Thermal Control System

Nami Ghazaei 2104235

Michela Melfi 2163531
Francesco Fortino 1344034
Fatih Hasdemir 2106424
Matteo Gallo 1940331

Academic year 2024/2025

Summary
1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 5
1.1 Heat Transmission ................................................................................................................ 5
1.1.1 Conduction .................................................................................................................... 6
1.1.2 Radiation ....................................................................................................................... 6
1.2 Blackbody............................................................................................................................. 8
1.3 Introduction to thermal effects in Space............................................................................... 10
1.3.1 Differences from the Terrestrial Environment .............................................................. 10
1.3.2 Main Sources of Heat in Space ..................................................................................... 11
2 Space Environment and Thermal Sources................................................................................... 12
2.1 External Thermal Environment ............................................................................................ 12
2.1.1 Solar Radiation .............................................................................................................. 13
2.1.2 Albedo Effect ................................................................................................................ 16
2.1.4 Deep Space Cold ........................................................................................................... 17
2.2 Internal Thermal Environment ............................................................................................. 18
2.3 Orbital Effects on Thermal Environment ............................................................................. 18
2.3.1 Eclipse Periods .............................................................................................................. 18
2.3.2 Beta Angle ..................................................................................................................... 19
2.3.3 Spacecraft Attitude and Orientation .............................................................................. 20
3 Thermal Balance ......................................................................................................................... 22
3.1 Temperature Variation in Time ............................................................................................ 23
4 Thermal Control .......................................................................................................................... 25
4.1 Active Systems ..................................................................................................................... 26
4.1.1 Heaters ........................................................................................................................... 26
4.1.2 Cryocoolers ................................................................................................................... 27
4.1.3 Thermoelectric Coolers (TEC) ...................................................................................... 28
4.1.4 Fluid loops ..................................................................................................................... 29
4.2 Passive Systems.................................................................................................................... 29
 4.2.1 Thermal Straps .............................................................................................................. 29
4.2.2 Thermal Contact Conductance and Bolted Joint Conductance ..................................... 30
4.3.3 Sunshields...................................................................................................................... 32
4.3.4 Multi-Layer Insulation Blanket (MLI) .......................................................................... 33
4.4.5 Thermal Louvres ........................................................................................................... 35
4.5 Radiators............................................................................................................................... 36
4.6 Sprayable Thermal Control Coatings ................................................................................... 38
4.7 Heat Pipes ............................................................................................................................. 38
4.8 Phase Change Materials and Thermal Storage Unit ............................................................. 40
5. Thermal Analysis ....................................................................................................................... 42
5.1.1 Linearization of the Thermal Model ............................................................................. 43
5.1.2 Steady-State and Transient Heat Transfer ..................................................................... 44
5.2 Thermal Design Considerations ........................................................................................... 45
5.3 Testing and Verification ....................................................................................................... 45
5.4 Thermal Properties and Material Selection .......................................................................... 48
6 Verification and Qualification of Satellites ................................................................................. 49
6.1.1 Development Tests ........................................................................................................ 49
6.1.2 Qualification Tests ........................................................................................................ 49
6.1.3 Acceptance Tests ........................................................................................................... 50
6.2 Types of Thermal Tests ........................................................................................................ 51
6.2.1 Bake Out Testing ECSS-Q-ST-70-01C......................................................................... 51
6.2.2 Thermal Vacuum Testing (TVAC) ECSS-E-10-03A ................................................... 54
6.2.3 Thermal Cycling Test .................................................................................................... 60
6.2.4 Thermal Balance Test (TBT) . (ECSS-E-ST-10-03C and ECSS-E-ST-31C) ............... 62
6.3 Sensors for thermal measurements ....................................................................................... 63
6.3.1 Thermocouples and Thermistors ................................................................................... 63
6.3.2 Calibration of the sensors .............................................................................................. 67
Appendix ........................................................................................................................................ 68
Thermal Anomalies in Space Systems: Key Cases and Design Lessons ................................... 68
Conclusions .................................................................................................................................... 70
Sitography ...................................................................................................................................... 71
1 Introduction
The thermal control subsystem (TCS) is critical to any spacecraft. All onboard systems, instruments, and
structures operate within their required temperature limits. Space is an extreme thermal environment
characterized by intense solar radiation, the cold darkness of deep space, and significant temperature
variations depending on the spacecraft’s orbit and exposure to planetary bodies. Without proper thermal
regulation, spacecraft components may overheat, freeze, or suffer from thermal stress, leading to
degradation or failure of mission-critical functions.

The purpose of this subsystem is to provide the satellite within the operational temperature range when
power is on and always keep it in critical temperature limits. Aside from the thermal control system,
thermal analyses are important in designing the structure components so that they become durable in
extreme space conditions.

1.1 Heat Transmission

There are three primary mechanisms for heat transfer: conduction, convection and radiation. Space is a
vacuum, so there are no particles or molecules to conduct heat, no air or fluid for convection .The only
way to transfer heat is by emitting or absorbing electromagnetic radiation.

Figure 1 Heat transfer ways (1)

1.1.1 Conduction
Conduction plays a significant role in determining the temperature of the solid structure. It allows heat to
be transferred through direct contact between particles: atoms vibrate more vigorously when they are
heated, passing kinetic energy to neighboring particles.

Heat moves from the high temperature end to the low one based on the material's thermal conductivity,
which is a quantity that defines how well the material transfers heat.

Conduction is described by Fourier’s law:

It states that heat flux q, heat transfer rate per unit area, is proportional to thermal conductivity and
temperature gradient

q: Heat flux

: Thermal conductivity

: Temperature gradient in the direction of heat flow

In spacecraft design, materials with high conductivity, such as copper and aluminum, are used to enhance
heat dissipation, while low-conductive materials, such as thermal insulation, help prevent heat loss or
gain. So, the temperature is kept in the safe operational range.

1.1.2 Radiation

Radiation is the transfer of thermal energy through electromagnetic waves, mainly in the infrared
spectrum. Any object with a temperature above absolute zero (0 °K) emits thermal radiation. The intensity
and wavelength distribution of the radiation depend on the object’s temperature and emissivity: hotter
objects emit more energy and at shorter wavelengths.

Unlike conduction and convection, it doesn’t require a physical medium and can occur even in vacuum.
The heat radiated by a surface is determined by the Stefan-Boltzmann equation

where:
 ● is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant ( )

● A is the emitting surface area (m2)

● is the emissivity of a surface and quantifies how efficiently a surface emits radiation compared
to a perfect black body (dimensionless, between 0 and 1)
● is the environment temperature.

The thermal radiation band of the electromagnetic spectrum is between 0.1 and 100 µm in wavelength, as
shown in Figure 2 Electromagnetic spectrum showing the range of thermal radiation.Figure 2.
Outside of the thermal radiation waveband, electromagnetic energy generally passes through objects or
has very little heat energy under practical conditions. Thermal analyses are typically conducted using a
two-waveband absorptance model, which subdivides the thermal energy spectrum into solar (<3 µm) and
infrared, or IR, (>3 µm) wavelengths. Thermal radiation heat transfer is controlled using materials that
have specific optical surface properties, namely: solar absorptivity and IR emissivity. The first one
governs how much incident heating from solar radiation a spacecraft absorbs, while the latter determines
how much heat a spacecraft emits to space, relative to a perfect blackbody emitter, and what fraction of
thermal radiation from IR sources (e.g., the Earth, Moon) is absorbed by the spacecraft surface.

Figure 2 Electromagnetic spectrum showing the range of thermal radiation . (2)

1.2 Blackbody
A blackbody is an idealized object or surface that absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation,
regardless of frequency or angle of incidence; emits thermal radiation at the maximum possible rate for its
given temperature. In other words, a blackbody is a perfect emitter and absorber of radiation. No physical
object behaves exactly like a blackbody, but some materials can approximate blackbody behavior at
specific wavelengths. It radiates thermal energy efficiently according to Planck’s law, which describes
how the intensity of radiation emitted by a blackbody varies with wavelength.

Figure 3 Plank Law ( https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-body_radiation)

Planck’s law describes the spectral distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted by a blackbody at a
given temperature. Increasing temperature results in higher peak intensity and a shift toward shorter
wavelengths (blue shift), following Wien’s Displacement Law, meaning hotter objects (6000 K) emit most
energy in the visible spectrum, while cooler ones (3000 K) radiate primarily in the infrared, with the Sun
(~5800 K) peaking in the visible range, giving it a yellow-white appearance. Wien’s Displacement Law
states that the peak wavelength ( max) of radiation emitted by a blackbody is inversely proportional to its
absolute temperature ( ). This means that as temperature increases, the peak emission shifts to shorter
(higher-energy) wavelengths.

Where:

 max = Wavelength of peak emission (m)

  b = Wien’s constant (2.897× m·K)
 T = Absolute temperature of the blackbody (K)

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-astronomy/chapter/the-electromagnetic-spectrum/

In the following, we have Planck’s Law expressed in terms of frequency ( ), describing the spectral
radiance of a blackbody at temperature as a function of frequency .

 I(ν, T) = Spectral radiance (energy emitted per unit area, per unit frequency, per unit solid angle).
 h = Planck’s constant (6.626 × J·s).
 = Frequency of the emitted radiation (Hz).
 c = Speed of light (3.00× m/s).
 k = Boltzmann’s constant (1.381× J/K).
 T = Absolute temperature of the blackbody (K).

An alternative form in terms of wavelength (λ) is also commonly used:

Figure 4 Spectral Irradiance to wavelength ( http://www.rumford.com/radiant/images/Wiengraph.gif)

Emissivity

It describes how well a surface can emit thermal radiation compared to an ideal reference, which is a
perfect blackbody at the same temperature. It ranges between 0 and 1: an emissivity of 1 means the object
is a perfect emitter, while an emissivity of 0 means the object emits no radiation.

Absorptivity (

It measures how well a material absorbs incident thermal radiation. It is defined as:

It ranges from 0 to 1: absorptivity of 1 means the surface absorbs all incident radiation, while and
absorptivity of 0 means the surface absorbs no radiation.

Smith, J., Petrovic, P., Rose, M., De Souz, C., Muller, L., Nowak, B., & Martinez, J. (2021). Placeholder
Text: A Study. The Journal of Citation Styles, 3. https://doi.org/10.10/X

1.3 Introduction to thermal effects in Space

The thermal space environment is extremely different from Earth, so it requires specialized thermal
control strategies to maintain the spacecraft operable. These extreme environments can cause catastrophic
damage to the spacecraft. Therefore, it must be designed and managed carefully so that it can withstand
these conditions.

1.3.1 Differences from the Terrestrial Environment

The main differences between space and Earth include:

 Absence of Earth's Atmosphere

On Earth, heat is transferred primarily by conduction and convection due to the presence of air,
while in space, it is mainly transferred through radiation.
  Extreme Temperature Variations
In Space, temperature differences can be severe depending on whether a spacecraft is exposed to
direct sunlight or in the shadow of a planet. A spacecraft in Earth’s orbit can experience
temperature swings in a short period from -150°C in the shade to +150°C in sunlight.
 Sunlight and Darkness Cycles
In LEO orbit, a spacecraft may experience frequent transitions between sunlight and shadow
(eclipses) and this can lead to thermal stresses and possible thermomechanical damages, requiring
adaptive thermal control.

1.3.2 Main Sources of Heat in Space

1. Solar Radiation
The sun is the main heat source in space, emitting energy at about at Earth’s distance.

The value varies slightly (about ±3%) due to Earth’s elliptical orbit.
2. Planetary Infrared Radiation (Albedo Effect)
Planets and moons reflect sunlight and this causes additional heat to the spacecraft close to the
celestial bodies. Earth’s albedo effect can cause extra heat in low Earth orbit (LEO).
3. Atmospheric Heating (for LEO spacecraft)
While it is negligible in deep space, in LEO, atmospheric particles cause heating on spacecraft due
to the aerodynamic drag.
4. Internally Generated Heat
Electronics, instruments, and power systems generate heat during operation.
High-power components such as processors, batteries, and sensors need efficient heat distribution
to prevent overheating.
5. Rocket Exhaust or Propulsion Systems
During maneuvers, spacecraft thrusters produce heat, which must be managed to prevent damage
to surrounding components.
2 Space Environment and Thermal Sources
The external thermal environment is primarily dictated by four major heat sources and sinks. Solar
radiation is the dominant energy input, directly affecting the spacecraft's surface temperature. The albedo
effect, caused by sunlight reflected from Earth's surface, adds another layer of thermal influence, varying
with surface characteristics depending on whether it is land, ocean, or cloud cover. Additionally, planetary
infrared radiation from Earth provides a source of heat even during eclipse phases. In contrast, deep space
cold acts as an extreme heat sink, so space-facing spacecraft surfaces radiate heat away into an
environment at nearly 4 °K.

Internally, a spacecraft generates heat through the electronics of its various subsystems: power-consuming
components such as processors and batteries dissipate heat, which must be efficiently managed to prevent
overheating or thermal imbalances that could affect operational performance.

The orbital dynamics of a spacecraft further complicate its thermal management. Eclipse cycles, where the
spacecraft alternates between sunlit and shadowed periods, lead to rapid temperature fluctuations that can
cause thermal stress on materials and components. Additionally, the attitude and orientation of the
spacecraft relative to the Sun, Earth, and deep space play a crucial role in determining which surfaces are
exposed to heating and cooling at any given moment.

2.1 External Thermal Environment

The external thermal environment of a spacecraft in Space is influenced by various sources of radiation
and heat. Understanding these factors is essential for thermal control and system design. The main
contributors to the thermal environment include:

 Solar Radiation
 Albedo Effect
 Planetary (Earth) Infrared Radiation
 Deep Space Cold
 Figure 5 External Thermal Environment Sources.

2.1.1 Solar Radiation

Solar radiation is the primary source of external heat for spacecraft in Earth orbit. It consists of
electromagnetic waves emitted by the Sun, which vary in intensity and spectrum. Its characteristics,
including the solar spectrum, solar constant, and radiation pressure:

 Solar Spectrum: The Sun emits a broad spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, classified into
different wavelength bands:
o Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation (10–400 nm) – Constitutes ~7% of solar energy.
o Visible Light (400–700 nm) – The most significant portion (~44%) of solar energy.
o Infrared (IR) Radiation (700 nm–1 mm) – Delivers ~49% of solar energy.

Figure 6 Spectrum of Solar Radiation for Earth (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Solar_spectrum_en.svg)

  Solar Flux is the amount of solar energy received from the Sun.

Where PSUN ~ 3.828x1026 W

o Solar Constant: The solar constant (1361 W/m²) represents the intensity of solar radiation
received at Earth’s average distance (1AU). Due to Earth's elliptical orbit, this value
varies slightly:
 Perihelion: ~1413 W/m²
 Aphelion: ~1321 W/m²

 Solar Radiation Pressure: Solar radiation pressure is the force exerted by sunlight on
spacecraft surfaces, influencing orbit stability, attitude control, and propulsion for solar sails.
It is determined by the solar flux and the speed of light, with a typical pressure of 4.57 μN/m²
at Earth orbit. (3)

Where:

 S = solar flux
 c = speed of light (3×10⁸ m/s)

Thermal radiation is the process by which energy is emitted by a surface in the form of electromagnetic
waves, primarily in the infrared spectrum. The amount of heat transferred by radiation depends on the
temperature, emissivity, and surface properties of an object. The governing equation for radiative heat
transfer is the Stefan-Boltzmann Law:

 Q = Radiative heat transfer (W)

 ɛ = Emissivity (dimensionless, between 0 and 1)
 σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 × 10⁻⁸ W/m²K⁴)
 A = Surface area of the emitting body (m²)
  T = Absolute temperature of the body (°K)

Direct Heating

Solar radiation has a significant impact on spacecraft operating in Earth orbit, influencing their thermal
balance, structural integrity, and operational efficiency. One of the key effects is direct heating. The
spacecraft absorbs and emits solar radiation based on material properties such as:

 Absorptivity (α): Fraction of incident radiation absorbed.

 Emissivity (ε): Efficiency in radiating heat away.
 Solar Absorptance to Emittance Ratio (α/ε): This ratio determines how efficiently a material
absorbs and radiates heat.

Table 1 https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19840015630/downloads/19840015630.pdf (4)

Surface Material Absorptivity Emissivity (ε) α/ε Ratio

(α)
White Paint (Z93) 0.20 0.90 0.22
Black Paint 0.90 0.85 1.06
Gold Foil (MLI) 0.20 0.02 10.00
Silvered Teflon 0.09 0.76 0.12

A high α/ε ratio means the surface absorbs more heat than it emits, leading to higher temperatures, while a
low ratio helps in maintaining cooler surfaces by effectively radiating absorbed heat. This is crucial for
spacecraft thermal management.

Figure 7 Stefan-Boltzmann Law with different emissivity values. (25)

2.1.2 Albedo Effect
The albedo effect refers to the fraction of the sun's visible light and shortwave radiation that is reflected by
a planetary surface back into space. For Earth, the wavelength is mainly in the shortwave spectrum (0.3 to
2.5 micrometers, including visible and near-infrared light). Approximately 30% of the incident solar
radiation is reflected, while the remainder is absorbed and re-emitted as infrared radiation. Bright snow,
clouds, and ice have a high albedo, meaning they reflect solar radiation into space, while green areas like
forests and fields absorb more.

Having implemented the Earth’s reflectivity data measured by NASA’s Earth Probe satellite, which is part
of the TOMS project (Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer), the Earth’s reflectivity as a function of
latitudes is illustrated in the following figure. As we see in the figure, the albedo has a maximum value of
~ 88 % over the latitude of 88.75 South (close to the South Pole). However, it has a minimum value of ~
13.8 % over the latitude of 1.25 South (close to the equator)

Figure 8 Latitude dependency of Earth’s reflectivity during the local summer

(https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264139962_Earth_Albedo_perturbations_on_Low_Earth_Orbit_Cubesats)

2.1.3 Earth Infrared Radiation

Earth’s infrared radiation, also known as terrestrial radiation, is the energy emitted by Earth's surface,
atmosphere, and clouds in the form of infrared waves after absorbing solar radiation. The wavelength
range of Earth's infrared radiation is typically 4 – 100 µm, with the peak emission around 10 µm (as
predicted by Planck’s Law). In Figure 8, we can see the spectrum of terrestrial infrared radiation, showing
the radiance emitted by Earth at different wavelengths (λ, in micrometers) and how it is affected by
various atmospheric gases.

The spectrum is computed by the numerical model MODTRAN for the standard atmosphere (USA 1976,
clear sky). The Planck black-body emission distributions are given for 220, 240, 260, 280, and 300 K. The
corresponding greenhouse gases are indicated near the absorption peaks.

Figure 9 Spectrum of Terrestrial Infrared Radiation (Sportisse 2010).

2.1.4 Deep Space Cold

Absence of an atmosphere and the nearly perfect vacuum create unique thermal challenges. Deep space is
characterized by extremely low temperatures, radiative heat transfers as the dominant mechanism, and the
absence of convective or conductive heat exchange with the surrounding environment.
Deep space environments experience extreme temperature fluctuations depending on solar exposure. (5)

 Spacecraft’s surfaces in direct sunlight can reach 393 K (120°C or 248°F).

 Spacecraft’s surfaces in shadow can drop to 3 K (-270°C or -454°F).

As we move further from the Sun, the available energy decreases inversely with the square of the distance.

Table 2 (5)

Distance from Sun Solar Constant (W/m²) Maximum Theoretical Surface Temperature (K)
Mercury (~0.39 AU) 9149 ~700 K (427°C, 800°F)
Earth (~1 AU) 1361 ~393 K (120°C, 248°F)
Mars (~1.52 AU) 586 ~300 K (27°C, 80°F)
Jupiter (~5.2 AU) 50.5 ~130 K (-143°C, -226°F)
Saturn (~9.5 AU) 14.8 ~100 K (-173°C, -280°F)
2.2 Internal Thermal Environment
Internal heat sources for a spacecraft primarily originate from onboard electronic systems, power
generation units, and propulsion components. As satellites operate in the vacuum of space, where heat
dissipation relies solely on conduction and radiation, managing these internal heat sources is critical to
prevent overheating and ensure optimal performance.

 Electronic Components: Payloads, processors, batteries, and communication systems generate

heat during operation.
 Power Systems: Solar arrays and batteries can generate heat, which must be dissipated to avoid
overheating.
 Propulsion Systems: If the satellite has onboard thrusters, they can introduce additional heat
during operation.

2.3 Orbital Effects on Thermal Environment

Low Earth Orbit (LEO), Medium Earth Orbit (MEO), and Geostationary Orbit (GEO) differ primarily in
altitude, orbital period, and applications. LEO ranges from 160 km to 2,000 km, with satellites completing
an orbit in 90 to 120 minutes. This orbit experiences frequent temperature fluctuations due to rapid
transitions between sunlight and eclipse, making it suitable for Earth observation, communication, and the
International Space Station (ISS). MEO spans from 2,000 km to 35,786 km, with orbital periods of 2 to 12
hours, commonly used for navigation satellites like GPS. These satellites experience less atmospheric drag
and fewer eclipses compared to LEO, but still face some thermal cycling. GEO, at 35,786 km, matches
Earth's rotation, with the satellite appearing stationary relative to the surface, making it ideal for weather
monitoring and telecommunications. GEO satellites experience more stable thermal conditions, with only
occasional eclipses, reducing thermal control challenges compared to LEO and MEO.

2.3.1 Eclipse Periods

During eclipses, both the solar loading and albedo drop to zero as the planet or body blocks the view of
the sun. Therefore, during the eclipse, planet IR is the only environmental heat source. Alpha is the angle
between the terminator line and where the spacecraft goes to eclipse. (Where the angle between the
sunlight and the orbital plane is zero.)
 ● Fraction of time in sunlight =

● Fraction of time in eclipse =

Figure 10 Sunlight and Eclipse Periods

2.3.2 Beta Angle

Beta (β) angle is defined as the angle between the solar vector and the orbit plane, and it is a function of
the altitude and orbit inclination, and can vary from 0° < β < 90°. Some missions are designed to be “sun-
synchronous” with a more restricted beta angle range.

Figure 11 Beta angle

Critical Beta Angle (βcritical)

The critical beta angle (β_critical) is the angle beyond which the satellite never experiences an eclipse. It
depends on the satellite’s altitude and Earth’s radius.
 Beta Angle (β) Eclipse Fraction
β = 0° Maximum eclipse duration
0° < β < βcritical Partial eclipse per orbit
β ≥ βcritical No eclipse (continuous sunlight)

Figure 12 Relation of Altitude with Beta Angle and Fraction of Orbit in Eclipse.
(https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20230003714/downloads/Thermal%20Design%20for%20Spaceflight.pptx.pdf)

2.3.3 Spacecraft Attitude and Orientation

The orientation of a spacecraft relative to external heat sources significantly influences its thermal
environment. Different attitudes, such as maintaining a fixed orientation toward the Sun, facing a
planetary body, or rotating, result in distinct heating and cooling patterns.

● Sun Pointing (Spacecraft Always Facing the Sun)

● Nadir Pointing (Spacecraft Always Facing the Planet)
● Spinning or Tumble Motion (Rotating Spacecraft)

Sun Pointing

The Spacecraft in the sun pointing orientation maintains continuous exposure to direct solar radiation,
receiving approximately 1361 W/m² in Earth's orbit. This results in extreme thermal conditions, where the
sunlit side experiences intense heating while the shadowed side remains in near-freezing temperatures due
to radiative cooling to deep space (~4K). Such a temperature gradient can induce significant thermal
stresses, affecting structural integrity and electronic performance.
Nadir Pointing

In a nadir pointing orientation, the spacecraft maintains a constant alignment toward a planetary body,
exposing one side to planetary infrared radiation (IR) and albedo reflection while the opposite side faces
deep space. The planet-facing side absorbs heat from thermal emissions (~220–300 K for Earth) and
reflected solar radiation (~30–35% of incident sunlight), leading to non-uniform heating. Meanwhile, the
space-facing side primarily radiates heat into space, resulting in a significant temperature differential. This
imbalance can cause localized overheating on the nadir side and excessive cooling on the space-facing
side, impacting thermal stability.

Rotating Satellite

A rotating satellite, whether spin-stabilized or tumbling, experiences cyclical heating and cooling as
different surfaces alternate between exposure to solar radiation, planetary infrared emissions, and deep
space. This rotation helps distribute heat more evenly over time, reducing extreme temperature
differentials between spacecraft surfaces.
Table 3

Orientation of Spacecraft Thermal Source Challenges

Sun Pointing Constant solar flux Extreme temperature difference (hot/cold

sides), high thermal stress

Planet Facing Planetary IR & albedo Non-uniform heating, potential overheating

from albedo

Rotating Periodic solar & Thermal cycling

planetary exposure
3 Thermal Balance
Since space has extreme conditions in terms of temperature, thermal balance is critical for spacecraft to be
in an operational temperature range so that instruments and electronics can function properly. And the
structure of the spacecraft can withstand these conditions. The heat a spacecraft is exposed to depends on
many factors such as the distance between the spacecraft and the sun, orbit altitude (i.e. LEO, MEO, GEO,
or deep space), albedo effect, internal heat rate due to electronics itself, etc. All of these factors are
considered in the thermal balance.

So, the temperature of the spacecraft depends on the thermal balance between the heat received from
internal and external sources and the heat radiated into space. In order to control spacecraft temperature, it
is essential to control absorbed and emitted heat.

To write heat balance, let's consider a simple spacecraft in LEO, and assume it's in polar orbit(dawn-dusk
orbit), and let's also assume our spacecraft has a high thermal inertia and is isothermal. We have:

● Heat received directly from the Sun:

● Albedo contribution:
● Planetary radiation contribution:
● Heat radiated to space:
● Internally dissipated power: Q

where , , are projected areas, respectively, solar, albedo, and planetary

radiation, and is the total spacecraft surface area. And where is the solar flux power,
is the albedo power and is the planetary power. If it is assumed that , , and Q remains
constant, the required spacecraft equilibrium temperature is obtained following the equation:

Thus,

So, we can see that temperature varies with the ratio of , particularly for spacecraft that have

small Q.
3.1 Temperature Variation in Time
If there is no balance between internal and external heat, the temperature varies in time according to the
heat capacity of the spacecraft.

Equilibrium temperature is the temperature at which the input and output power are balanced.

In order to linearize around, we assume the spacecraft’s actual temperature stays near . Let:

For small , expanding in a first-order Taylor series about

Substituting this approximation and integration between an initial temperature and the generic
temperature T, the following equation is obtained;

Define a constant as

Integrating both sides

⇒ ln =-
Exponentiating both sides,

(t)= (0)

Since , final temperature solution becomes;

Figure 13 Exponential decay of temperature to T_eq

Physical Meaning:
A larger β typically corresponds to a spacecraft (or object) with either:

● Higher radiative area and emissivity

● Lower heat capacity, resulting in a quicker temperature response to radiative cooling.

 4 Thermal Control
The thermal control system is of fundamental importance for all satellites and is also the most critical one
in the entire design. Its role is to maintain all spacecraft and payload components within the required
temperature range. Two limits are frequently defined: operational limits that the component must remain
within while operating, and survival limits that the component must remain within all times (even when
not powered). Exceeding the first ones can result in out-of-tolerance performance as opposed to permanent
equipment damage when survival limits are exceeded. Table 4 gives typical component temperature
ranges. Note that the temperature extremes on the outer portions of spacecraft can vary between ±200 °C.

Table 4 Examples of Typical Thermal Requirements for Spacecraft Components.

Quote. Space Mission Analysis and Design (SMAD), page 428.

Typical Temperature Ranges (°C)

Component
Operational Survival

Batteries 0 to 15 -10 to 25
Power Box Baseplates -10 to 50 -20 to 60
Reaction Wheels -10 to 40 -20 to 50
Gyroscopes 0 to 40 -10 to 50
Star Trackers 0 to 30 -10 to 40
C&DH Box Baseplates -20 to 60 -40 to 75
Hydrazine Tanks and Lines 15 to 40 5 to 50
Antenna Gimbals -40 to 80 -50 to 90
Antennas -100 to 100 -120 to 120
Solar Panels -150 to 110 -200 to 130

Thermal control techniques are broadly divided into two categories: active and passive thermal control
systems.

Passive thermal control makes use of materials, coatings, or surface finishes, without using powered
equipment to maintain temperature limits. They are associated with low cost, volume, weight, and risk and
are advantageous for spacecrafts like SmallSats and especially CubeSats. In addition to them, structural
and electrical design methods also contribute to manage the thermal environment passively, such as:

 Material selection based on its thermal conductivity

  Spacecraft orientation, when it is not dictated by science objectives
 Thermal interfaces: heat transfer can be reduced by mounting a component through multiple
stacked washers with low thermal conductivity, or increased using more fasteners or thermal
interface materials between a component and the mounting surface
 A circuit board with more or thicker copper layers to conduct heat away from electrical
components

Active thermal control relies on input power for operations and is effective for components with stricter
temperature requirements or higher heat loads. Typical active thermal devices used in SmallSats and
CubeSats include heaters, cryocoolers, thermoelectric coolers, and fluid loops. Other active systems are
challenging to integrate into a small satellite because of the power, mass, and volume needs associated
with each technology.

4.1 Active Systems

4.1.1 Heaters
They are electrical heaters that use resistance to generate heat. When an electrical current passes through
the resistor, it produces heat, which is then transferred to the spacecraft’s components or surfaces that
need thermal regulation. In SmallSats they are made of Kapton and consist of a polyimide film with
etched foil circuits, as well as a pressure-sensitive adhesive on one side for easy application. Heaters are
used with thermostats or solid-state controllers to provide exact temperature control of a particular
component. Primarily used for:

 Battery protection, because extreme cold can reduce its efficiency or even cause failure
 Biological payloads (common on small spacecrafts) which need precise temperature maintenance,
with closed-loop temperature feedback
 Propulsion system components, such as lines or thrusters, are used to prevent fuel or propellant
from freezing
 Sensors and scientific instruments
 Figure 14 Image of the scheme of an electric heater (6)

4.1.2 Cryocoolers
Cryocoolers are refrigerators that reach cryogenic temperatures, typically below 100 K. They are used on
instruments or subsystems requiring cryogenic cooling, such as high precision IR sensors: imaging
spectrometers, interferometers, and midwave infrared sensors require cryocoolers to function at extremely
low temperatures, improving the dynamic range and extending the wavelength coverage. These
temperatures are not possible by passive means alone. Types of cryocoolers used in satellites:

 Stirling Cryocoolers use a cryogenic fluid, typically helium, as the working substance and employ
moving parts to cycle the fluid around a thermodynamic cycle
 Pulse Tube Cryocoolers use oscillating pressure waves to create a cooling effect, with fewer
moving parts (less vibrations), so they are more reliable and used in long-duration space missions
 Joule-Thomson Cryocoolers use gas expansion (helium or nitrogen) through a valve to achieve
cooling and are suitable for very low temperatures (below 10 K)
 Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigerators (ADR) use the magnetocaloric effect to cool to sub-
Kelvin temperatures (below 1 K) and are used in deep-space telescopes (e.g., James Webb
Telescope)
4.1.3 Thermoelectric Coolers (TEC)
TECs are miniature solid-state heat pumps that provide localized cooling via the Peltier effect. When a
direct current (DC) flows through a junction between two different conductors or semiconductors, one
side absorbs heat (cooling effect) while the other side releases heat (heating effect). When an electric
current flows through the junction of two dissimilar materials, it causes electrons to move from one
material to the other. This movement leads to a transfer of energy at the junction. If the current direction is
such that electrons move from a good conductor to a material that is a poor conductor (or semiconductor),
heat is absorbed at the junction. This results in one side of it becoming cooler. By reversing the current
direction, the cooling and heating sides switch. In practical applications, multiple pairs of these junctions
are typically connected in series or parallel to achieve the desired temperature differential or
cooling/heating effect.

TECs have been used to cool star trackers, IR sensors, and low noise amplifiers on large spacecraft.
Advantages in their use are that they have no moving parts, are reliable, noiseless, lightweight and
compact. But it is limited below the temperature of 130K because of low efficiency and low performance
with large temperature differences. Furthermore, TECs are fragile to mount and highly sensitive to
thermal expansion stresses, so they often add a conductive strap on the cold side to mitigate external
stresses.

Figure 15 Scheme of a Thermoelectric Cooler based on the Peltier effect. (7)

4.1.4 Fluid loops
A pumped fluid loop (PFL) works by circulating a working fluid (e.g., ammonia or water) in a closed-loop
system to collect and release heat. The process involves four main phases:

 Heat Absorption: The fluid flows through tubes in contact with electronic components or
scientific instruments, absorbing heat.
 Heat Transport: The heated fluid is pumped through the circuit, carrying thermal energy away
from sensitive areas.
 Heat Dissipation: The heat is released in radiators placed outside the satellite, which radiate it into
space.
 Recirculation: the cooled fluid is returned to the hot zone to repeat the cycle.

They are particularly used in large satellites and missions with high-power payloads: International Space
Station (ISS) uses fluid loops with ammonia to cool onboard instruments.

Fluid loops show a high heat transfer capacity, a uniform temperature distribution, and are essential for
missions with heat-sensitive instruments (e.g. telescopes, space radars). However,they are more complex
and heavier than passive devices, they can encounter failures in pumps or valves, and there is a risk of
fluid leaks in space.

4.2 Passive Systems

4.2.1 Thermal Straps
A thermal strap is a flexible, highly conductive thermal link designated to transfer heat between spacecraft
components. These straps help manage thermal loads by passively conducting excess heat away from
sensitive electronics, scientific instruments, or other heat-generating systems to designated heat sinks,
such as radiators. They do not require moving parts or power consumption, making them highly reliable
for long-duration missions. Their flexibility prevents the addition of structural loads and allows heat
transfer between components that experience relative motion due to thermal expansion or structural
vibrations: they are designed to absorb mechanical stresses, ensuring durability in launch and operational
environments.

Thermal straps can have different geometric configurations:

 Braided Straps: thin interwoven metallic strands (typically copper) that provide high flexibility
and thermal conductivity (~ 400 W/m/K)
  Laminated Foil Strap: stacked thin metal foils that allow for good flexibility while maintaining
high conductivity
 Flexible Graphite Straps: Pyrolytic Graphite Film (PGF) with extremely high in-plane thermal
conductivity (~1500 W/m/K) and significantly lower mass compared to metals; Carbon Fiber
Composites with excellent strength-to-weight ratio, moderate thermal conductivity (~100-400
W/m/K)

Each design is tailored to mission-specific needs, balancing thermal performance, weight constraints, and
mechanical flexibility.

Figure 16 Image of Thermal Straps. (8)

4.2.2 Thermal Contact Conductance and Bolted Joint Conductance

In space, where heat dissipation relies solely on conduction and radiation, efficient pathways must be
established between components to regulate temperatures. Thermal contact conductance (TCC) refers to
the ability of heat to pass across the interface of two solid materials in contact. Two surfaces pressed
together by uniform pressure will transfer heat via contact conductance.

Several parameters influence the efficiency of heat transfer:

 Surface Irregularities: even highly machined surfaces exhibit microscopic asperities, reducing
actual contact area and increasing thermal resistance
  Increased Pressure: higher mechanical pressure deforms these asperities, improving metal-to-
metal contact
 Thermal Conductivity: The bulk thermal conductivity of the contacting materials influences
overall conductance
 Hardness and compliance: softer materials conform better under pressure, increasing the real
contact area and improving conductance
 Thermal Interface Materials: metallic foils (Indium, Aluminum, Silver) enhance heat transfer;
Greases and Pastes provide better interface filling, reducing voids and enhancing conductance but
they can degrade over time in space environments; Graphite-Based Pads and Phase-Change
Materials offer high conductivity while being more stable under extreme temperatures.
 Environmental Conditions: Vacuum Effects, makes solid-to-solid conduction even more critical;
Temperature Variations (thermal cycling) cause expansion and contraction, affecting long-term
contact stability.

Bolted joints are widely used to create mechanical connections between spacecraft components. In
addition to their structural function, they also serve as thermal pathways for heat transfer. When two
surfaces are joined by bolts, the heat transfer across the interface depends on the thermal contact resistance
(TCR) between the mating surfaces and the conductance through the bolt itself. The total thermal
conductance of a bolted joint is influenced by:

 Surface Contact Conductance: represents the efficiency of heat transfer between the mating
surfaces
 Bolt Conductance: the heat transfer along the bolt shaft, which acts as a secondary conduction
path
 Contact Pressure: the force applied by the bolts, which affects the real contact area

The total thermal resistance of a bolted joint is given by:

Rtotal=Rcontact +Rbolt

where:

 Rcontact is the contact resistance at the interface

 Rbolt is the resistance along the bolt path.

Since resistance is the inverse of conductance, increasing bolted joint conductance means minimizing both
contact and bolt resistance.
The thermal conductance of a bolted joint is a critical factor in spacecraft thermal control, as it determines
how effectively heat is transferred between connected components. Bolted joints experience non-uniform
pressure, creating a more complex heat transfer scenario where the conductance depends on screw size,
torque, surface properties and finishes, and materials. Table 5 Thermal conductance guidelines for
bolted joints. Table 5 provides the conductance of various screws (9).

Table 5 Thermal conductance guidelines for bolted joints. (9)

Conductance [W/K]

Screw Size Small Stiff Surface Large Thin Surface

2-56 0.21 0.105

4-40 0.26 0.132

6-32 0.42 0.176

8-32 0.8 0.264

10-32 1.32 0.527

¼-28 3.51 1.054

4.3.3 Sunshields

A sunshield, or sunshade, is a thermal protection system used in spacecraft and satellites to block and
reflect solar radiation, preventing overheating of sensitive instruments and components. It is an often-
deployed device made up of a material with low solar absorptivity that reduces the amount of solar flux
impinging on a spacecraft.

Sunshields serve multiple purposes:

 Thermal Protection: they reduce heat transfer from the Sun to the spacecraft
 Temperature Stability: they help maintain extremely low temperatures for sensitive equipment,
such as infrared telescopes
  Micrometeoroid Impact Shielding

Sunshields are typically made of multiple layers of highly reflective materials such as Kapton® or
Mylar® films coated with aluminum or gold, multi-layer insulation (MLI), and silicon-coated fabrics.
Most sunshields consist of 5 or more layers to maximize their thermal protection: James Webb Space
Telescope (JWST) uses a 5-layer Kapton sunshield to maintain its instruments at cryogenic temperatures
(~ -233 °C) for infrared observation. Sunshields are commonly used for spacecraft thermal control,
although only recently designated for small spacecraft.

Figure 17 Image of the James Webb Space Telescope sunshield outstretched. (10)

4.3.4 Multi-Layer Insulation Blanket (MLI)

Multi-layer insulation blanket is a passive thermal control system used on spacecraft to minimize heat loss
or gain by reducing radiative heat transfer. It is typically composed of multiple inner layers (usually 10 to
20 layers) of a thin material with low IR emissivity and a durable outer layer: the outermost layers reflect
solar radiation and planetary infrared emissions, while the inner layers trap and reflect infrared radiation
emitted from the spacecraft body. They are separated by spacer layers (e.g., Dacron netting) to prevent
conductive heat transfer. This makes MLI an extremely effective thermal barrier in the vacuum of space,
where conduction and convection are negligible. The main components are:
Table 6

Perforations may be added to allow the MLI to vent trapped gas once in orbit.

The total thickness of MLI is typically just a few millimeters, but its thermal resistance is extremely high.
It is lightweight, flexible, and resistant to UV radiation and space environment degradation, but it shows
some challenges:

 Difficult to install and integrate, requires careful handling and layering

 Coated films form wrinkles that alter their optical properties because the incidence angle changes,
and consequently, so do absorption and emissivity
 They are also electrically insulating, meaning that spacecraft accumulate electrostatic charge.
Grounding is necessary, and this is achieved using metallized washers connected by a pin to
create a conductive path
 Since it is an insulator, it generates background noise for the antenna signals. A coating with
carbon nanoparticles is being studied to absorb external signals without reflecting them
 MLI performance drops drastically if compressed (causing a thermally conductive path), so it
should be used with caution or avoided altogether on the exterior of small satellites that fit into a
deployer
 Tend to drop efficiency as size decreases because heat transfer through the blanket increases close
to the edges, and the specific attachment method has a large impact on performance

Due to these constraints, MLI generally does not perform as well on small spacecraft (more specifically
CubeSat form factors) as on a large spacecraft. MLI is used to reduce radiative heat loss for deep-space
probes traveling far from the Sun, to prevent excessive heat gain for landers on planetary surfaces with
strong sunlight exposure: the Voyager spacecraft uses MLI to maintain instrument temperatures despite
operating in deep space. It is also used in cryogenic fuel tanks to minimize boil-off losses: essential for
liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen storage in space missions.

The Hubble Space Telescope cryogenic sunshield incorporates MLI layers for extreme cooling. And last,
but not least, MLI finds a place in space station modules (ISS) to stabilize cabin temperatures, providing
radiation shielding in addition to thermal insulation.

Figure 18 From left to right: Close-up of Multi-layer insulation blanket. Gold MLI blanket on Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. MLI
covering the heat shield of the Huygens probe.

4.4.5 Thermal Louvres

Thermal louvres are passive heat regulation devices that control the amount of thermal radiation emitted
into space. They consist of movable slats or vanes that automatically open or close depending on
temperature variations. At low temperatures, the louvre slats remain closed, reducing radiative heat loss by
reflecting infrared radiation toward the spacecraft. At high temperatures, the slats open, increasing heat
dissipation by exposing a high-emissivity surface to space. This mechanism provides adaptive thermal
control by adjusting its emissivity without requiring electrical power, enhancing spacecraft reliability. The
slats are the key elements that regulate heat dissipation. Each vane has a low-emissivity side (e.g.,
aluminum with silver coating, emissivity 0.05-0.1) reflecting thermal radiation into the space and a high-
emissivity side (e.g., black-painted or anodized surface, emissivity 0.8-0.9) that maximizes radiative heat
rejection into space. The slate’s movement is controlled by bimetallic actuators, which consist of two
metals with different coefficients of thermal expansion. As the temperature increases, the actuator bends
due to differential expansion, forcing the louvre to open. When the temperature decreases, the actuator
contracts, closing the louvres. Common bimetallic materials include Invar (Nickel-Iron Alloy) and
aluminum or copper alloys.
Typical spacecraft louvres are associated with a larger mass, so their use is limited on small spacecraft.

Figure 19 Image of Rosetta Thermal Louvre. (11)

4.5 Radiators
In space, radiators are the primary method for heat rejection, as there is no atmosphere to enable
convective cooling. Spacecraft generate heat from electronic systems, propulsion, and environmental
exposure. Radiators work by radiating infrared energy into space, ensuring that onboard systems remain
within safe temperature limits. Radiators rely on thermal radiation, following the Stefan-Boltzmann law.
The amount of heat a radiator can dissipate depends on its surface area, temperature, and emissivity. To
optimize performance, spacecraft radiators maximize high emissivity while minimizing solar absorptivity
to avoid unwanted gain from sunlight. There are different types of radiators:

 Fixed Radiators: thin panels consisting of a polymeric layer facing outward, which can be made of
polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyimide, or fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP), typically
around 25 µm thick, and a metallic substrate (aluminum or silver) which serves as the base.
 Energy coming from outer space passes through the polymeric layer, reaches the metal, and is
reflected and re-emitted by the high-emitting polymer. Meanwhile, the heat inside the spacecraft
is transferred by contact from the metal to the upper layer.
These panels must emit heat throughout the satellite’s operational lifetime. Over time, the absorptance
of the radiator’s surface significantly increases, so the radiator is oversized to ensure proper
functioning. However, at the beginning of the mission, when the material has not yet degraded, the
radiator may emit excessive heat, leading to overcooling. For this reason, an active thermal control
system must be integrated to compensate for the initial oversizing.
 Deployable Radiators: hinged panels, roll-out radiators, boom-supported radiators, accordion-style
radiators. They are used in large spacecraft, folded during launch and deployed in orbit to increase
surface area

Figure 20 Concept of deployable radiator (12)

 Active Radiators: dynamically controlled to adjust thermal rejection based on system needs, they
can change emissivity, orientation or exposure
4.6 Sprayable Thermal Control Coatings
The surface properties of a spacecraft can be modified by adding specialized paints, coatings, surface
finishes, or adhesive tapes, depending on the needs of the spacecraft.

 Matte black paint has a high solar absorptivity (α>0.85) and high IR emissivity (ε>0.78). It is used
especially in interplanetary satellites for surfaces required to absorb a high percentage of solar
heating and emit a high percentage of spacecraft heat.
 Matte white paint has a low solar absorptivity and high IR emissivity. It works as a radiator
 Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) with low absorptivity and high emissivity

The selection between paints, coatings, and tapes depends on the application. Tape is easy to apply and
remove, is comparatively inexpensive, and has a longer usable lifetime than paint. Tape can also be added
later in the assembly process if changes to thermal control need to be made. Some tapes, however, must be
handled carefully to maintain optical properties and can be difficult to bond properly to curved surfaces.
Coatings and paints must often be applied earlier in the assembly process but can cover non-flat surfaces
more easily. However, some paints are expensive and require extensive and highly specialized processes
to apply. While optical film/tapes may have solar absorptivity and IR emissivity very close to the
datasheet value as received from the manufacturer, these two values will change throughout the mission.
Coatings will darken due to atomic oxygen bombardment (low Earth orbit), UV light, and other cosmic
rays. The longer the mission duration, the more the optical coating’s properties will change.
One example, BioSentinel, a 6U spacecraft that launched as a secondary payload on the Artemis I mission
in 2022, made extensive use of Sheldahl metallized tape coatings and second-surface silvered FEP tapes to
control its external thermal radiative properties. Another example, Picard, a 150 kg SmallSat, used white
paint on the Sun pointing face to reduce the amount of solar flux absorbed.

4.7 Heat Pipes

A heat pipe is a highly efficient passive thermal management device that transfers heat using phase change
principles. It consists of a sealed, evacuated tube filled with a working fluid, which absorbs, transports,
and dissipates heat through evaporation and condensation. Heat enters one end of the heat pipe (hot
region), the working fluid inside evaporates, absorbing heat energy and then the vapor moves to the cooler
end. It condenses, releasing the absorbed heat to a radiator or other heat sink. The condensed liquid returns
to the evaporator via capillary forces in a porous wick, and the cycle repeats continuously as long as there
is a temperature difference. (13)
 Figure 21 Scheme of operating principles of a heat pipe (13).

The heat pipe automatically adjusts to thermal loads: the more heat applied, the more fluid evaporates and
moves heat away. Since no mechanical pumps are required, heat pipes provide high thermal conductivity
with no moving parts and low mass, making them ideal for space applications. Structure of a heat pipe:

Table 7

The selection of materials depends on the operating temperature range and the mission environment:
ammonia is commonly used in spacecraft heat pipes because it remains in the liquid/vapor phase in space
temperatures. Heat pipes transfer heat quickly with minimal losses, are lightweight and compact, and
show a long operational lifespan. However, they are limited by working fluid properties, and the wick
structure must be carefully designed to ensure proper fluid return in microgravity. Moreover, performance
can degrade if structural damage occurs due to micrometeoroid impacts.
Table 8 Types of heat pipes used in space

4.8 Phase Change Materials and Thermal Storage Unit

Phase Change Materials (PCMs) are substances that absorb, store, and release thermal energy during
phase transitions (typically solid-to-liquid or liquid-to-solid). They are used in thermal energy storage
systems (TES) to regulate temperature fluctuations in spacecraft.

During heat absorption (melting phase), the PCM stores thermal energy as it transitions from solid to
liquid. During heat release (solidification phase), the PCM releases stored heat as it transitions from a
liquid back to a solid. The latent heat exchange allows PCMs to act as thermal buffers, preventing
overheating or excessive cooling of spacecraft components. Key properties of PCMs are:

 High latent heat capacity to store a large amount of energy

 Stable phase transition temperature to match operational needs
 Low volume change to prevent structural stress during phase transitions
 Long-term thermal cycling durability through the mission
 Non-toxic and non-flammable

They show typical advantages of passive thermal control systems, such as reliability due to lack of moving
parts, weight savings compared to active cooling systems. But they present some challenges because of
potential material degradation over multiple phase cycles. Moreover, microgravity effects may alter PCM
behavior, and they need to be encapsulated to prevent leakage in zero gravity.
 Table 9 Common phase change materials. (14)
Material Melting Point (° C) Heat of Fusion (KJ/Kg)

Salicylic Acid 159 199

Bee Wax 61.8 177
Paraffin 20-60 140-280
Polyethylene glycol 600 20-25 146
Glycerol 18 199
Acetic acid 17 187
Water 0 333
Isopropyl alcohol -89 88
Butane -135 76
Ethane -172 93
Methane -183 59

Table 10 Types of PCMs used in spacecraft.

5. Thermal Analysis
To develop a Thermal Mathematical Model (TMM), the satellite is conceptually divided into discrete
regions, where temperature variations within each region can be considered negligible. These regions are
known as isothermal nodes, each characterized by:

● Temperature
● Heat capacity
● Heat dissipation, if applicable
● Radiative and conductive interactions with adjacent nodes

In the context of spacecraft thermal control, accurately modelling these nodes is essential to predict
thermal behaviour under varying environmental conditions, including exposure to solar radiation, albedo
(reflected sunlight from a planetary body), and planetary infrared radiation. The interactions between these
factors determine the overall thermal equilibrium of the spacecraft.

5.1 Thermal Node Assessment

The thermal balance for node i, the heat absorbed per unit of time is equal to:

Where:

The first term represents direct solar heating, which is the primary heat input when a satellite is exposed to
the Sun. The second term accounts for albedo radiation, which depends on the reflectivity of a planetary
surface. The third term represents planetary infrared radiation, which is significant when the spacecraft is
in low planetary orbit (LPO) or near a celestial body with strong infrared emissions.

Considering the node’s mass and specific heat capacity mi Ci, the equation is reformulated as:
Where:

● mi is the mass of node i,

● Ci is the heat capacity of node i,
● Ti is the temperature of node i,
● Qexternal,i is the external heat received by node i (sum of direct solar radiation, albedo, and
planetary radiation),
● Qi is the internal heat dissipated in node i,
● σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant,
● Ɛ is the emissivity of node i,
● Aspace,i is the area of visibility of node iii towards space,
● hij is the thermal exchange coefficient between nodes i and j
● Fij is the view factor between nodes i and j.

This equation reflects the transient heat transfer process, where temperature changes over time due to
absorbed and emitted heat. Radiative terms involving T4 make the equation strongly nonlinear, especially
relevant during orbital transitions such as eclipse entry or exit.

5.1.1 Linearization of the Thermal Model

Given the nonlinear nature of the thermal equations, analytical solutions are generally infeasible,
necessitating numerical approaches. However, an initial approximation of temperature can be achieved by
linearizing the equations under the assumption of small temperature variations:

Expanding the fourth-order term using a Taylor series approximation:

Rearranging by adding and subtracting :

The red term is the initial temperature that we choose before and it is a starting value that we modify
during the iteration. Finally, we get the temperature linearization.

This transformation significantly simplifies the computational process and allows for iterative numerical
methods, such as finite difference methods or matrix-based solvers, to determine the temperature
distribution in a spacecraft's thermal system.

Such linearized formulations are crucial in early design phases for conducting parametric studies,
optimizing radiator area, or estimating required heater power under conservative assumptions.

5.1.2 Steady-State and Transient Heat Transfer

For steady-state conditions, where temperature remains constant over time, the equation can be rewritten
as:

For transient conditions, where temperature varies over time, additional considerations are necessary:

● The equation must be discretized over time intervals using numerical methods such as explicit and
implicit finite difference methods.
● The time-dependent nature requires computational solvers, such as the Crank-Nicholson method,
to balance accuracy and stability in simulations.
● Thermal control strategies, such as the use of heat pipes, thermal coatings, and radiators, become
crucial to managing temperature fluctuations.
The Crank-Nicholson scheme, derived from the trapezoidal rule, is second-order accurate in time and
unconditionally stable. It is formulated as:

This method is widely used in thermal solvers to integrate over long simulations efficiently while
capturing critical thermal dynamics such as eclipse transients or heater activation cycles.

5.2 Thermal Design Considerations

Thermal design is derived from the TMM results and aims to ensure all components remain within their
operational temperature limits across all mission phases. This includes:

● Radiator sizing based on orbit parameters, beta angle variation, and worst-case heat loads.
● Choice of surface finishes with specific absorptivity (ɑ) and emissivity (ε) values tailored to the
thermal needs.
● Use of Multi-Layer Insulation (MLI) to minimize radiative heat exchange.
● Heat pipes and loop heat pipes to redistribute internal heat and reduce gradients.
● Redundant heaters and thermostats for survival in eclipse and cold-case scenarios.

Designers must also address thermal accommodation constraints arising from subsystem ICDs (Interface
Control Documents), mass and power budgets, and limited surface area for radiative exchange. Materials
must be selected for their thermal and mechanical stability, low outgassing, and resistance to degradation
in space.

5.3 Testing and Verification

Thermal vacuum (TVAC) and thermal balance tests are critical to validate the thermal model and to
demonstrate that hardware performs correctly in the expected space environment.

Key objectives include:

● Verification of the TMM predictions under controlled thermal loads.

● Measurement of radiator performance, MLI efficiency, and heater behaviour.
● Validation of temperature sensors and thermostatic control loops.
● Correlation of test results with simulated orbital scenarios.
Test campaigns typically include:

 Thermal cycling: evaluate the material response to thermal fatigue according to ECSS-Q-ST-70-
04C (15). The ECSS-Q-ST-70-04C standard defines the requirements and methodologies for
performing thermal vacuum tests on materials, manufacturing processes, mechanical parts, and
assemblies intended for space applications. The primary objective is to assess the durability and
reliability of these elements under thermal cycling conditions that simulate the extreme thermal
environments encountered during a space mission. The standard outlines the following main
testing procedures:

 Thermal cycling tests, involving repeated transitions between extreme

temperatures (typically from -150 °C to +150 °C) in a thermal vacuum chamber to
evaluate mechanical resistance, dimensional stability, and the possible onset of
degradation phenomena (e.g., delamination, cracking, mechanical failure);

 Thermal soak, involving extended exposure at high and low temperature

plateaus to assess long-term effects;

 Post-test inspections and functional testing, to verify the structural and

operational integrity of the test articles.

Key test parameters are defined in the standard, including the minimum number of cycles (commonly ≥
100 for critical components), thermal dwell times, allowable temperature gradients, required vacuum
levels (typically below 10⁻⁵ mbar), and acceptance criteria.

This standard applies to a wide range of elements, such as:

 structural materials (composites, alloys),

 thermal insulation components (MLI, coatings),

 mechanical parts (hinges, fasteners, bonded joints),

 manufacturing and assembly processes.

Adopting ECSS-Q-ST-70-04C ensures consistency and reliability in the thermal qualification of materials
and components, helping to confirm their suitability for the space environment and reducing mission risk.
 Thermal balance: to achieve steady-state thermal equilibrium and measure heat fluxes. (ECSS-E-
ST-10-03C and ECSS-E-ST-31C) (16; 17). The ECSS-E-ST-10-03C standard provides guidelines
for the execution of environmental and functional testing on space systems. In particular, it
regulates the execution of thermal balance tests as a key component of thermal verification
activities. According to this document, thermal balance tests must be conducted in accordance
with Clause 4.5.3 of ECSS-E-ST-31C, ensuring that the thermal model of the satellite is validated
under representative operational conditions. The main goal is to confirm that numerical
predictions obtained through Thermal Mathematical Models (TMMs) are accurate and reliable, by
providing a direct comparison between measured test data and simulated results.
The ECSS-E-ST-31C standard defines the requirements for the design, analysis, verification, and
qualification of thermal control subsystems for spacecraft and other space products. This
document specifically addresses the thermal balance test, describing it as a fundamental tool for
validating the thermal design and refining analytical models. The test involves measuring steady-
state temperature distributions in a thermal vacuum chamber and comparing them with simulation
outputs, with the aim of updating thermal interface conductances, material properties, and
boundary conditions.
The combined use of ECSS-E-ST-10-03C and ECSS-E-ST-31C ensures a rigorous and
standardized approach to verifying the spacecraft’s thermal subsystem through thermal balance
testing, an essential step in thermal qualification of the satellite and its payload.

 Functional testing: to verify subsystems operate correctly under thermal extremes. (ECSS-E-ST-
10-03C) (16). The ECSS-E-ST-10-03C standard provides the general framework and
requirements for the testing of space segment elements. Among the various types of
environmental and functional tests covered, the standard includes functional testing under thermal
extremes as a critical activity to validate spacecraft performance. Functional testing is carried out
to verify that each subsystem operates correctly when exposed to the full range of expected
thermal conditions, typically the hot and cold extremes defined by mission requirements. These
tests ensure that hardware components maintain functionality and performance margins in the
most critical thermal scenarios. Functional testing is often performed:
o Before and after thermal cycling or thermal balance testing,
o During thermal vacuum tests (TVAC), to monitor real-time responses,
o In both nominal and off-nominal (e.g., degraded) operational modes.
Through this standard, ECSS ensures that thermal effects on electronic systems, mechanisms, and
interfaces are well characterized, contributing to the overall verification and qualification process of the
spacecraft.

Discrepancies between the model and test data are used to tune model parameters such as contact
conductances, effective emissivities, or component heat loads. Final TMM validation confirms the
system’s readiness for flight.

5.4 Thermal Properties and Material Selection

The performance of the thermal control subsystem is strongly dependent on material selection. Key
properties include:

 High thermal conductivity: to enable effective heat spreading (e.g., pyrolytic graphite, carbon-
fiber composites).

 Low density: to minimize mass budgets (e.g., aluminium honeycomb panels).

 Low coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE): essential for dimensional stability (e.g., Invar,
carbon-carbon composites).

 Resistance to atomic oxygen, UV, and radiation: to ensure long-term reliability in LEO and
GEO.

Commonly used materials include:

 Aluminium alloys: good compromise between conductivity and weight.

 Kapton and Mylar: widely used for MLI layers.

 Silver- and white-painted surfaces: for high emissivity and controlled absorptivity.

 Advanced composites: such as carbon-carbon and ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs) for

structural radiators.

Material degradation over mission life must be evaluated through accelerated aging and outgassing tests.
Properties such as emissivity may degrade by 10–20% due to UV and contamination, impacting thermal
performance.
6 Verification and Qualification of Satellites
In the aerospace sector, testing is a fundamental phase in the verification and qualification process of a
satellite. It ensures that the final product meets all the design performance and quality requirements before
the launch. Once given the operational environment, every component must go through rigorous tests to
prevent unpredictable situations that could make the mission fail.

Tests can be classified into different categories based on their purpose and the project phase in which they
are performed. The main types of tests are Development tests, Qualification tests, and Acceptance tests.
(18)

6.1.1 Development Tests

Development tests verify the feasibility of the project and support the design evolution. They are
conducted in the earlier development stages to identify potential issues and optimize the satellite's design.
These tests are particularly useful for:

 Validating new design concepts before large-scale production.

 Testing the integration of new technologies to verify their feasibility and the compatibility with
existing systems.
 Analyzing the response of materials and components under simulated environmental conditions.

Development tests can reduce the risk of errors in later stages of the project and increase the satellite's
performance before the final qualification.

6.1.2 Qualification Tests

Qualification tests demonstrate that the chosen design and manufacturing methods meet the specified
requirements. These tests are more rigid than development tests and are made with a qualification model,
identical to the satellite. Qualification tests are needed to:

 Demonstrate the satellite's resistance in extreme space environments.

 Validate production processes to ensure that assembly and integration methods are correctly
optimized.
 Verify that the satellite can operate correctly during its mission.
In qualification testing, specification requirements play a key role. They are a set of technical and
functional criteria that a system, component, or device must meet to guarantee proper operation. These
requirements are defined during the design phase and are used as a reference for system verification and
qualification.
Environmental conditions in qualification tests are more severe than the expected operational conditions.
In this way, a safety margin against unexpected events during the mission is provided. These tests
simulate extreme conditions that may occur both during the launch phase and the satellite's operational life
in space. All the components must respond with the optimal resistance and reliability under the simulated
conditions.

For the space environment, qualification tests focus on:

 Thermal stress: By testing components beyond their expected temperature limits, one can be sure
that the satellite will perform correctly under extreme temperature fluctuations in space.
 Vibrations and shocks: These tests simulate the intense vibrations experienced during launch and
shocks from separation events.
 Radiation exposure: Satellites must be verified for the ability to tolerate intense space radiation
that can degrade electronic components and sensors over time.

These extreme tests confirm if the satellite can execute the requested function during its lifecycle, even in
case of unexpected complications in space: by exceeding expected limits, qualification tests validate the
satellite’s design and make sure that every part responds optimally, also under unexpectedly extreme
stress.
After passing the qualification, the satellite proceeds to the acceptance testing phase, which verifies the
final quality of the ready-to-fly satellite.

6.1.3 Acceptance Tests

Once qualification is completed, acceptance testing confirms that the satellite meets all the specifications
and quality requirements before the launch. While qualification tests make sure that the satellite can
tolerate extreme conditions, acceptance tests aim to identify defects and performance anomalies that
weren’t visible in previous phases.
Acceptance tests are the final verification and ensure that the satellite is launch-ready. These tests
typically evaluate functionality, performance, and structural integrity to detect potential issues such as:

 Manufacturing defects: Imperfections due to the production that could interfere with the correct
performance.
 Assembly errors: Mistakes in the assembly process, such as incorrect connections.
 Early failures: Identification of components that may fail early during the operational life.
 Performance anomalies: Errors in the performance that may not be easily detected in other
inspections.

These tests identify anomalies that are not always visible during standard inspection procedures. For
example, microscopic defects in the satellite’s structure may not be visible to a simple observation.
Acceptance tests can reveal these defects, allowing for corrections before the launch.

Acceptance tests not only confirm compliance with the specifications but also ensure that the satellite is
ready for its operations, guaranteeing that the satellite will optimally function in its real operating
environment.

In summary, qualification and acceptance tests play complementary roles in the satellite verification
process. While qualification tests verify that the satellite can endure extreme conditions beyond those
expected in space, ensuring reliability and safety, acceptance tests confirm that the satellite meets its
specifications and is free from manufacturing defects, ensuring it operates as needed in real conditions.
Together, these tests make sure that the satellite can successfully achieve its mission objectives.

6.2 Types of Thermal Tests

6.2.1 Bake Out Testing ECSS-Q-ST-70-01C

Outgassing refers to a process where materials release trapped substances (such as moisture, solvents, or
other chemicals) over time when exposed to the space environment. Bake-out is a test in which the
outgassing process is intentionally accelerated and typically involves heating the flight hardware system
under vacuum pressure. This decreases the outgassing rates when in orbit to ensure proper operation of
contamination-sensitive systems. Bake-out is generally used to examine the contamination effect of other
spacecraft, such as launchers and the space environment, on Smallsat. So, bake-out tests are usually
performed by the launch service provider.

1. Preparation and Setup

○ Component Preparation
The test subjects' items and materials are cleaned by removing dust so that new
contaminants are minimized during the test.
○ Test Chamber Configuration
The subject is placed in a specific chamber in vacuum conditions to simulate space-like
conditions while allowing heating.
○ Instrumentation Installation
Thermal sensors are installed on or near the component to continuously monitor the
temperature. The pressure gauges and residual gas analyzers (RGA) are also set up to
measure the outgassing levels during the test.

2. Temperature Ramp Up
○ Controlled Heating
After the chamber is set, the temperature is gradually increased from ambient to the
prescribed bake-out temperature. The ramp-up is controlled to avoid thermal shocks and
ensures uniform temperature distribution across the subject.
Ramp rate is defined by test specifications ( e.g., a few degrees per second), ensuring that
all parts are heated uniformly.

3. Dwell Time at Bake-Out Temperature

○ Sustained Heating Phase
Once the target temperature is reached, the system is held at this temperature for an
extended period (that is, dwell time). This stage is critical since it allows volatile
contaminants to evaporate totally.
The dwell time can vary depending on the material and the expected amount of volatile
compounds. It might last several hours to days.
Monitoring: During this phase, pressure level is carefully read; a drop in chamber
pressure with data from RGA means removal of contamination.
 4. Monitoring and Data Collection
○ Sustained Heating Phase
Continuous monitoring ensures that the outgassing rate is within the acceptable range.
Data collected during the dwell time helps evaluate the effectiveness of the bake-out
process.
Residual Gas Analysis: identify the type and quantities of gases so we can determine
possible issues before assembling the satellite fully.

5. Cooling Down Phase

At this phase, after the dwell time, the temperature cooled down gradually to the ambient
conditions. Similar to the ramp-up test, controlled cooling down is used to prevent thermal shocks
and ensure stability of the components post-test.
Cooling rate: the rate is matched up with the ramp-up date for a smooth transition to prevent
reattach of any volatile molecules.

6. Post Test Inspection and Documentation

○ Inspection
Once cooled, the component is taken out of the chamber and checked to see if the bake-
out process affected material properties or not.

○ Data Analysis and Inspections

All test data(temperature profile, pressure changes, and gas composition) are analyzed to
verify that bake-out criteria were met. The documentation supports that the certification is
matched, so outgassing is less likely during the mission. Hence, it reduced the risk of
contamination in space.

Example: space mission data provided by James Webb Space Telescope’s Mid-Infrared
Instrument(MIRI).
A ramp-up rate of about 2°C per minute is used to heat the components from an ambient temperature
(around 20°C) to a bake‐out temperature of approximately 120°C.

• The components are then held (dwelled) at 120°C for roughly 36 hours to drive off volatile
contaminants, ensuring that the residual molecular deposit remains below stringent limits (typically
targeted to be less than about 100 ng/cm²).
• After the dwell phase, controlled cooling at about 1°C per minute is applied to prevent rapid
temperature changes that could encourage the re‑attaching of volatiles onto sensitive surfaces.

These parameters were chosen to balance effective contaminant removal with the need to avoid thermal
shock or re‑absorption, which is crucial for preserving the performance of the detectors in a cryogenic
environment.

As a result, bake-out is an important test to decrease contamination of sensitive components such as

instruments, electronic devices so they function properly. The test includes different phases, starting with
test setup with the chamber, temperature increase by ramp-up rate, dwell time, cooling down, data
analysis, and documentation. At the end, we ensure that the satellite is free from volatile contaminants,
which increases the reliability and performance. (18)

6.2.2 Thermal Vacuum Testing (TVAC) ECSS-E-10-03A

Thermal vacuum testing verifies the system's ability to operate under the extreme conditions in space. The
test simulates the vacuum environment and the severe thermal conditions of a satellite in order to
understand if the satellite will correctly perform once released. The test is done by placing the equipment
in a vacuum chamber, where its behavior is monitored under both thermal and vacuum conditions.

Figure 22 Thermal vacuum chamber at Sapienza.

Figure 23 From left to right, the outside and inside of NASA's thermal vacuum chamber called Chamber A, at Johnson Space
Center in Houston.

The thermal vacuum testing simulates space conditions as accurately as possible, focusing on two main
factors:

 Vacuum Environment: In space, the absence of atmosphere creates a vacuum, replicated in the
test chamber. These conditions test the satellite’s ability to operate without atmospheric pressure
and convective heat transfer.
 Thermal Conditions: In space, extreme temperature fluctuations occur on the spacecraft,
depending on the exposure to the sun. During the test, the components are subjected to controlled
thermal variations to simulate these conditions. These fluctuations can range from extreme heat
(when exposed to direct sunlight) to extreme cold (when in shadow or the dark side of space), and
the satellite must tolerate and correctly function during these transitions.
Figure 24 Scheme of a vacuum chamber (ECSS-E-10-03A (18))

The equipment temperatures shall be defined for the following conditions:

• Minimum and maximum operating qualification
• Minimum and maximum non-operating qualification
• Minimum and maximum start-up qualification

Table 11 Thermal cycling test parameters (qualification testing ECSS-E-10-03A) (18)

Table 12 Thermal cycling test parameters (acceptance testing ECSS-E-10-03A) (18)

The vacuum chamber can reach a pressure of 10-5 hPA or less. The first adjustment of the first temperature
exposure can start after the pressure reaches a value of 10-4 or less.

From Table 11 and Table 12, one can also see that qualification and acceptance procedures are different in
the number of cycles.

Key points of Thermal Vacuum Testing

1. Equipment Mounting: The equipment is secured to a mounting panel that ensures proper
positioning within the vacuum chamber. The mounting system must comply with strict
specifications outlined by ECSS-E-10-03A standards (European Cooperation for Space
Standardization), which define the structural and thermal properties required for the system.
2. Minimizing Reference Points: Temperature reference points are locations on the satellite where
temperature measurements are taken. The goal is to minimize the number of these points, while
still providing sufficient data for accurate evaluations.
3. Temperature Sensors: A temperature sensor is installed at a reference point. This sensor
continuously monitors the temperature, ideally positioned on an external surface near the
mounting base or feet to ensure accurate readings of the satellite’s thermal exposure in orbit.

Thermal Vacuum test cycle and duration (qualification testing ECSS-E-10-03A)

The equipment shall be tested in the thermal vacuum test sequence.
1. The temperature cycle shall begin with the initial functional and performance test, and the
chamber at ambient temperature (Tamb)
2. The equipment shall be switched off and the pressure decreased.
 3. At the pressure of 10-4 hP a the temperature increased up to the maximum non-operating level.
4. After a dwell time tE, the temperature shall be decreased to the maximum start-up level TSU-high,
and the temperature reaches the operating temperature TQ-max
5. After the time tE the functional and performance test shall be performed.
6. The equipment shall be switched off and the temperature decreased and maintained at the
minimum non-operating temperature TNO-min during a time tE
7. The temperature shall be increased to the minimum (cold) start-up temperature (TSU-low) and the
equipment switched on.
8. When stabilized at the low operating level (TQ-min), and after the time tE, the functional and
performance test shall be performed.
9. The temperature and pressure shall be raised to ambient conditions (Tamb) and the final
functional test performed. The rate of change is 20 grad/s

The thermal vacuum test cycle and duration for acceptance testing are basically the same as the
qualification tests, with the exception that TAMBIENT is used instead of TQ.
Table 13 Legend and symbols (ECSS-E-10-03A) (18)
Figure 25 Temperature and pressure trend during the cycle (ECSS-E-10-03A (18)).
6.2.3 Thermal Cycling Test

Thermal cycling testing accurately evaluates the ability of the satellite to survive and operate properly
through repeated thermal cycles, which is essential for its reliability and longevity in space.

Key points of Thermal Cycling Testing

1. The equipment mounting and the precautions taken for the arrangement of components and
measurement detection can be considered equivalent to those described in the TVCA procedure.

2. Types of Thermal Cycling Tests: Two types of thermal cycling tests are distinguished depending
on mounting conditions and thermal behavior:
o Test with Heating via Mounting Panel: In this case, the equipment is fixed to a
mounting panel, and temperature control is achieved through conduction. This test type
simulates a scenario where the satellite is in direct contact with a heat-dissipating
component, such as a solar panel or thermal support module.
o Test with Heating via External Cooling System: The equipment is suspended inside the
thermal chamber, with cooling provided by dry air or nitrogen to prevent condensation.
This test simulates an environment where external temperature changes rapidly, such as
during the transition from shadow to sunlight in space. Preventing condensation is
important to avoid humidity-related damage to electronic components.
o

3. Instrumentation and Temperature Control: A crucial aspect of this test is the instrumentation
used for temperature monitoring and control. The average equipment temperature must be
continuously monitored and compared with the specified test levels.

Measurement instruments must detect small thermal variations. Accurate temperature

measurement is needed to ensure that the tests are representative of real space conditions and to
identify potential heat dissipation or thermal regulation issues within the components.

Thermal cycling test and duration (qualification testing ECSS-E-10-03A)

1. The first thermal cycle begins after the equipment is functionally tested at ambient temperature.
2. The equipment shall be switched off and the temperature increased up to the high non-operating
level (TNO--max).
 3. After a dwell time tE, the temperature shall be decreased to the maximum (hot) start-up level (TSU-
-high) and then the temperature shall be stabilized at the high operating temperature (TQ--max).
4. After the time tE, the functional and performance test shall be performed.
5. The equipment shall be switched off and the temperature shall be decreased and maintained at the
minimum non-operating temperature (TNO--min) during a time tE.
6. The temperature shall be increased to the minimum (cold) start-up temperature, and the equipment
switched on.
7. When stabilized at the low operating level (TQ--min), and after the time tE, the functional test shall
be performed.
8. The equipment shall be cycled between TQ--max and TQ--min until the number of cycles specified in
Table 16 is achieved.
9. During the last cycle, the equipment shall be functionally tested at TQ--max and TQ--min.
10. At the end of the last cycle, the temperature shall be raised to ambient conditions, and the final
functional and performance test shall be performed.
11. The temperature rate of change < 20ºC/min shall apply only to equipment within the space
vehicle. For equipment outside the space vehicle, higher gradients are specified in the appropriate
equipment specifications.

Figure 26 Temperature trend during the cycling test (ECSS-E-10-03A) (18).

The second type of thermal cycling test involves a different configuration where the equipment is not
mounted on a traditional mounting panel but is instead fixed directly to a thermally controlled conductive
heat sink. This approach is crucial to simulate scenarios where the heat generated by the equipment must
be efficiently dissipated to prevent overheating while maintaining satellite performance.
In this configuration, the conventional mounting panel is replaced by a conductive heat sink, such as a
cold plate. The cold plate is essential for dissipating the heat generated by the equipment during operation.
It is designed to improve heat conduction to the external environment, preventing component overheating.
The equipment is directly fixed to the heat sink to ensure optimal thermal contact. This setup realistically
simulates the thermal behavior as if the equipment were integrated within a spacecraft using a conduction-
based cooling system.
During this test, the air temperature inside the thermal chamber is maintained at a fixed value to simulate
the internal spacecraft environment, which is influenced by internal heat sources and thermal management
rather than external temperature fluctuations.
The heat sink temperature must be precisely regulated to maintain the qualifying temperature level
required for the equipment, ensuring accurate simulation of space conditions.
Temperature adjustments and measurements during the test must be referenced to a temperature control
point, typically a temperature sensor integrated into the equipment, ensuring compliance with thermal
specifications.

This second type of test simulates a realistic spacecraft internal environment. The use of a thermally
controlled conductive heat sink (e.g., a cold plate) and stable temperature regulation ensures that the
equipment can operate safely under extreme thermal conditions. This setup provides a more accurate
simulation of orbital operation, where the equipment must manage internally generated heat and dissipate
it efficiently to prevent damage.

6.2.4 Thermal Balance Test (TBT) . (ECSS-E-ST-10-03C and ECSS-E-ST-31C)

The Thermal Balance Test (TBT) is a test conducted under thermal vacuum conditions, where the
temperature distribution and thermal gradients in a spacecraft system are observed under steady-state
conditions. One of the most important goals is to verify the accuracy of the Thermal Mathematical Model
(TMM) by comparing real temperature data, collected from the sensors, with the model’s predictions. If
significant differences appear, the mathematical model is modified to improve the prediction of the
spacecraft’s thermal behavior. Unlike the other types of tests, the TBT focuses on thermal balance and the
verification of heat distribution within the system. Moreover, the TBT is used to verify the response of
thermal sensors under realistic operative conditions. During the test, the component is placed in a thermal
vacuum chamber and brought to steady-state thermal conditions at different temperature levels. The
temperature sensors (thermistors, thermocouples, etc.) installed on the component are compared with
high-precision reference sensors, which are certified and calibrated in the laboratory. This comparison
allows for:

1. Identifying systematic errors in the sensors

○ If thermistors or thermocouples show consistent deviations from the reference sensors, a
correction can be applied to the data (e.g., through software calibration).
2. Verifying the stability and repeatability of measurements
○ The TBT allows sensors to be tested under conditions very similar to those they will
experience in space, ensuring they function consistently and predictably.
3. Compensating for variations due to vacuum pressure
○ Some temperature sensors may respond differently in vacuum conditions compared to
when tested in the atmosphere. The TBT enables the evaluation of these variations and the
application of corrections if necessary.

6.3 Sensors for thermal measurements

The thermal measurements in a thermal chamber need sensors that can accurately measure temperature in
a low-pressure environment during the thermal cycling. Some commonly used options include
thermocouples and thermistors.

6.3.1 Thermocouples and Thermistors

Thermocouples are temperature measurement sensors that generate a voltage that changes with the
temperature. Thermocouples are constructed from two wire leads made from different metals welded
together to create a junction. As the temperature changes from the junction to the ends of the wire leads, a
voltage develops across the junction. (19)
Figure 27 Thermocouple constructed from two dissimilar metals with the thermocouple leads connected to an isothermal block
(19).

The isothermal block is used to keep the terminals at the same temperature in order to avoid thermal
gradients that could distort the measurement. The resulting voltage is expressed as a function of the
temperature difference between the hot junction (the point to be measured) and the cold junction (the fixed
temperature of the reference sensor), and it varies depending on the type of thermocouple.

Combinations of different metals create a variety of voltage responses. This means different types of
thermocouples are used for different temperature ranges and accuracies. A thermocouple has to be chosen
in function of the measurement temperature range, temperature accuracy, durability, conditions of use, and
the expected service life. Some suitable thermocouples for vacuum environments are:

● Type K (Chromel-Alumel): Suitable for high temperatures (up to ~1250°C), commonly used in
aerospace and industrial applications.
● Type T (Copper-Constantan): Ideal for low-temperature applications, down to cryogenic levels
(~-200°C).
● Type E (Chromel-Constantan): Offers high sensitivity and stability, suitable for vacuum
environments requiring precise measurements.

Thermistors are temperature-sensitive resistors that change in resistance with temperature variations. They
are used for temperature measurements and control due to their high sensitivity and accuracy. The two
main types of thermistors are:

● Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) Thermistors: Their resistance decreases as

temperature increases. These are commonly used for precise temperature measurement and
control.
 ● Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) Thermistors: Their resistance increases as
temperature rises, often employed in self-regulating heating applications.

Figure 28 A NTC and PTC curve plotted on the same chart (20)

From the graph in Figure 28, it can be observed that NTC sensors show significant resistance variations at
low temperatures, making them highly sensitive in that range. In contrast, PTC sensors maintain an almost
constant resistance up to around 90°C, after which they exhibit a sharp increase in resistance at higher
temperatures, indicating greater sensitivity in that temperature range.

Working with thermocouples and thermistors in a vacuum chamber presents some technical challenges
related to heat transfer, material selection, and electrical stability.

1. Heat Transfer Issues: Heat is primarily exchanged through radiation, which can lead to
measurement inaccuracies if not properly accounted for. To mitigate this, the sensors should be
strategically positioned and shielded from unwanted radiation sources.
2. Outgassing and Material Selection: Some materials commonly used in thermocouple insulation,
such as PVC or Teflon, can release gases when exposed to a vacuum, leading to contamination
and potential measurement errors. To avoid this effect, materials with low outgassing properties
are preferred for vacuum environments.
3. Electrical Insulation and Noise Reduction: In high-sensitivity applications, electrical noise can
introduce interference, affecting the accuracy of thermocouple readings. Proper grounding,
 shielding, and the use of twisted-pair cables help minimize these issues, ensuring reliable data
collection.
4. Thermal Cycling Effects: Repeated exposure to extreme temperatures can gradually degrade the
materials, affecting their longevity and precision. Regular calibration and, if necessary,
replacement help maintain measurement reliability over time.
5. Cold Junction Compensation: Thermocouples measure temperature based on voltage
differences, but for accurate readings, the reference junction must be maintained at a known
temperature. In a vacuum environment, where external temperature fluctuations can be
significant, precise cold junction compensation is essential to avoid inaccuracies.

Mounting the sensors correctly is essential to obtain accurate measurements in a vacuum chamber. They
should be attached firmly to the tested component using thermally conductive adhesives, spot welding, or
mechanical clamps to ensure good thermal contact. Loose connections can lead to erroneous readings due
to poor heat transfer. Additionally, one must avoid stress points that could lead to mechanical failure
under thermal cycling conditions. The adhesives must be vacuum-compatible and have minimal
outgassing properties to maintain chamber integrity. For metallic surfaces, spot welding provides the most
direct and stable contact, but it should be performed carefully to prevent damage to the wires. Mechanical
clamps are another reliable option, particularly when adjustments or repositioning may be required during
testing.

Figure 29 Thermocouple Assessment Test Article for testing attachments (21)

In Figure 29, a Temporary Thermocouple Attachment for Thermal/Vacuum Testing is represented. This
image shows how a thermal sensor can be mounted on the equipment with conductive adhesives or spot
welding. Even though the test has been done at non-extreme temperatures (+70/-90 °C), in Table 14 one
can see some typically used tapes and pots that has been used during the test.

Table 14 Thermocouple Assessment Legend of the article in Figure 29 (21)

6.3.2 Calibration of the sensors

A standard method for calibrating thermal sensors is the Two-point Calibration, which consists of
comparing a sensor's data with known reference temperature values to which it is in contact. Typically,
these reference values correspond to the melting point of ice (0°C) and the boiling point of water at 1 atm
(100°C). During the procedure, the sensor is immersed in the thermal reference media, ensuring uniform
contact with the fluid and no external influences.

The readings from the sensor under test are then compared with those from a high-precision reference
sensor or a certified instrument, and the deviation from the expected values is measured. If the sensor
exhibits systematic errors, corrections are applied using a calibration coefficient in the instrumentation or
the software that processes the data.
Appendix
Thermal Anomalies in Space Systems: Key Cases and Design Lessons
Thermal control is one of the most critical aspects in spacecraft design. The extreme conditions of the
space environment expose vehicles to intense thermal fluctuations, with temperature swings of hundreds
of degrees between direct sunlight and shadow. Failures in thermal management can compromise
structural, electronic, or mechanical components, with potentially catastrophic effects on the mission. The
following are four representative cases that marked significant milestones in the understanding and
engineering of thermal systems in space. (22)

Hubble Space Telescope (NASA, 1990) – Thermal Shock-Induced Vibrations

Before the 1993 servicing mission, the Hubble Space Telescope experienced severe vibrations when
transitioning from shadow into sunlight. This phenomenon was caused by the rapid thermal expansion of
the solar array support structures (bistems), which heated up in seconds and caused abrupt movements.

These vibrations disrupted the pointing stability critical for high-precision astronomical observations. As a
temporary fix, gyroscopes were used to actively counter the vibrations. Later, the arrays were replaced
with versions featuring thermal coatings and joints engineered to reduce expansion. This case illustrates
how inadequate thermal design can directly impact the primary function of a payload, even in the absence
of electrical or mechanical failure.

Figure 27 Showing thermal-induced vibrations in the solar arrays due to structural support.
Galileo (NASA, 1989) – Ineffective Lubricant and Antenna Deployment Failure

During orbital deployment, Galileo's high-gain antenna failed to

fully open. The issue was traced to malfunctioning hinge
mechanisms caused by the degradation of lubricant in the joints.

The vacuum and extreme temperatures led to the evaporation or

migration of the lubricant, resulting in excessive friction at key
rotation points. Despite redundant systems, the jam prevented full
deployment of the primary antenna, forcing the mission to rely on a
low-gain backup with limited data transmission capacity. Galileo is
a textbook case of how material and lubricant selection must be
rigorously qualified for the space thermal environment.

Figure 28 Technicians preparing the installation of Galileo's high-gain antenna.

Kepler Space Telescope (NASA, 2009) – Thermal Stress and Mechanical Failure

Kepler was designed to detect minute variations in stellar brightness, requiring ultra-stable pointing. This
was ensured using four reaction wheels. Between 2012 and 2013, two wheels failed, undermining the
spacecraft's ability to maintain its orientation.

Post-failure analysis revealed that continual orbital

thermal cycling had caused repeated expansion and
contraction of the wheel bearings, increased friction,
and led to localized overheating. Additionally, the
lubricant degraded under these environmental
conditions, culminating in mechanical seizure.
Although the mission was partially salvaged via the
"K2" mode, this event exposed the vulnerability of
precision mechanical systems inadequately protected
from thermal loads.

Figure 29 Technical view of reaction wheels damaged by thermal cycling in orbit.

Akatsuki (JAXA, 2010) – Engine Overheating and Orbital Loss

The Japanese Akatsuki mission was intended to enter Venusian orbit in 2010. However, during the orbital
insertion manoeuvre, the main engine shut down prematurely.

Investigations revealed that a propellant

valve had likely become stuck, altering the
fuel-oxidizer ratio and causing unstable
combustion. The combustion chamber,
deprived of proper cooling, experienced
thermal runaway that damaged the nozzle.
The spacecraft missed its intended orbit and
was only inserted into an alternative
trajectory five years later. Akatsuki
illustrates how a localized thermal anomaly
in a propulsion system can escalate into a
mission-wide failure.

Figure 30 The Japanese probe affected by engine overheating during orbit insertion.

Conclusions
These cases demonstrate that thermal control is not just a matter of passive heat regulation, but a
multifaceted challenge involving materials science, lubrication, structural dynamics, and subsystem
integration. The space environment is unforgiving, and approximations are costly: accurate thermal
models, extended thermal cycling tests, and compatibility verification of all materials are essential.

The lessons learned from these missions have driven the space industry toward more robust solutions,
such as sealed mechanisms, solid lubricants, and thermally compensated shape-memory materials. Each
failure has fuelled technological improvements, steadily reducing the vulnerability of future missions to
the hazards of heat and cold in space.
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17. https://ecss.nl/wp-content/uploads/standards/ecss-e/ECSS-E-ST-31C15November2008.pdf.
ECSS-E-ST-31C.

18. ECSS-E-10-03A. https://eop-

cfi.esa.int/Repo/PUBLIC/DOCUMENTATION/SYSTEM_SUPPORT_DOCS/ECSS%20Standards
%20for%20Ground%20Segments/ECSS-E-10-03A%20Testing%20.pdf.
19.
https://www.ti.com/lit/an/sbaa274a/sbaa274a.pdf?ts=1743757136715&ref_url=https%253A%25
2F%252Fwww.bing.com%252F. thermocouples.

20. https://enercorp.com/types-of-thermistors/.

21. https://tfaws.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/TFAWS2017-AT-20-Presentation.pdf. mounting

sensors.

22. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19960050463/downloads/19960050463.pdf. failures.

23. https://www.nasa.gov/smallsat-institute/sst-soa/thermal-control/#7.2.1.

24. (https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Stefan-Boltzmann-law-power-radiated-by-a-greybody-
with-different-emissivities_fig1_263862713.

25. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Stefan-Boltzmann-law-power-radiated-by-a-greybody-
with-different-emissivities_fig1_263862713.