Physics Topic Summaries: Part 1

Quantities and Measurements:

1. Quantity: Characteristic of an object or system (color, height, volume, e.t.c.)
2. Unit: Standards use to measure quantities
3. Fundamental(Base) quantities and SI units: mass(kg); length(m); time(s); temperature(C0 or K);
Electric Current(A)
Mass and Matter
1. Mass: the amount of matter in a substance
2. Matter: Anything that has mass and takes up space
3. Inertia: The characteristic of an object that resists any change in its motion. It is proportional to mass
Springs
1. Spring Force: F=ke k is spring constant; e is extension (change in length)
2. Limit of proportionality: The point where a spring is stretched so that force is no longer proportional to
extension. This is where the straight part of the F vs e graph ends
3. Elastic limit: A point just beyond the limit of proportionality where the spring is permanently deformed.
The spring will not return to its original length and condition when the force is released
4. Hooke’s Law: Force applied to a spring is proportional to extension produced
Forces
1. A force is a push or pulls action. A force can also be defined as anything that brings about a change in
motion. All forces are measured in Newton’s.
2. According to Newton’s Second Law: F=ma
3. Spring Force: F=ke k is spring constant; e is extension (change in length)
4. Weight = mg Mass must be in kilograms so convert to kilograms if necessary
5. Examples of forces include:
a. Gravity: The force between objects due to their mass
b. Weight: The force due to gravity on a planetary body. Weight = mg. The mass used in the weight
formula must be in kilograms. Mass will not change from Earth to Moon, but a person will have a
smaller weight on the moon due to the moon’s smaller mass
c. Upthust: The upward force a fluid exerts on an object that is partially or completely immersed in it.
i. Upthrust = Weight of fluid displaced
Weight of fluid displaced = mass of fluid displaced x g
Mass of fluid displaced = volume of fluid displaced x density of fluid
Volume of fluid displaced = volume of object
ii. Upthrust = Apparent loss in weight
d. Friction: The force between objects due to their physical contact
e. Tension: The force in a rope or string
f. Normal Reaction Force: The perpendicular force one surface exerts on another in contact with it.
g. Centripetal Force: This not a type of force in itself, but any force that keeps an object moving in a
circular path acts as a centripetal force. Gravity, tension and friction can all act as a centripetal force in
various circumstances.
6. Resultant Force: This is the sum of two or more forces.
 When forces act in exactly the same direction, the Resultant force is found by adding the
forces
 When forces act in exactly opposite directions, the result force is found by subtracting
them
 When forces act at an angle to draw resultant:
1. Ensure vectors (forces) are head to tail. Translate one of the vectors if necessary
2. Draw resultant heat to head with one vector and tail to tail with the next
7. Resolving Forces: This involves splitting a vector (such as force) into two perpendicular components.
The two components are usually horizontal and vertical. The component beside the angle
uses cosθ while the component away from the angle uses sinθ
Work, Energy, and Power
1. Energy is the ability to do work. Energy is measured in joules: Energy = power x time
2. Work is forced moved over distance. Work is measured in joules: Work = Force x distance
3. Power is the rate at which work is done or energy transferred
Power = Energy Power = Work
time time
4. Efficiency = Work(Energy) Out x 100 Efficiency = Power out x 100
Work(Energy) In Power In
%Efficiency x Work(Energy) or Power In = Work(Energy) or Power Out
5. Types of energy:
a. Chemical: energy stored in substances. E.g. oil, coal, food
b. Kinetic Energy: Energy due to motion: K.E. = ½ mv2
c. Potential Energy: P.E. = mgh
Stored energy due to an objects position or condition. E.g. Any object above the Earth’s surface, a
stretched or compressed spring, a stretched or compressed elastic, energy between charges
d. Nuclear Energy: Energy released from the nucleus of atoms
e. Electrical Energy: Energy in electric current
f. Sound Energy: Energy in sound waves
6. Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy cannot be created or destroyed but simple converted from one
for to another. E.g. Oil is put into a car. It moves and then crashes:
Chemical K.E. Heat and Sound
7. Law of Conservation of Mechanical Energy. For any system having both P.E and K.E,
Change in P.E = change in K.E.
E.g. When an object is launched upward its K.E. is decreasing while its P.E. is increasing. When an object
is falling its P.E. is decreasing while its K.E. is increasing.
Sources of Energy: There are two categories of sources of energy: Renewable (Alternative) and Non-Renewable
Renewable (Alternative) sources can not run out: solar, wind, hydroelectric, wave
Non-Renewable(mostly carbon based fossil fuels) sources can run out: coal, natural gas, oil, wood.
Use of Carbon based fossil fuels is mostly responsible for the Earth’s Green House Effect
Green House Effect: Warming of the Earth due to accumulation of heat trapping gases in the atmosphere
such as carbon dioxide
Motion
1. Velocity is rate of change of distance with time in a specific direction:
velocity = distance Therefore distance = velocity x time
time
2. Acceleration is rate of change of velocity with time:
acceleration = change in velocity acceleration = v - u
time t
u = initial velocity v = final velocity
3. Equations of motion:
v = u + at; s = ut + ½ at2; v2 = u2 + 2as.
4. When an object is falling a = g = 10ms-2.
5. When an object is rising a = -g = -10ms-2.
6. When an object reaches its maximum height v = 0
7. Newton’s Laws of Motion:
First Law: A body stays at rest or constant velocity motion unless acted upon by an external force
Second Law: Force is proportional to mass x acceleration
Third Law: If body A exerts a force on body B, then body B will exert an equal and opposite force
on body A
8. Aristotle and Galileo had some similar concepts of motion (study these!)
Pressure
1. Pressure is defined as the force per unit Area. Its unit is Pascals
Pressure = Force Therefore Force = Pressure x Area
Area
 2. Pressure will increase as force increases or area decreases. E.g. Knives can exert great pressure because of
the small surface area of the cutting edge
3. Pressure at the base of an object: Weight of object
Base Area
4. Pressure in fluids : Pressure = density x g x depth
5. Depth is measure from below the surface of the fluid, not from the bottom of the container
6. Pressure in a fluid depends only on depth a density, not on the area covered by liquid
7. Pressure in a fluid (liquid and gases) act equally in all directions
8. Principle of Hydraulic Press: Pressure exerted on the surface of a liquid is equally distributed throughout
the liquid: P1 = P2 Therefore F1 = F2
A1 A2
9. Atmospheric pressure is caused by the weight of the gases in the atmosphere.
10. Atmospheric pressure decreases as altitude increases.
11. Atmospheric pressure can be measured in Pascals, atmospheres, or mmHg
12. Atmospheric pressure at sea level: 760mmHg, 1 atmosphere, or 100,000 Pascals
13. Barometers measure atmospheric pressure. E.g. Mercury barometer. Manometers measure gas pressure.
E.g. U-Shaped manometer
14. Measuring gas pressure with U-shaped manometer:
Gas pressure = height of mercury column(mmHg) + atmospheric pressure (mmHg)
You may need to convert atmospheric pressure to mmHg
15. Unbalanced atmospheric pressure: When air is sucked out of a bottle, there is no pressure from inside to
balance the atmospheric pressure from outside so the bottle collapses
Density and Its Applications
1. Density is defined as mass per unit volume: density = mass
volume
2. mass = density x volume
3. Relative density: This is the ratio of the density of a material to the density of a standard substance.
Relative density has no units:
Relative density = density of substance
standard density(usually water)
The standard density is usually, but not always the density of water.
Therefore density of substance = relative density x standard density
4. An object sinks in a fluid if it is denser than the fluid, an object floats in or on a fluid if it is less dense
than the fluid.
a. Hot air balloon floats because hot air in the balloon is less dense than the cooler air outside
b. A steel ship floats because even though its steel hull is denser than water, the ship has air chambers
that make the ship as a whole less dense than the water
c. Submarines have ballast tanks that can take in water to make the submarine denser and so allow it to
sink, or release water to make it less dense and so allow it to rise in the water
d. Archimedes Principle: When an object is partially or completely immersed in a fluid, Upthrust equals
Weight of fluid displaced
5. The greater the density of a fluid the greater its upthrust. E.g. Salt water has a greater upthrust than
fresh water. This is why the largest animals live in the sea
Momentum
1. Momentum is defined as the product of mass and velocity:
momentum = mass x velocity
2. Law of conservation of momentum: Momentum before collision = momentum after collision
When one object is launched from another such as a bullet from a gun, the momentum of the two
objects will be equal: m1v1 = m2v2
3. Elastic collisions objects separate after collision. Inelastic collisions objects stick together after collision
Moments and Equilibrium
1. Moments is the turning effect of a force. The farther from the pivot a force is applied the greater will be the
turning effect.
Moments = force x perpendicular distance from pivot
 Caution: Ensure that all distances for forces used are their distances from the pivot
2. Equilibrium: This is a state of balance
Principle of Moments: At equilibrium clockwise moments equals anti-clockwise moments
3. Two characteristics of equilibrium:
a. clockwise moments = anti-clockwise moments
b. resultant force in any direction is zero. Which means:
upward forces = downward forces
forces to left = forces to rigth
4. When solving a system in equilibrium with only one unknown force we use:
clockwise moments = anti-clockwise moments
5. When solving a system in equilibrium with two unknown forces we use:
a. upward forces = downward forces
b. clockwise moments = anti-clockwise moments
Heat and Temperature
1. Temperature is how hot or cold and object is. Temperature in physics is measured in Celsius or Kelvin.
never Fahrenheight
2. Heat is the energy in motion between two points due to their temperature difference. Like all forms of
energy, heat is measured in joules.
3. A temperature scale has three things: an upper fixed point, a lower fixed point, equal divisions between
the points.
4. The upper fixed point of the Celsius scale is the temperature of steam: 1000C, the lower fixed point of the
Celsius scale is the temperature of melting ice: 00C
5. Heat Capacity: Heat needed to per unit change in temperature JC-1 or JK-1.
6. Specific Heat Capacity: Heat needed per unit mass per unit temperature change
J g-1 C-1 or Jkg-1 C-1
7. Specific Heat Capacity(c) = Heat Capacity(C)
Mass(m)
8. Energy involved in a temperature change: E = m x c x ΔT
9. Caution: Ensure that the mass and specific heat capacity has the same mass unit. If mass is given as 250g
but specific heat capacity is given as 4200Jkg-1 C-1 , then the 250g must be converted to kilograms
10. Latent Heat: This is the heat needed to bring about a change of state not a change in temperature.
11. Specific Latent Heat: This is the heat needed per unit mass to bring about a change of state not a change in
temperature. Jg-1 or JKg-1.
12. Specific latent heat of fusion: Heat per unit mass needed to change state between solid and liquid
13. Specific latent heat of vaporization: Heat per unit mass needed to change state between liquid and gas.
14. Heat involved in a change of state: E = m x lf and E = m x l v.
15. Methods for determining specific heat capacities and specific latent heat: Method of mixtures and
Electrical method
a. Method of Mixtures: This involves mixing two substances (two liquids or a liquid and a solid), one
with a known specific heat capacity and the other with an unknown specific heat capacity.
h. The heat released by one substance will be absorbed by the other:
Heat Released = Heat Absorbed; m1 x c1 x ΔT = m2 x c2 x ΔT
iii. Heat released by one substance melts the other substance then raises temperature of melted
substance:
m1 x c1 x ΔT = m2 x lf + m2 x c2 x ΔT
b. Electrical Method: This involves using an electric heater to heat a substance (usually liquid or solid) of
unknown specific or molar heat capacity. The electrical energy released by the heater will equal the
heat energy absorbed by the substance
i. Electrical Energy Released = Heat Absorbed; Power x time = m x c x ΔT
ii. Heat released by one substance melts the other substance then raises temperature of melted
substance:
Power x time = m x lf + m x c x ΔT
16. Temperature and density: As the temperature of most substances increase they expand (volume
increases) and become less dense. As the temperature decreases they contract (volume decreases) and
become more dense.
 17. Unique Heat Properties of Water:
i. It has an extremely high specific heat capacity and so can be used as a coolant
ii. As liquid water turns to solid ice it expands (volume increases) and becomes less dense. Thus
solid ice floats on liquid water
iii. When solid ice floats on liquid water in lakes an oceans, the ice then acts as an insulator
preventing the rest of the water below it from freezing.

18. Methods of heat Transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation

a. Conduction: Transfer of heat in a substance without the movement of particles from one point to
another (solids)
b. Convection: Transfer of heat in fluids (liquids and gases) by movement of particles from one point to
another due to density changes caused by the heat
c. Radiation: Transfer of heat by means of electromagnetic waves. Can occur in a vacuum. Does not
need a medium of particles unlike the other two methods of transfer
19. Changes of State: melting: solid to liquid; freezing: liquid to solid
evaporation: liquid to gas at any temperature and at surface of liquid; boiling: liquid to gas at
specific temperature and within the liquid; condensation: gas to liquid;
sublimation: solid directly to gas or vice versa
20. Caloric Theory: An outdated theory that stated that heat was transmitted by a fluid
Thermometers
1. Quantities used to measure temperature: liquid column length or volume; gas pressure; electric resistance;
electric voltage
2. Liquid in glass thermometers: Use column length or volume. Use liquids mercury or colored alcohol
Advantages of mercury: expands uniformly, clearly seen, does not stick to tube, suitable for high
temperatures
Disadvantages of mercury: expensive, toxic, not suitable for very low temperatures
Advantages of colored alcohol: Cheap, Clearly seen, suitable for low temperatures, expands uniformly
Disadvantages of colored Alcohol: sticks to glass tube, not suitable for very high temperatures
3. Types of liquid in glass Thermometers: Clinical(350C – 420C); laboratory thermometers(-100C – 1100C)
4. Electrical Resistance Thermometers: Use electrical resistance. Usually placed usually placed under arm pit
When used as a clinical thermometer. These type of thermometers are often made of
Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) thermisters
5. Thermocouples (Made of two wires forming two junctions): Use electrical voltage: widest Range
(-2000C – 13000C) but not very precise
6. Gas Pressure thermometers: Use pressure. Wide range (-2000C – 5000C OR 5000C – 15000C). The most
precise type of thermometer
Thermostat: These are devices that regulate temperature: bimetallic strip made of two fused metals
of different thermal expansivity can act as a thermostat. Positive Temperature Coefficient
(PTC) thermisters can also act as thermostats
Thermal Devices:
1. Solar water heaters: These have a transparent glass surface to let light through, dark material
to absorb the sun’s heat, and insulation beneath to prevent heat loss. It also has a storage tank pipes for
conducting the water
2. Electrical Water Heaters: Use electrical heating to heat water at base of tank. Convection of heat then
heats water throughout the tank. Hot water is then removed from top of tank
3. Vacuum Flask (Thermos):Maintains temperature of liquid inside the flask. A vacuum between chamber
prevents heat loss by conduction or convection. Shiny or white interior walls prevent heat loss by
radiation. Insulating stopper and seal prevent heat loss by conduction
4. Pressure Cooker: Increases pressure in pot which increases the boiling point of water in the pot.
The higher temperature of water in the pot (1200C) means food can cook more quickly
5. Green House: These have transparent walls that let in powerful short wavelength radiation such as
ultraviolet light, but does not allow weak, long wavelength infra-red to escape. The bui