French Revolution

In 1789, in the wake of early morning, the city of Paris was in a state of
alarm. Rumours spread that the King would open fire upon the citizens.
People started gathering and they started breaking a number of
government buildings in search of arms. The commander of the Bastille
was killed in the armed fight and the prisoners were released. People
hated the Bastille as it stood for the despotic power of the king. People
protested against the high price of bread. A new chain of events began
which led to the execution of the King in France.

Louis XVI, in 1774, ascended the throne of France. Financial France was
drained because of the war. France, Under Louis XVI, helped the thirteen
American colonies to gain their independence from Britain. Taxes were
increased to meet regular expenses, such as the cost of maintaining an army,
the court, running government offices or universities.

The country of France was divided into three estates in the eighteenth
century. The feudal system was part of the society estates dated back to the
middle ages. 90 percent of the population was dominated by peasants but only
a small number of them owned the land they cultivated. 60 percent was owned
by nobles, the Church and other richer members of the third estate. The clergy
and the nobility, members of the first two estates enjoyed certain privileges by
birth. These groups of members were exempted from paying taxes and enjoyed
feudal privileges. All members of the third estate had to pay taxes to the state
which included a direct tax, called taille, and a number of indirect taxes which
were levied on articles of everyday consumption like salt or tobacco.
The Struggle to Survive
Increase in population led to a rapid increase for food grains. Production of
grains could not keep pace with the demand due to which the price of bread
rose rapidly. Due to low wages paid to the labourers the gap between the poor
and the rich widened. Things became worse whenever drought or hail reduced
the harvest.

Middle Class
Peasants used to participate in revolts against taxes and food scarcity. Group
of the third estate had become prosperous and had access to education and new
ideas. In the eighteenth century, new social groups emerged, termed the
middle class, who earned their wealth through expanding overseas trade and
by manufacturing woollen and silk textiles that were either exported or
bought by the richer members of society. The third estate included professions
such as lawyers or administrative officials. A person’s social position was
dependent on their merit.

All of these were educated and believed that no group in society should be
privileged by birth. Rather, a person’s social position must depend on his
merit. A new form of government was proposed by Rousseau based on a social
contract between people and their representatives. Similarly, Montesquieu
proposed a division of power within the government between the legislative,
the executive and the judiciary.

The Outbreak of the Revolution

In France, the monarch didn't have the power to impose taxes. They had to
call a meeting of the Estates-General, a political body to which the three
estates sent their representatives, to pass proposals for new taxes. Louis XVI,
on 5 May 1789, called an assembly to pass proposals for new taxes.
Representatives from the first and second estates were present and the third
estate was represented by its prosperous and educated members. According to
the principle each estate had one vote. But, representatives from the third
estate demanded each member would have one vote. The demand was rejected
so members of the third estate walked out to protest. They swore not to
disperse till a constitution drafted for France that would limit the powers of
the monarch.
 Due to the severe winter, bread price rose and people had to spend hours in
long queues. Rumours spread that the lords of the manor hired bands of
brigands to destroy the ripe crops. In fear, peasants started looting hoarded
grain and burnt down documents containing records of manorial dues. Nobles
fled from their homes. Louis XVI accorded recognition to the National
Assembly and accepted the principle that his powers would from now on be
checked by a constitution. The Assembly passed a decree abolishing the feudal
system of obligations and taxes on 4 August 1789. Tithes were abolished and
lands owned by the Church were confiscated.

France Becomes a Constitutional Monarchy In 1791

The National Assembly completed the draft of the constitution and its main
object was to limit the powers of the monarch. These powers were now
separated and assigned to different institutions – the legislature, executive and
judiciary. France became a constitutional monarchy.
Citizens voted for a group of electors, who in turn chose the Assembly, but
unfortunately, not every citizen had the right to vote. Men above 25 years of
age who paid taxes equal to at least 3 days of a labourer’s wage were entitled
to vote.
The Constitution began with a Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.
Rights such as the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, equality
before law, were established as ‘natural and inalienable’ rights, that is, they
belonged to each human being by birth and could not be taken away.

France Abolishes Monarchy and Becomes a Republic

In April 1792, the National Assembly voted for a war against Prussia and
Austria. Marseillaise became the national anthem of France. While men were
away fighting at the war, women took care of their families. Large sections of
the population demanded that the revolution had to be carried further, as the
Constitution of 1791 gave political rights only to the richer sections of society.
Political clubs were formed and among them, Jacobins became the most
successful club. Members of the Jacobin club included small shopkeepers,
artisans such as shoemakers, pastry cooks, watch-makers, printers, as well as
servants and daily-wage workers. Jacobin members started wearing long
striped trousers similar to those worn by dockworkers. These Jacobins were
called the sans-culottes, literally meaning ‘those without knee breeches’. On
August 10 1792, Jacobins stormed the Palace of the Tuileries and held the king
hostage for several hours.
Elections were held and all men of 21 years and above got the right to vote.
Monarchy was abolished on 21 September 1792 and France was declared a
republic. Louis XVI was sentenced to death by a court on the charge of
treason.

The Reign of Terror

The period from 1793 to 1794 is referred to as the Reign of Terror. People
whom Robespierre saw enemies of the republic were arrested, imprisoned and
then tried by a revolutionary tribunal. If they were declared guilty by the court
then they were guillotined. The guillotine is a device consisting of two poles
and a blade with which a person is beheaded.
Laws were issued to place a maximum ceiling on wages and prices. Meat and
bread were rationed. Expensive white flour was forbidden to use. Equality was
practised through forms of speech and address. All French men and women
were addressed as Citoyen and Citoyenne (Citizen). In July 1794, he was
convicted by a court arrested and the next day sent to the guillotine.

A Directory Rules France

Fall of the Jacobin government allowed the wealthier middle classes to seize
power. According to the new constitution, non-propertied sections of society
denied voting. It provided for two elected legislative councils. The government
appointed a Directory, consisting of executives made up of five members.
Political instability paved the way for a military dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte.

Women have a Revolution

Women were active participants from the beginning which brought important
changes in the country France. Women from the third estate had to work for a
living and they didn’t have access to education or job training. Daughters of
nobles of the third estate were allowed to study at a convent.
Working women also had to care for their families. Compared to men their
wages were lower. Women also started their political clubs and newspapers.
The Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women was one of the most
famous women's clubs. They demanded equal political rights as men, the right
to vote and to hold political office. The revolutionary government introduced
laws to improve the lives of women. Schooling became compulsory, divorce
made legal and they could run small businesses.
During the Reign of Terror, the government closed women’s clubs banning
their political activities. After much struggle, women in France in 1946 won
the right to vote.

The Abolition of Slavery

Jacobin regime’s most revolutionary social reform was the abolition of slavery
in the French colonies. In the seventeenth century, slavery trade began. Slaves
were brought from local chieftains, branded and shackled and were packed
tightly into ships for the three-month-long voyage across the Atlantic to the
Caribbean.
Slave labour met the growing demand in European markets for sugar, coffee,
and indigo. Throughout the eighteenth century, there was little criticism of
slavery in France.
In 1794, the Convention legislated to free all slaves in the French overseas
possessions. Napoleon introduced slavery after ten years. In 1848, slavery was
abolished in French colonies.

The Revolution and Everyday Life

France during 1789 saw changes in the lives of men, women and children.
Abolition of censorship happened in the summer of 1789. Declaration of the
Rights of Man and Citizen proclaimed freedom of speech and expression to be
a natural right. Freedom of press meant opposing views of events could be
expressed. Plays, songs and festive processions attracted large numbers of
people.