocouple
Circuit to the next stage (circuit), a second Copper-Constantan junction is (formed) produced. This
junction is called as the reference junction. It generates a Seebeck voltage that opposes the voltage
generated by the sensing junction. If both junctions are at the same temperature, the output voltage V out
will be zero. If the sensing junction is at a higher temperature, Vout will be proportional to the difference
between the two junction temperature. The temperature cannot be derived directly from the output
voltage alone. It is subjected to an error caused by the voltage produced by the reference junction. This
can be overcome by placing the reference junction in an ice bath to keep it at a known temperature. This
process is called as cold junction compensation as shown in Fig.13.45(a). The reference voltage is
maintained at 0 °C. The reference voltage is now predictable from the calibration curve of the type ‘T’
thermocouple.

When copper is not one of Thermocouple Circuit metal then four junction circuit is formed. The type T
thermocouple uses iron and constantan as the two elements shown in Fig.13.45(b). When it is connected
to copper wires, two iron copper junctions result. These junctions present no additional difficulties
because of the isothermal block used. This block is made of material that is a poor conductor of
electricity but a good conductor of heat. Both Iron—Copper junctions will be at the same temperature
and generate the same Seeback voltage and hence these two voltages will cancel. Cold junction
compensation is also used as the Reference junction in this case.

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The ice-baths method is not the most convenient method, to compensate the reference junction. This
technique is often used in the calibration laboratory. Industry uses a different method of reference
junction compensation as shown in .13.46.

The isothermal block contains two reference junctions and a thermistor. The resistance of the thermistor
is a function of temperature. A circuit is used to sense this resistance and to compensate for the voltage

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introduced by the two reference junctions. This arrangement is sometimes called as Electronic ice
point reference.

If the sensor is interfaced to a computer, the reference temperature will be converted to a reference
voltage and then subtracted from the output voltage Vout This process is known as Software
Compensation.

An isothermal block with one temperature sensor can provide compensation for several units.

Table 13.3 gives the construction and thermoelectric properties of various thermocouples.

For accurate measurement of hot junction temperature, the cold junction or the reference junction
should be kept at 0 °C. If the reference junction is kept at the ambient temperature, then a voltage
corresponding to this temperature must be added to the measurement to obtain accurate reading.

Most modern Thermocouple Circuit measurement systems employ electrical cold junction (an
electronic circuit which simulates the voltage that the reference junction would generate at ambient
temperature) compensation. A popular technique used for reference junction compensation used in data
loggers and data acquisition systems is shown in Fig. 13.47.

The measuring junction’s terminals are screwed on an isothermal block (the temperature of which
remains uniform within ± 0.05 °C). The temperature of the isothermal block is measured independently
and compensating voltage is generated using electronic circuitry. This compensation voltage is
combined with the emf from measuring junction to obtain the true temperature

Thermocouples are sometimes connected in series or parallel to provide increased voltage or current
output.
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In Fig.13.48(a), four thermocouples are connected in series, with wire A being positive and B being
negative in each thermocouple.

The total emf between points 1 to 5 is the sum of individual thermocouple emf. An arrangement of this
type is called a Thermopile and is used to obtain increased sensitivity and greater absolute emf from a
thermocouple installation.

Figure 13.48(b) shows four thermocouples in parallel. This arrangement provides a large current but
emf is same as that of any one thermocouple.

Thermocouple Circuit must be protected from mechanical damage and isolated from corrosive or
contaminating effect that most gases and liquids have at high temperature. The device used for this
purpose are called wells or tubes depending upon their physical construction or thermowells.

Thermocouples are made from a number of different metal alloys, covering a wide range of temperature
from as low as —270 °C (-418 °F) to as high as 2700 °C (about 5000 °F). They may be obtained in a

94
simple uninsulated wire form, in insulated form or inside protective sheaths or probes (sheath diameter
as small as 0.25 mm).

The thermo-junction is protected from contamination from the process materials by enclosing it in a
protective sheath. For example, a cupro-nickel sheath for copper/chromel thermocouple and mild sheath
for iron/chromel thermocouples.

The temperature ranges covered by thermocouples make them appropriate for use in industrial furnaces
as well as for measurement in the cryogenic range. Different types of thermocouples are as shown in
Fig. 13.49.

Advantages of Thermocouple
1. It has rugged construction.
2. It has a temperature range from —270 °C-2700 °C.
3. Using extension leads and compensating cables, long distances transmission for temperature
measurement is possible.
4. Bridge circuits are not required for temperature measurement.
5. Comparatively cheaper in cost.
6. Calibration checks can be easily performed.
7. Thermocouples offer good reproducibility.
8. Speed of response is high compared to the filled system thermometer.
9. Measurement accuracy is quite good.
Disadvantages of Thermocouple
1. Cold junction and other compensation is essential for accurate
2. They exhibit non-linearity in the emf versus temperature characteristics.
3. To avoid stray electrical signal pickup, proper separation of extension leads from thermocouple
wire is essential.
4. Stray voltage pick-up are possible.
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 5. In many applications, the signals need to be amplified.

Ultrasonic sensors

Ultrasonic sensors use sound waves above the 20 kHz range to detect objects in proximity, similar to
how bats use echolocation to maneuver without colliding into obstacles. In the automotive space,
ultrasonic sensors are prevalent for ADAS (Advanced Driver-Assistant Systems) applications,
specifically for parking assist where 4–16 sensors are used to detect obstacles when parking a vehicle.
In the industrial space, ultrasonic sensors are used in robotics and other applications that require reliable
presence, proximity, or position sensing. This application report discusses what ultrasonic time-of-flight
sensing is, as well as system considerations and what additional factors affect ultrasonic sensing.
Principles of Ultrasound
Ultrasonic sensors can measure distance and detect the presence of an object without making physical
contact. They do so by producing and monitoring an ultrasonic echo. Depending on the sensor and
object properties, the effective range in air is between a few centimeters up to several meters. The
ultrasonic sensor (or transducer) generates and emits ultrasonic pulses that are reflected back towards
the sensor by an object that is within the field of view of the sensor.

Fig. Ultrasonic Time-of-Flight Measurement

The ultrasonic sensor is a piezoelectric transducer, which is able to convert an electrical signal into
mechanical vibrations, and mechanical vibrations into an electrical signal. Therefore, in a monostatic
approach, the ultrasonic sensor is a transceiver which operates as both a speaker and microphone at a
single frequency. The sensor is able to capture the difference in time between the emitted and received
echo. Because the speed of sound is a known variable, the captured round-trip time can be used to
calculate the distance between the sensor and object. The below equation shows the Ultrasonic Distance
Calculation. RoundTrip Sound OneWay

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This method of ultrasonic sensing is a time-of-flight measurement based on the propagation time of
sound. Note that the velocity of sound through air varies by temperature. In dry air at 20°C (68°F),
the speed of sound is 343 m/s, or a kilometer in 2.91 s.
Why Use Ultrasonic Sensing?
Ultrasonic sensors can detect a variety of materials, regardless of shape, transparency, or color. The
only requirement for ultrasonic sensing is that the target material is a solid or liquid. This enables
contactless detection of:
• Metal
• Plastic
• Glass
• Wood
• Rocks
• Sand
• Oil
• Water
• Other hard, non-sound absorbent materials
These materials are able to reflect sound back towards the sensor through the air. Certain objects can be
more difficult to detect, like angled surfaces that direct the echo away from the sensor, or permeable
targets like sponge, foam, and soft clothing. These absorb more reflected ultrasonic energy.
The frequency range normally employed in ultrasonic non-destructive testing and thickness gaging is
100 kHz to 50 MHz. A transducer is any device that converts one form of energy to another. An
ultrasonic transducer converts electrical energy to mechanical energy, in the form of sound, and vice
versa. The main components are the active element, backing, and wear plate.
The Active Element
The active element, which is piezo or ferroelectric material, converts electrical energy such as an
excitation pulse from a flaw detector into ultrasonic energy. The most commonly used materials are
polarized ceramics which can be cut in a variety of manners to produce different wave modes. New
materials such as piezo polymers and composites are also being employed for applications where they
provide benefit to transducer and system performance.
Backing
The backing is usually a highly attenuative, high density material that is used to control the vibration of
the transducer by absorbing the energy radiating from the back face of the active element. When the
acoustic impedance of the backing matches the acoustic impedance of the active element, the result will
be a heavily damped transducer that displays good range resolution but may be lower in signal
amplitude. If there is a mismatch in acoustic impedance between the element and the backing, more
sound energy will be reflected forward into the test material. The result is a transducer that is lower in
resolution due to a longer waveform duration but may be higher in signal amplitude or greater in
sensitivity.
Wear Plate

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The basic purpose of the transducer wear plate is to protect the transducer element from the testing
environment. In the case of contact transducers, the wear plate must be a durable and corrosion resistant
material in order to withstand the wear caused by use on materials such as steel. For immersion, angle
beam, and delay line transducers the wear plate has the additional purpose of serving as an acoustic
transformer between the high acoustic impedance of the active element and the water, the wedge or the
delay line all of which are of lower acoustic impedance. This is accomplished by selecting a matching
layer that is 1/4 wavelength thick (l/4) and of the desired acoustic impedance (the active element is
nominally 1/2 wavelength). The choice of the wear surface thickness is based upon the idea of
superposition that allows waves generated by the active element to be in phase with the wave
reverberating in the matching layer. When signals are in phase, their amplitudes are additive, thus a
greater amplitude wave enters the test piece.
Types:
Dual Element Transducers
Angle Beam Transducers
Delay Line Transducers
Immersion Transducers

Ultrasonic Sensor Applications

• Robotic sensing.
• Stacking height control.
• Loop control.
• Liquid level control.
• Full detection.
• Counting people/people detection.
• Presence detection.
• Detecting breaks in threads or wires.

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 Signal conditioning circuits

Introduction

It has been mentioned in previous lesson that a basic measurement system consists mainly of the three
blocks: sensing element, signal conditioning element and signal processing element, as shown in fig.1.
The sensing element converts the non-electrical signal (e.g. temperature) into electrical signals (e.g.
voltage, current, resistance, capacitance etc.). The job of the signal conditioning element is to convert
the variation of electrical signal into a voltage level suitable for further processing. The next stage is the
signal processing element. It takes the output of the signal conditioning element and converts into a
form more suitable for presentation and other uses (display, recording, feedback control etc.). Analog-
to-digital converters, linearization circuits etc. fall under the category of signal processing circuits.

The success of the design of any measurement system depends heavily on the design and performance
of the signal conditioning circuits. Even a costly and accurate transducer may fail to deliver good
performance if the signal conditioning circuit is not designed properly. The schematic arrangement and
the selection of the passive and active elements in the circuit heavily influence the overall performance
of the system. Often these are decided by the electrical output characteristics of the sensing element.
Nowadays, many commercial sensors often have in-built signal conditioning circuit. This arrangement
can overcome the problem of incompatibility between the sensing element and the signal conditioning
circuit.

If one looks at the different cross section of sensing elements and their signal conditioning circuits, it
can be observed that the majority of them use standard blocks like bridges (A.C. and D.C.), amplifiers,
filters and phase sensitive detectors for signal conditioning.

Figure 2 shows various signal conditioning operations which are being carried out in controlling a
mechatronics based system. The signals given by a transducer may be nonlinear in nature or may
contain noise. Thus before sending these signals to the mechatronics control unit it is essential to
remove the noise, nonlinearity associated with the raw output from a sensor or a transducer. It is also
needed to modify the amplitude (low/high) and form (analogue/digital) of the output signals into
respective acceptable limits and form which will be suitable to the control system. These activities are
carried out by using signal conditioning devices and the process is termed as ‘signal conditioning’.

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Signal conditioning system enhances the quality of signal coming from a sensor in terms of:
1. Protection
To protect the damage to the next element of mechatronics system such microprocessors from the high
current or voltage signals.
2. Right type of signal
To convert the output signal from a transducer into the desired form i.e. voltage / current.
3. Right level of the signal
To amplify or attenuate the signals to a right /acceptable level for the next element.
4. Noise
To eliminate noise from a signal.
5. Manipulation
To manipulate the signal from its nonlinear form to the linear form.

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Unbalanced D.C. Bridge

101
102
restriction comes from the allowable power dissipation of resistors. If we increase E, there will be more
power loss in a resistance element and if it exceeds the allowable power dissipation limit, self heating
will play an important role. In this case, the temperature of the resistance element will increase, which
again will change the resistance and the power loss. Sometimes, this may lead to the permanent damage
of the sensor (as in case of a thermistor).

Push-pull Configuration

The characteristics of an unbalanced wheatstone bridge with single resistive element as one of the arms
can greatly be improved with a push-pull arrangement of the bridge, comprising of two identical
resistive elements in two adjacent arms: while the resistance of one sensor decreasing, the resistance of
the other sensor is increasing by the same amount, as shown in fig.4. The unbalanced voltage can be
obtained as:

Looking at the above expression, one can immediately appreciate the advantage of using push-pull
configuration. First of all, the nonlinearity in the bridge output can be eliminated completely. Secondly,
the sensitivity is doubled compared to a single sensor element bridge.The same concept can also be
applied to A.C. bridges with inductive or capacitive sensors. These applications are elaborated below.

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Unbalanced A.C. Bridge with Push-pull Configuration

Figures 5(a) and (b) shows the schematic arrangements of unbalanced A.C. bridge with inductive and
capacitive sensors respectively with push-pull configuration. Here, the D.C. excitation is replaced by an
A.C. source and two fixed resistances of same value are kept in the two adjacent arms and the inductive
(or the capacitive) sensors are so designed that if the inductance (capacitance) increases by a particular
amount, that of the other one would decrease by the same amount.

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Capacitance Amplifier

105
1. Amplification/Attenuation

An Amplifier is an integral part of any signal conditioning circuit. However, there are different
configurations of amplifiers, and depending of the type of the requirement, one should select the proper
configuration. Various applications of Mechatronics system such as machine tool control unit of a CNC
machine tool accept voltage amplitudes in range of 0 to 10 Volts. However many sensors produce
signals of the order of milli volts. This low level input signals from sensors must be amplified to use
them for further control action. Operational amplifiers (op-amp) are widely used for amplification of
input signals. The details are as follows.

1.1 Operational amplifier (op-amp)

Operational Amplifier is a basic and an important part of a signal conditioning system. It is often
abbreviated as op-amp. Op-amp is a high gain voltage amplifier with a differential input. The gain is of
the order of 100000 or more. Differential input is a method of transmitting information with two
different electronic signals which are generally complementary to each other. Figure 2.6.2 shows the
block diagram of an op-amp. It has five terminals. Two voltages are applied at two input terminals. The
output terminal provides the amplified value of difference between two input voltages. Op-amp works
by using the external power supplied at Vs+ and Vs- terminals.

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 Figure 2.6.2 circuit diagram of an Op-amp

In general op-amp amplifies the difference between input voltages (V+ and V-). The output of an
operational amplifier can be written as
Vout = G * (V+ - V-)
where G is Op-amp Gain.

Inverting and Non-inverting Amplifiers

These two types are single ended amplifiers, with one terminal of the input is grounded. From the
schematics of these two popular amplifiers, shown in given fig., the voltage gain for the inverting
amplifier is:

while the voltage gain for the noninverting amplifier is:

Apparently, both the two amplifiers are capable of delivering any desired voltage gain, provided the
phase inversion in the first case is not a problem. But looking carefully into the circuits, one can easily
understand, that, the input impedance of the inverting amplifier is finite and is approximately R1, while
a noninverting amplifier has an infinite input impedance. Definitely, the second amplifier will perform
better, if we want that, the amplifier should not load the sensor (or a bridge circuit).

107
Amplification of input signal by using Op-amp

Figure 2.6.4 Amplification using an Op-amp

Figure 2.6.4 shows a configuration to amplify an input voltage signal. It has two registers connected at
node a. If we consider that the voltage at positive terminal is equal to voltage at negative terminal then
the circuit can be treated as two resistances in series. In series connection of resistances, the current
flowing through circuit is same. Therefore we can write,

Thus by selecting suitable values of resistances, we can obtain the desired (amplified/attenuated) output
voltage for known input voltage.
There are other configurations such as Non-inverting amplifier, Summing amplifier, Subtractor,
Logarithmic amplifier are being used in mechatronics applications.

Differential Amplifier

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 Differential amplifiers are useful for the cases, where both the input terminals are floating. These
amplifiers find wide applications in instrumentation. A typical differential amplifier with single op.amp.
configuration is shown in following fig.. Here, by applying superposition theorem, one can easily obtain
the contribution of each input and add them algebraically to obtain the output voltage as:

However, this type of differential amplifier with single op. amp. configuration also suffers from the
limitation of finite input impedance. In fact, several criteria are used for judging the performance of an
amplifier. These are mainly: (i) offset and drift, (ii) input impedance, (iii) gain and bandwidth, and (iv)
common mode rejection ratio (CMRR).
The performance of an operational amplifier is judged by the gain- bandwidth product, which is fixed
by the manufacturer’s specification. In the open loop, the gain is very high (around 10 5) but the
bandwidth is very low. In the closed loop operation, the gain is low, but the achievable bandwidth is
high. Normally, the gain of a single stage operational amplifier circuit is kept limited around 10, thus
large bandwidth is achievable. For larger gains, several stages of amplifiers are connected in cascade.
CMRR is a very important parameter for instrumentation circuit applications and it is desirable to use
amplifiers of high CMRR when connected to instrumentation circuits.
The CMRR is defined as:

where, Ad is the differential mode gain and Ac is the common mode gain of the amplifier. The
importance of using a high CMRR amplifier can be explained with the following example:

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Example -1
The unbalanced voltage of a resistance bridge is to be amplified 200 times using a differential amplifier.
The configuration is shown in fig. with R= 1000Ω and x=2 x 10-3. Two amplifiers are available: one
with =200 and CMRR= 80 dB and the other with =200 and CMRR= 60dB. Find the values of Vo for
both the cases and compute errors.

the effect of the common mode voltage can be eliminated completely, as is evident from equation (10).
But if the resistance values differ, due to the tolerance of the resistors, the common mode voltage will
110
cause error in the output voltage. The other alternative in the above example is to apply +5 and –5V at
the bridge supply terminals, instead of +10V and 0V.

Instrumentation Amplifier
Often we need to amplify a small differential voltage few hundred times in instrumentation applications.
A single stage differential amplifier, shown in previous fig. is not capable of performing this job
efficiently, because of several reasons. First of all, the input impedance is finite; moreover, the
achievable gain in this single stage amplifier is also limited due to gain bandwidth product limitation as
well as limitations due to offset current of the op. amp. Naturally, we need to seek for an improved
version of this amplifier.
A three op. amp. Instrumentation amplifier, shown in fig. below is an ideal choice for achieving the
objective. The major properties are (i) high differential gain (adjustable up to 1000) (ii) infinite input
impedance, (iii) large CMRR (80 dB or more), and (iv) moderate bandwidth.
From fig. 10, it is apparent that, no current will be drown by the input stage of the op. amps. (since
inputs are fed to the non inverting input terminals). Thus the second property mentioned above is
achieved. Looking at the input stage, the same current I will flow through the resistances R1 and R2.
Using the properties of ideal op. amp., we can have:

from which, we obtain,

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Thus by varying R2 very large gain can be achieved, but the relationship is inverse. Since three op.
amps. are responsible for achieving this gain, the bandwidth does not suffer.
There are many commercially available single chip instrumentation amplifiers in the market. Their
gains can be adjusted by connecting an external resistance, or by selecting the gains (50, 100 or 500)
through jumper connections.

Filtering

Output signals from sensors contain noise due to various external factors like improper hardware
connections, environment etc. Noise gives an error in the final output of system. Therefore it must be
removed. In practice, change in desired frequency level of output signal is a commonly noted noise.
This can be rectified by suing filters. Following types of filters are used in practice:
1. Low Pass Filter
2. High Pass Filter
3. Band Pass Filter
4. Band Reject Filter

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In the circuit shown in Figure 2.6.5, resistance and capacitance are in series with voltage at resistance
terminal is input voltage and voltage at capacitance terminal is output voltage. Then by applying the
Ohm’s
Law, we
can write,

113
High Pass Filter

These types of filters allow high frequencies to pass through it and block the lower frequencies. The
figure 2.6.7 shows circuitry for high pass filter.

114
Band Pass Filter

In some applications, we need to filter a particular band of frequencies from a wider range of mixed
signals. For this purpose, the properties of low-pass and high-pass filters circuits can be combined to

115
design a filter which is called as band pass filter. Band pass filter can be developed by connecting a low-
pass and a high-pass filter in series as shown in figure 2.6.9.

Band Reject Filter

These filters pass all frequencies above and below a particular range set by the operator/manufacturer.
They are also known as band stop filters or notch filters. They are constructed by connecting a low-pass
and a high-pass filter in parallel as shown in Figure 2.6.10.

Sensor protection circuits

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117
In many high voltage scenarios, it is required to isolate the control circuit completely from the input
high voltages to avoid the possible damage. This can be achieved by Optoisolators. Figure 2.7.2 shows
the typical circuit of an Optoisolator. It comprises of a Light emitting diode (LED) and a photo
transistor. LED irradiates infra red due to the voltage supplied to it from a microprocessor circuit. The
transistor detects irradiation and produces a current in proportion to the voltage applied. In case of high
voltages, output current from Optoisolator is utilized for disconnecting the power supply to the circuit
and thus the circuit gets protected.

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Concluding Remarks

Several issues have to be taken into consideration for the design of a signal conditioning circuit.
Linearity, sensitivity, loading effect, bandwidth, common mode rejection are the important issues that
affect the performance of the signal conditioning circuits. In this lesson, we have learnt about different
configurations of unbalanced D.C. and A.C bridges, those are suitable for resistive, capacitive and
inductive type transducers. Besides the characteristics of different types of amplifiers using common
operational amplifiers have also been discussed in details. However, the actual design is dependent on
the particular sensing element to be used and its characteristics.

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 Signal transmitter, noise cancellation, errors and calibration techniques
Introduction

The various methods of signal transmission are used in Industrial control. Control signals can be
transmitted pneumatically or electrically. Due to the needs of an air supply for pneumatic transmission,
inflexible pluming, cost, slow reaction time, limited range of transmission, reliability, accuracy and the
requirements of control systems, electrical transmission is now extensively used. Electrical signals can
be transmitted in the form of voltages, currents, digital, or optical signals. Unfortunately, the terms
transducer, converter, and transmitter are often confused and used interchangeably.
Transmitters are devices that accept low-level electrical signals and format them, so that they can be
transmitted to a distant receiver. The transmitter is required to be able to transmit a signal with sufficient
amplitude and power so that it can be reproduced at a distant receiver as a true representation of the
input to the transmitter without loss of accuracy or information.
Offset refers to the low end of the operating range of a signal. When performing an offset adjustment,
the output from the transducer is being set to give the minimum output (usually zero) when the input
signal value is a minimum.
Span references the range of the signal, i.e., from zero to full-scale deflection. The span setting (or
system gain) adjusts the upper limit of the transducer with maximum signal input. There is normally
some interaction between offset and span; the offset should be adjusted first and then the span.

Pneumatic Transmission
Pneumatic signals were used for signal transmission, but are not in use in today’s facilities except in
applications where electrical signals or sparks could ignite combustible materials or to operate
pneumatic actuators. Electrical signals (4 to 20 mA) can be converted to pneumatic signals using an I to
P converter. Pneumatic transmission pressures were standardized into two ranges, i.e., 3 to 15 psi (20 to
100 kPa) and 6 to 30 psi (40 to 200 kPa); the 3 to 15 psi is now the standard range. Zero is not used for
the minimum of the ranges as low pressures do not transmit well and the zero level can then be used to
detect system failure.

Analog Transmission

Noise Considerations
Analog voltage or current signal lines are hard wired between the transmitter and the receiver.
Compared to digital signals, these signals can be relatively slow to settle due to the time constant of the
lead capacitance, inductance, and resistance, but are still very fast in terms of the speed of mechanical
systems. Analog signals can loose accuracy if signal lines are long with high resistance; can be
susceptible to ground offset, ground loops, noise and radio frequency (RF) pickup. Figure 13.1a shows
the controller supplying dc power to the transmitter and the signal path from the transmitter to the
controller. The dc power for the sensors can be obtained from the controller to save the cost of deriving
the power at the sensor as shown in Fig. 13.1b. However, the current flowing in the ground line (shown
128
in Fig. 13.1a) from the supply will be much larger than the signal current and will produce a voltage
drop across the resistance of the ground lead elevating the ground level of the transmitter which will
give a signal offset error at the controller. The second problem with this type of hard wiring is that it is
susceptible to RF and electromagnetic induction (EMI) noise pickup; i.e., the induced noise from RF
transmitters, and motors, will produce error signals.

FIGURE 13.1 Supply and signal connections are shown between controller and transmitter using (a)
straight leads and (b) a twisted pair.
To reduce these problems, the setup shown in Fig. 13.1b can be used. This setup shows that the dc
supply to the transmitter is generated from the ac line voltage via an isolation transformer and voltage
regulator at the transmitter. The ground connection is used only for the signal return path. The signal
and ground return leads are a screened twisted pair; i.e., the signal leads are screened by a grounded
sheath. The RF and EMI pickup are reduced by the screen and the induced noise in both lines is greatly
reduced. Because variations in the supply voltages can produce changes in the offset voltage and the
gain of the sensor/transmitter, the supply voltage must be regulated. An improved method of
minimizing RF and EMI pickup is shown in Fig. 13.2. In this case, the transmitter sends a differential
signal using a screened twisted pair. The pickup will affect both signals by the same amount and will
cancel in the differential receiver in the controller as well as any ground offset voltages.

FIGURE 13.2 Screened differential signal connection between the controller and the transmitter.
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A differential output voltage signal can be generated using the circuit shown in Fig. 13.3. The output
stages have unity gain to give low output impedance and equal and opposite phase signals. Op-amps are
also commercially available with differential outputs, which can be used to drive buffer output stages.

FIGURE 13.3 Differential amplifier with buffer outputs.

Voltage Signals
Voltage signals are standardized in the voltage ranges 0 to 5 V, 0 to 10 V, and 0 to 12 V, with 0 to 5 V
being the most common. The requirements of the transmitter are a low output impedance to enable the
amplifier to drive a wide variety of loads without a change in the output voltage, low temperature drift,
low offset drift, and low noise. Figure 13.4a shows a transmitter with a voltage output signal. A voltage
change requires a settling time at the receiver due to line capacitance and the input voltage to the
controller Vin can be less than the output voltage Vout from the transmitter due to resistance losses in
the cables if the receiver is drawing any current, i.e.,

FIGURE 13.4 Effect of resistance and lead capacitance on (a) voltage signals and (b) current signals.

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The internal R of the controller must be very high compared to the resistance of the wire
and connections to minimize signal loss (which is normally the case). A differential
signal, as shown in Fig. 13.2, will eliminate ground noise and offset problems.

Current Signals

Current signals were standardized into two ranges: these are 4 to 20 mA and 10 to 50
mA, where 0 mA is a fault condition. The latter range was the preferred standard, but has
now been dropped, and the 4 to 20 mA range is the accepted standard. The requirements
of the transmitter are high output impedance, so that the output current does not vary
with load, i.e., changes in lead impedance due to length or temperature. Figure 13.4b
shows a transmitter with a current output. The internal resistance of the controller
receiver is low for current signals, i.e., a few hundred ohms, so that voltages with
different signal levels are small and less affected by capacitance. The differential signal
connection as shown in Fig. 13.2 minimizes noise and ground problems. Current signals
are normally used for analog transmission.

Errors and Calibration

Introduction

Through measurement, we try to obtain the value of an unknown parameter. However this measured
value cannot be the actual or true value. If the measured value is very close to the true value, we call it
to be a very accurate measuring system. But before using the measured data for further use, one must
have some idea how accurate is the measured data. So error analysis is an integral part of measurement.
We should also have clear idea what are the sources of error, how they can be reduced by properly
designing the measurement methodology and also by repetitive measurements. These issues have been
dwelt upon in this lesson. Besides, for maintaining the accuracy the readings of the measuring
instrument are frequently to be compared and adjusted with the reading of another standard instrument.
This process is known as calibration. We will also discuss about calibration in details.

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Error Analysis

Systematic Errors

Systematic errors may arise due to different reasons. It may be due to the shortcomings of the
instrument or the sensor. An instrument may have a zero error, or its output may be varying in a
nonlinear fashion with the input, thus deviating from the ideal linear input/output relationship. The
amplifier inside the instrument may have input offset voltage and current which will contribute to zero
error. Different nonlinearities in the amplifier circuit will also cause error due to nonlinearity. Besides,
the systematic error can also be due to improper design of the measuring scheme. It may arise due to the
loading effect, improper selection of the sensor or the filter cut off frequency. Systematic errors can be
due to environmental effect also. The sensor characteristics may change with temperature or other
environmental conditions.

The major feature of systematic errors is that the sources of errors are recognisable and can be reduced
to a great extent by carefully designing the measuring system and selecting its components. By placing

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the instrument in a controlled environment may also help in reduction of systematic errors. They can be
further reduced by proper and regular calibration of the instrument.

Random Errors

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Propagation of Error

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Limiting Error

Importance of the Arithmetic Mean

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Standard deviation of the mean

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Least square Curve Fitting

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 Calibration and error reduction
It has already been mentioned that the random errors cannot be eliminated. But by taking a number of
readings under the same condition and taking the mean, we can considerably reduce the random errors.
In fact, if the number of readings is very large, we can say that the mean value will approach the true
value, and thus the error can be made almost zero. For finite number of readings, by using the statistical
method of analysis, we can also estimate the range of the measurement error.
On the other hand, the systematic errors are well defined, the source of error can be identified easily and
once identified, it is possible to eliminate the systematic error. But even for a simple instrument, the
systematic errors arise due to a number of causes and it is a tedious process to identify and eliminate all
the sources of errors. An attractive alternative is to calibrate the instrument for different known inputs.
Calibration is a process where a known input signal or a series of input signals are applied to the
measuring system. By comparing the actual input value with the output indication of the system, the
overall effect of the systematic errors can be observed. The errors at those calibrating points are then
made zero by trimming few adjustable components, by using calibration charts or by using software
corrections.
Strictly speaking, calibration involves comparing the measured value with the standard instruments
derived from comparison with the primary standards kept at Standard Laboratories. In an actual
calibrating system for a pressure sensor (say), we not only require a standard pressure measuring device,
but also a test-bench, where the desired pressure can be generated at different values. The calibration
process of an acceleration measuring device is more difficult, since, the desired acceleration should be
generated on a body, the measuring device has to be mounted on it and the actual value of the generated
acceleration is measured in some indirect way.
The calibration can be done for all the points, and then for actual measurement, the true value can be
obtained from a look-up table prepared and stored before hand. This type of calibration, is often referred
as software calibration. Alternatively, a more popular way is to calibrate the instrument at one, two or
three points of measurement and trim the instrument through independent adjustments, so that, the error
at those points would be zero. It is then expected that error for the whole range of measurement would
remain within a small range. These types of calibration are known as single-point, two-point and three-
point calibration. Typical input-output characteristics of a measuring device under these three
calibrations are shown in fig.2.
The single-point calibration is often referred as offset adjustment, where the output of the system is
forced to be zero under zero input condition. For electronic instruments, often it is done automatically
and is the process is known as auto-zero calibration. For most of the field instruments calibration is
done at two points, one at zero input and the other at full scale input. Two independent adjustments,
normally provided, are known as zero and span adjustments.
One important point needs to be mentioned at this juncture. The characteristics of an instrument change
with time. So even it is calibrated once, the output may deviate from the calibrated points with time,
temperature and other environmental conditions. So the calibration process has to be repeated at regular
intervals if one wants that it should give accurate value of the measurand through out.

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Conclusion
Errors and calibration are two major issues in measurement. In fact, knowledge on measurement
remains incomplete without any comprehensive idea on these two issues. In this chapter we have tried
to give a brief overview about errors and calibration. The terms error and limiting error have been
defined and explained. The different types of error are also classified. The methods for reducing random
errors through repetitive measurements are explained. We have also discussed the least square straight
line fitting technique. The propagation of error is also discussed. However, though the importance of
mean and standard deviation has been elaborated, for the sake of brevity, the normal distribution, that
random errors normally follows, has been left out.

The performance of an instrument changes with time and many other physical parameters. In order to
ensure that the instrument reading will follow the actual value within reason accuracy, calibration is
required at frequent intervals. In this process we compare and adjust the instrument readings to give true
values at few selected readings. Different methods of calibration, e.g., single point calibration, two point
calibration and three point calibration have been explained.

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